Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 10e David W. Johnson & Frank P. Johnson © 2009...

Joining Together: Group Theory and Group Skills, 10eDavid W. Johnson & Frank P. Johnson

© 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.All Rights Reserved.

Chapter Eight

Controversy And Creativity



Chapter Eight: Objectives Understand Nature Of Controversy And Its Essential Role In

Decision Making Understand Why Controversy Is Often Avoided Understand Outcomes Of Controversy Understand Process Of Controversy Understand Conditions Mediating Effectiveness Of Controversy Understand Minority Influence Understand How To Structure Controversies Understand How Controversy Relates To Citizenship Understand Nature Of Creative Problem Solving Understand How To Develop And Foster Creativity Understand Difference Between Open Vs Closed Belief Systems Understand Nature Of Brainstorming Refine Skills In Engaging In Controversies And Creative

Problem Solving



Difference Of Opinion Leads To Inquiry, And Inquiry Leads To Truth

Thomas Jefferson



Controversy And Decision Making Controversy: When One Person’s Ideas, Information,

Conclusion, Theories, And Opinions Are Incompatible With Those Of Another, And The Two Seek To Reach An Agreement

Deliberate Discourse: Discussion Of Advantages And Disadvantages Of Proposed Actions

Debate: When Two Or More People Present The Best Case For Their Positions And A Judge Declares A Winner

Concurrence Seeking: When Group Members Inhibit Discussion To Avoid Any Disagreement

Individualistic Decision Making: When Individuals Independently Decide On A Course Of Action Without Talking To One Another



Controversy ProcedureStep Phrase

Prepare Present Open

Discussion Perspective

Reversal Synthesis

Our Best Case Is... The Answer Is...

Because... I Disagree Because... You Should Agree With

Me Because... Your Position

Is...Because... Our Best Reasoned

Judgment Is...



Avoidance Of Controversy Fear That Engaging In A Controversy

Will Create Divisiveness And Hostility Ignorance Of How To Engage In A

Controversy Lack Of Training In How To Use

Decisional Conflict Effectively Anti-Conflict Cultural Bias Anti-Conflict Group Norms Inertia: Power Of Status Quo



Outcomes Of Controversy 1 Productivity And Decision Quality

Motivation To Search For More Information Learning Of Relevant Information & Long-Term Retention Insight Into Others’ Perspectives, Reduction Of Egocentric

Reasoning Accuracy And Quality Of Decisions Creativity, Higher-Level Cognitive & Moral Reasoning Increased Task Involvement Increased Attention On Problems To Be Solved & Energy

To Do So Greater Exchange Of Expertise



Outcomes Of Controversy 2 Interpersonal Attraction Among Participants

Liking Among Participants, Group Cohesion Confidence That Conflicts Will Be Positive Keeps Relationships Clear Of Resentments

Psychological Health And Social Competence Healthy Cognitive & Social Development Self-Esteem Clarity Of Own & Other’s Identity, Values Releases Feelings That If Repressed Creates

Psychologically Problems Fun & Enjoyment



Theoretical Roots

Developmental Theories:

Cognitive Theories:

Social Psychological Theories:

Controversy Theory:

Piaget, Kohlberg, Hunt

Berlyne, Hammond

Maier, Janis

Johnson, Tjosvold



Meta-Analysis Of Academic Controversy

Studies: Mean Effect Sizes

Dependent Variables

Controversy / Concurrence Seeking

Controversy / Debate

Controversy / Individualistic Efforts

Achievement 0.68 0.40 0.87

Cog Reasoning 0.62 1.35 0.90

Perspective Taking

0.91 0.22 0.86

Motivation 0.75 0.45 0.71

Attitudes Task 0.58 0.81 0.64

Liking For Others 0.24 0.72 0.81

Social Support 0.32 0.92 1.52

Self-Esteem 0.39 0.51 0.85



Process Of Controversy

1. Organizing Information And Deriving Conclusions

2. Presenting And Advocating Positions3. Uncertainty Created By Being

Challenged By Opposing Views4. Epistemic Curiosity And Perspective

Taking5. Reconceptualization, Synthesis,

Integration



Have You Learned Lessons Only Of Those Who Admired You,And Were Tender With You, And Stood Aside For You?

Have You Not Learned Great Lessons From Those Who Braced ThemselvesAgainst You, AndDisputed The Passage With You?

Walt Whitman, 1860



Process Of Controversy



Mediating Conditions Cooperative Goal Structure Skilled Disagreement

Disagreeing With Other’s Ideas While Confirming Other’s Competence

Perspective-Taking Differentiating Before Seeking An

Integration Rational Argumentation



Minority Influence Minority Influence Occurs When Group Members

Who Are In The Opinion Minority Persuade Members In The Opinion Majority To Change Their Opinion And Agree With The Minority

Opinion Minorities Are Most Persuasive When: They Remain Steady In Their Views They Once Held The Majority Position They Are Willing To Compromise They Have Support From Others They Present Their Views As Compatible With Majority

View Group Members Want To Make An Accurate Decision



Structuring Constructive Controversies Propose Several Courses Of Action Form Advocacy Teams Engage In Controversy Procedure

Research Position And Prepare Persuasive Presentation

Presentations Open Discussion: Advocacy, Refutation, Rebuttal Perspective Reversal Drop Advocacy, Make Best Reasoned Judgment

About Issue Process How Effectively Procedure Was Followed

Implement The Decision



Citizen In A Democracy Every Citizen Has The Opportunity To:

Advocate His Or Her Ideas Challenge And Criticize Others’ Ideas

Vote Is Taken, Majority Rules Minority Willingly Commits To Implementing

Decision Because: They Received A Fair And Complete Hearing And Had

The Opportunity To Persuade Others They Will Have Another Change To Advocate Their

Views In Two Or Four Years They Are Confident Their Rights Will Be Protected



Creative Problem Solving Creativity Is Process Of Bring

Something New Into Existence Creative Process:

1. Recognize Problem Exists2. Gather Resources Needed To Solve Problem3. Cooperative, Supportive Context4. Seek Out Diverse Perspectives On Problem5. Experience Incubation Period6. Formulate New And Unique Solution



Developing Creativity

Reaffirm Cooperative Goal Of Making Best Decision Possible

Promote Controversy Among Different Opinions And Perspectives

Set Aside Time For Reflection Meet To Make Final Decision



Creativity Procedures David & Houtman (1968)

Part Changing Checkerboard Figure Checklist Finding Something Similar

Gordon (1961) Personal Analogy: How It Feels To Be Part

Of Issue Direct Analogy: Think Of Parallel Situation Compressed Conflict: Seeing Issue From

Multiple Perspectives



Open Vs. Closed Belief Systems

Creative Problem Solving Requires Open-Mindedness

Open Minded Individuals Are Willing To Attend To, Comprehend, And Gain Insight Into Information, Ideas, Perspectives, Beliefs Different From Their Own.

Dogmatism: Relatively Closed Organization Of Beliefs About Absolute Authority That Provides Framework For Intolerance Toward Others



Closed-Minded Individuals Less Able To Learn New Beliefs Or Change Old Beliefs Less Able To Organize New Beliefs Into Existing

Cognitive Structures During Problem Solving Less Accepting Of Belief-Discrepant Information More Resistant To Changing Beliefs More Frequently Reject Information Threatening Their

Beliefs Have Less Recall Of Contrary Information Evaluate Consistent Information More Positively Tend To Evaluate Information On Basis Of Who Said It Less Able To Resolve Conflicts (See Compromise As

Defeat)



Brainstorming Invented To:

Encourage Divergent Thinking Produce Many Different Ideas In Short Period Of Time Ensure All Members Participate Fully

Brainstorming Procedure Aimed At Producing As Many Ideas As Possibly While Withholding Criticism, Evaluation

Ground Rules For Brainstorming: No Criticism Or Evaluation Expect Wild Ideas Only Quantity Of Ideas Counts, Not Quality Build On Other’s Ideas Focus On Single Issue Promote Congenial, Relaxed, Cooperative Atmosphere All Members Have To Contribute Record All Ideas



Making Brainstorming Work Most Research Suggests That It Is Less

Effective Than Having Members Work Individualistically To Generate Ideas

Primary Reason Is Production Blocking, Norm That Only One Person Should Speak At A Time

Focus On Retrieving Relevant Information From Long-Term Memory

Members Tend To Generate Ideas From Same Category

Priming Is Presenting Brainstormers With Ideas From Low-Accessible Categories

Creative Groups May Be Easier To Create Than Creative Individuals



Major Points Controversy Is Essential For Effective Decision Making Many Groups Avoid Controversies There Are Multiple Positive Outcomes Of Controversy Process Of Controversy Involves Creating Uncertainty Which

Leads To Epistemic Curiosity There Are Conditions That Mediate The Effectiveness Of

Controversy Minority Influence Depends On And Enriches Controversy Controversies May Be Structured Certain Democratic Citizenship Skills Depend On Controversy Creative Problem Solving Depends On Controversy There Are Ways To Develop And Foster Creativity Creativity Requires An Open (Vs Closed) Mind Brainstorming Works When There Is Priming



He That Wrestles With Us Strengthens Our Nerves, And Sharpens Our Skill. Our Antagonist Is Our Helper

Edmund Burke

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