Kolbe Academy Home SchoolD. Scope and Sequence 4 E. Timeline 5 II. Course Plan A. Semester 1 6 ......

Era of Christendom

Kolbe Academy Home School

GRADE ELEVEN

WORLD HISTORY III: ERA OF CHRISTENDOM

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Syllabus

A. Course Texts 2 B. Diploma Requirements 3 C. Semester Reporting Requirements 3 D. Scope and Sequence 4 E. Timeline 5

II. Course Plan

A. Semester 1 6 B. Semester 2 40

III. Paper Topics Answer Guide

A. Semester 1 68 B. Semester 2 76

IV. Midterm and Semester Exams 82 V. Midterm and Semester Exam Answer Keys 90

Resale & Copying Policy: This course plan and all accompanying materials are not intended for resale or copying. Copying represents copyright infringement, which is illegal. Regarding reselling the materials, Kolbe Academy relies upon the continued purchase of our course plans for financial stability. As a Catholic Apostolate, we ask you to refrain from reselling Kolbe's course plans. While we cannot stop you from copying or reselling this course plan, we do strongly implore you not to do so

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Kolbe Academy Home School SYLLABUS

History Grade 11

Copyright Kolbe Academy 2014 All Rights Reserved

Era of Christendom 2

COURSE TITLE: World History III: The Era of Christendom

COURSE TEXTS: KOLBE READER Kolbe Academy 11th Grade History: The Era of Christendom Reader. Kolbe Academy

Press: Napa, 2008. (T7860) BYZANTIUM Geanakoplos, Deno, Byzantium: Church, Society, and Civilization Seen through

Contemporary Eyes, (T7859) VIKING Viking Portable Medieval Reader, Penguin Books, 1977 (T7857) CHRONICLES Froissart, Jean, Chronicles. Penguin Books, 1978 (T7858) Study Guides I-IV Kolbe Academy Study Guides to Kolbe Reader World History III: 4 Volumes. Kolbe

Academy Press: Napa, 2008. (T7857A) (T7857B) (T7857C) (T7857D)

COURSE DESCRIPTION: This course is an introduction to the post-Roman pagan world (which encompassed the province of Britannia in the west and the Kingdoms of Armenia and Georgia in the east), and to the expansion and transformation of that world. (i.e. new lands were won for Christ by missionaries and many western and central European institutions and traditions were renewed or abolished). More than this, the Kolbe 11th grade History Course presents an era in which Christian ideals inspired a thriving social and political order. Students will study this era through its sources, occasionally comparing them against the judgments of modern historians, in order to form an impression that is marred neither by the pejoratives of progressives nor the sense of vindication often voiced by Catholics. Students will be able to identify the greater themes of this era and to distinguish between the vagaries of life in this (or any) era, the anomalies of this era, and its ideals. An over-emphasis on particulars—a trick of progressive and anti-Catholic historians—is misleading. Similarly, the person who passes judgment on this era with reference to only the political formulations issued by popes and the recorded aspirations saints will have obscured or overlooked a very complex culture. In short, our goal is to let this era manifest itself to the student, while supplying occasional readings or glosses that put the readings in proper context. For this very reason the Kolbe 11th Grade curriculum is entitled “the Era of Christendom”, rather than the “Middle Ages Curriculum” or “Dark Ages Curriculum”, for the designations “medieval”, “Middle ages” and “Dark Ages” are shamefully derogatory and unscientific, as the historian Theodor Ernst Mommsen observed.

COURSE OBJECTIVES: TO GAIN 1. A familiarity with the various events and phases of this era; 2. An appreciation for the cultural hallmarks and achievements of each phase.

WEEKLY COURSE WORK: Readings: approximately 50 pages per week centered on primary source material and some secondary

sources; accompanying study guide questions Weekly papers; topics are listed in the Course Plan. These papers should be 1-2 pages type-written,

size 12 font, double-spaced or neatly handwritten in cursive. Each paper should be comprised of a strong introduction, body, and conclusion. See the Weekly Paper Topics Answer Guide for assessment and grading guidelines.

Key Points sections highlight the most important concepts that the student should know and consider. Three-Part Midterm and Semester Exams: given at the end of term in order to assess the student’s

understanding and retention of material and concepts. These tests along with the test answer keys are provided in the Course Plan packet.

Students seeking Honors for this course must complete the readings, weekly papers, assignments, and midterm and semester tests in their totality and as laid out in the course plan.

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COURSE PLAN METHODOLOGY: Parents should use the teacher editions of the study guides for guidance. The study guide questions and study sheets can be completed by the student during the week as he reads the material, unless otherwise noted. DIPLOMA REQUIREMENTS: Summa Cum Laude students must complete the entire Kolbe Academy proposed curriculum as written. Summa students must fulfill the requirements for the Kolbe Core (K) or Kolbe Honors (H) course as outlined in this History course plan. In 9th grade, Summa students must pursue the (H) designation in at least one of the following courses: Theology, Literature, or History. In 10th grade, Summa students must pursue the (H) designation in at least two of the following courses: Theology, English, Literature, or History. In 11th grade, Summa students must pursue the (H) designation in at least three of the following courses: Theology, English, Literature, or History. In 12th grade, Summa students must pursue the (H) designation in all of the following courses: Theology, English, Literature, and History. Magna Cum Laude and Standard diploma candidates may choose to pursue the (H) or (K) designation, but are not required to do so. If not pursuing either of those designations the parent has the option of altering the course plan as desired. Magna Cum Laude students must include 3 years of History in high school, include 1 year of World History and one year of American history. Standard diploma students must include 3 years of History in high school, including 1 year of World History and one year of American history.

KOLBE CORE (K) AND HONORS (H) COURSES: Students pursuing the Kolbe Core (K) designation should do the readings. Kolbe Core students need to

complete at least 4 of the 14 weekly papers each semester; they should have discussions or write informal essays in response to the rest of the weekly paper topics as these are major themes and will appear in some way on the final exam.

Students pursuing the Kolbe Honors (H) designations must do all of the readings. Honors students need to complete 10 of the 14 weekly papers each semester; they should have discussions or write informal essays in response to the rest of the weekly paper topics as these are major themes and will appear in some way on the final exam.

For students who are not seeking either the Kolbe Core (K) or Honors (H) designation for this course, parents may alter the course as they so desire.

SEMESTER REPORTING REQUIREMENTS: Designation* K H Course Title World Hist III:Era of

Christendom World Hist III:Era of

Christendom World Hist III:Era of Christendom

Semester 1 1. Any 2 samples of written and graded sample work

1. Complete Midterm 1 Exam. 2. Complete Semester 1 Exam

1. Complete Midterm 1 Exam. 2. Complete Semester 1 Exam 3. 2 of the Paper Topics papers.

Semester 2 1. Any 2 samples of written and graded sample work

1. Complete Midterm 2 Exam. 2. Complete Semester 2 Exam

1. Complete Midterm 2 Exam. 2. Complete Semester 2 Exam 3. 2 of the Paper Topics papers.

*Designation refers to designation type on transcript. K designates a Kolbe Academy Core course. H designates a Kolbe Academy Honors course.

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The Kolbe academic advisor will verify that the required work was completed successfully and award the Kolbe Core (K) or Honors (H) designation. The Kolbe academic advisor has the final decision in awarding the designation for the course. If no designation on the transcript is desired, parents may alter the lesson plan in any way they choose and any written sample work is acceptable to receive credit for the course each semester. If you have any questions regarding what is required for the (K) or (H) designations or diploma type status, please contact the academic advisory department at 707-255-6499 ext. 5 or by email at [email protected]. SCOPE AND SEQUENCE: FIRST SEMESTER

1. Post Constantine Byzantium and the West 2. Transformation of the Roman world; Refutation of the “Fall of Rome” theory 3. Feudalism 4. Early Byzantine society to Justinian 5. Post-Roman West, Christian re-organization of society. Early Britain 6. Byzantines in Italy, Muslims 7. Merovingians. Formation of France, Italy, Germany 8. Iconoclasm, Popes vs Patriarchs of Constantinople, standing army 9. Charlemagne and his family: Einhard (Kolbe Reader), Byzantium reader 10. Anglo-Saxons, Normans, the later Carolingians SECOND SEMESTER 1. The Normans in Italy, The Eastern Schism, The First Crusade 2. The Achievements of the French, The Second and Third Crusades 3. Life in the West, Life in the East 4. The “Northern Crusades,” The Fourth Crusade, Fall of the Latin Empire 5. The Early 13th Century 6. The conflict between the pope and Emperor Frederick II 7. The 7th Crusade, 8. Late 13th century 9. The Black Death 10. The 15th Century 11. The 100-Years War 12. The Great Schism 13. The 16th Century, The Protestant Revolt

mailto:[email protected]

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TIMELINE OF AGES, DATES, AND EVENTS

337-1000 The early Era of Christendom and

its struggle for survival

The death of Constantine to the end of the Carolingian House. Theological disputes. Monastic reform. Reorganization of society. Threats to Europe from pagans and Muslims.

1000-1400 Europe on the March &

The Renaissance of Europe and the

Church

The rise of the Normans. The Crusades. The Holy Roman Empire. The expansion of commerce. Economic prosperity. Technological advances. Christian humanism.

1400-1517 The late Era of Christendom

Conflict, decadence, and catastrophe. The first Age of Discovery. Artistic and architectural advances and rediscoveries. Secular humanism.

1517-1600 The Protestant Revolt and Catholic

Reformation

From Luther to the Council of Trent and the new, fractured political and cultural climate of Europe. Further threats from Islam.

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Kolbe Academy Home School COURSE PLAN

History Grade 11



FIRST SEMESTER KOLBE WELCOME WEEK

KOLBE READER

Sozomen: Books 2, 3, 4

The House of Constantine; usurpers in the West. Ecclesial controversies; the persecution of St. Athanasius.

Study Guide Reader Volume I Intro Questions. While reading, take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Key points The empire that Constantine bequeathed still followed, in theory, the plan instituted by Diocletian. It was divided into two halves, each with an Augustus (the ruler) and a Caesar (the successor to the Augustus). This political system is referred to as The Tetrarchy. As sole ruler, though, Constantine accomplished more than if he had been sharing power. For example, he moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople, and re-established the Senate there. (The Senate was finally stripped of all prestige and authority under the emperor Leo VI, 887-912.) Another example: unlike his successors he was able to foster the growth of Christianity throughout the Europe and the near east, i.e. his efforts were not confined to a part of the empire, nor did he have to contend with divergent views from another Augustus or the Caesars. Despite official sanction, the Church would endure many more difficulties. The council of Nicea was convened in 325 to pass judgment on the teachings of Arius, a priest. He taught that Christ was not co-eternal with God the Father. The Nicene creed held that The Father and Christ the Son were of one substance: homo ousios. Nevertheless many cleaved to the Arian view (or a via media), and this proved to be a stubborn heresy. At one point, most of the bishops within the Empire subscribed to its deviations. During this time, we will notice that tensions emerged between the triumphant Church and its patron emperors. Imperial approval would gradually evolve into open sponsorship of the Catholic Church. At times, however, the emperors proved to be meddlesome. Furthermore, in these passages we will encounter the slow decay of Roman universalism. Here we find the origin of a profound cultural split—that still exists today—between the western provinces and the eastern (reflecting an earlier administrative split arranged by the Emperor Diocletian—the Tetrarchy). As Sozomen wrote: “the Eastern and the Western churches ceased to maintain the intercourse which usually exists among people of the same faith…”(3.12). Eusebius of Nicomedia was one of the early instigators of this trend in so far as he championed the authority of the eastern emperor and bishops against that of the pope. Discuss the role of Athanasius as a bulwark against heterodoxy (holding unorthodox opinions or doctrines) and the gains made by his opponents on a local level and with the emperors. Attention should be given to both the tactics of the heretics, e.g. Eusebius of Nicomedia, and the weak response of many within the orthodox community, e.g. the bishops of Antioch, who skirted the issue of the co-eternality of the Son in their letter (3.5). Note at 3.2 that Athanasius was recalled from exile by the western emperor, Constantine II. This was entirely proper, for according to Dom Chapman in Studies on the Early Papacy , the Egyptian church was traditionally more associated with Rome and the western diocese than with the eastern patriarchs and bishops. Note the legal trickery at 4.8 wherein the Arians use the Council of Nicea itself against Athanasius, for bishops and priests were not allowed to move from city to city or parish to parish (cf. canon 15). At 4.15, we have the famous incident described by those hostile to the papacy as the “Fall of Liberius”. While accounts differ, the event in no way undermines the reality of papal infallibility as the original Catholic Encyclopedia stated:

It should be carefully noted that the question of the fall of Liberius is one that has been and can be

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freely debated among Catholics. No one pretends that, if Liberius signed the most Arian formulae in exile, he did it freely; so that no question of his infallibility is involved. It is admitted on all sides that his noble attitude of resistance before his exile and during his exile was not belied by any act of his after his return, that he was in no way sullied when so many failed at the Council of Rimini, and that he acted vigorously for the healing of orthodoxy throughout the West from the grievous wound. If he really consorted with heretics, condemned Athanasius, or even denied the Son of God, it was a momentary human weakness which no more compromises the papacy than does that of St. Peter.

WEEK 1 KOLBE

READER Sozomen: Books 5, 6, 7

Further persecution of the Nicene Catholics. The Dynasty of Valentinian.

Study Guide Reader Volume I Semester 1, Week One Questions. While reading, take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic The Emperor Julian in his letter to the pagan priest Arsacius wrote: Erect many hostels, one in each city, in order that strangers may enjoy my kindness, not only those of our own faith but also of others whosoever is in want of money. I have just been devising a plan by which you will be able to get supplies. For I have ordered that every year throughout all Galatia 30,000 modii of grain and 60,000 pints of wine shall be provided. The fifth part of these I order to be expended on the poor who serve the priests, and the rest must be distributed from me to strangers and beggars. For it is disgraceful when no Jew is a beggar and that the impious Galileans [his pejorative name for Christians] support our poor in addition to their own; everyone is able to see that our coreligionists are in want of aid from us.

What is your opinion of the character of Julian? Do his actions, as reported by Sozomen, agree with his sentiments above? Give specific examples from the text to make a case for Julian as a mild, charitable ruler or a hypocrite. What were his praiseworthy actions? What were his faults?

Key points Julian was the last pagan emperor, albeit a convert to paganism. Though he was raised to be a Christian, he was instructed in the traditional manner. That is, he studied the ancient (non-Christian) classics of literature. In these early days of the Catholic Empire, traditional pedagogy prevailed. Today young Catholics read encyclicals, Dante, Chaucer, Aquinas, etc, but in the fourth century, their training was almost exclusively in Homer, Plato, and other ancient authors. In this era, then, the intellectual culture tended to be fluid. Here are a few examples of this: the accused sorcerer and pagan Libanius, who wrote a “Lamentation” for the destruction of pagan temples under Theodosius I, nevertheless trained several great saints at his temporary academy in Constantinople; the syncretist orator, Themistius, a favoured guest at the courts of the Catholic emperors, who was entrusted to deliver panegyrics in their honor; finally Ausonius, a leading rhetorician and tutor to both the emperor Gratian and St. Paulinus of Nola, was a convert to Catholicism but his various works are profoundly lacking this new spirit and occasionally puerile. Perhaps best illustrating the tensions between the old and new culture is the famous dream of St. Jerome in which he was flogged by angels for being too profoundly attracted to the writings of Cicero.

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At 5.6, we learn that St. Athanasius had lived concealed in the house of a beautiful young woman who had consecrated herself to God. This event is illustrative of the personal freedom enjoyed by Christian women. In pagan households, certain rooms were designated for women only, and women needed permission to leave the house or to converse with people who were not family. Averil Cameron wrote that Christianity had “the effect of bringing women into the public sphere. They could travel to the Holy Land, found monasteries, learn Hebrew, choose not to marry or to become celibate, dedicate themselves to the religious life and form friendships with men outside their own family circle, all things which would scarcely have been possible before.” [The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity AD 395-600 (London: Routledge, 1993), p. 148.] At 5.18 we have mention of the tremendous influence of the “Cappadocian Fathers”, named after the region in modern Turkey. They were principally Gregory Nazianzen and the brothers Basil the Great and Gregory of Nyssa. The latter were the grandchildren of St. Macrina the Elder, who survived the Galerian persecution, the children of Ss. Basil the Elder and Emelia, and the siblings of Ss. Peter of Sebaste (Armenia), Naucratius, Theosebia and Macrina the Younger. The family of Macrina came from noble stock and two of Basil’s brothers (and numerous descendants), held important positions in the government of the eastern empire. Three of his descendants were even emperors. We can understand, then, why Julian was intimidated by this family. Apropos of the discussion above, Basil, who was taught by the pagan Himerius among others, wrote a short treatise, “Address to Young Men on the Right use of Greek Literature” in which he stated:

we must be conversant with poets, with historians, with orators, indeed with all men who may further our soul's salvation. Just as dyers prepare the cloth before they apply the dye, be it purple or any other color, so indeed must we also, if we would preserve indelible the idea of the true virtue, become first initiated in the pagan lore, then at length give special heed to the sacred and divine teachings, even as we first accustom ourselves to the sun's reflection in the water, and then become able to turn our eyes upon the very sun itself. If, then, there is any affinity between the two literatures, a knowledge of them should be useful to us in our search for truth; if not, the comparison, by emphasizing the contrast, will be of no small service in strengthening our regard for the better one…That Moses, whose name is a synonym for wisdom, severely trained his mind in the learning of the Egyptians, and thus became able to appreciate their deity. Similarly, in later days, the wise Daniel is said to have studied the lore of the Chaldaeans while in Babylon, and after that to have taken up the sacred teachings…Perhaps it is sufficiently demonstrated that such heathen learning is not unprofitable for the soul; I shall then discuss next the extent to which one may pursue it. To begin with the poets, since their writings are of all degrees of excellence, you should not study all of their poems without omitting a single word. When they recount the words and deeds of good men, you should both love and imitate them, earnestly emulating such conduct. But when they portray base conduct, you must flee from them and stop up your ears, as Odysseus is said to have fled past the song of the sirens, for familiarity with evil writings paves the way for evil deeds. [Available at www.tertullian.org]

Chapter 6 introduces us to the twin threats of the era: the Saracens and the Persians. The term “Saracen” refers, at this time, to any non-Christian dwellers of the Arabian penninsula, and later refers to the followers of Mohammed. The re-organized New Persian, or Sassanian, Empire (226-637), was different from the one of Herodotus’ time but consciously tried to resemble it. (Especially during the reign of Vologases I, of the Middle or Parthian period, there had been a backlash against the Hellenistic culture of the Seleucid rulers) Like the old empire, it was Zoroastrian, and noted for it wealth and skilled artisans. Like the old empire, again, it was a persistent threat to the west. Its downfall, too, can be attributed to it bellicose spirit and grasping ambition. 6.24 The elevation of Ambrose: this popular acclamation of a bishop was not unique. Saints were often

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proclaimed in a similar fashion. 6.37 The “Goths” are a loose confederation of tribes from the Baltic Sea area who migrated to the Black Sea region and then west (into imperial territory).

WEEK 2

KOLBE READER

Sozomen: Books 8, 9 Gerontius, Honorius, General Stilicho, Alaric and Attalus Isidore: Chronicon Timeline on late Roman Empire

Catholic Encyclopedia: Leo, Benedict

Pope Leo the Great; St. Benedict founder of the Benedictines

Study Guide Reader Volume I Semester 1, Week Two Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Write an essay concerning the relationship between the Early Middle Ages and Church History. Is the study of one necessarily the study of the other?

Key points The excerpts from books Eight and Nine of Sozomen’s history are relatively short. They begin with the death of Theodosius I and the reign of his sons Arcadius (East) and Honorius (West), both of whom upheld the doctrines set forth at Nicea. In addition to these strong orthodox Emperors, John Chrysostom (named Chrysostom or “golden mouth” for his incredible speaking skills—many of his writings and sermons may be found in the Divine Office) was elected to the Bishopric of Constantinople, a significant fact considering the many Arians who once held this chair. In the final chapters of Sozomen we see how political upheaval accompanied rapid demographic change in the bipartite empire. Imperial politicians played a very dangerous game by engaging in endlessly shifting alliances (as we will read further in week 4) with the various tribes of immigrants, occasionally spurning the older foederati. The siege of Rome, by a discontented Visigoth named Alaric, was one result. We also see in this event an early attempt by the eastern empire to assert—by conspiring against Stilicho—its primacy over the supposedly equal western empire, a trend which would continue for decades. Honorius’ rule teemed with attempted usurpations and internal degradation. During his reign the city of Rome was sacked by the general Alaric the Goth (a magister) in 409 and again a year later in 410. Attalus was made emperor by Alaric in lieu of Honorius. This decision ultimately led to the reinstitution of Honorius because Attalus was a complete fool who knew little about running an Empire, and it was not long before his mistakes necessitated peace between Alaric and Honorius. While discussing these peace terms, the Roman general Saurus, suspicious of Alaric’s intentions, foolishly attacked Alaric’s army with his own pithy troop of three hundred men, and Alaric’s army then proceeded to sack Rome once again. Stilicho: a great Roman general originally from the Vandal race defeated Alaric during one of his early attempts to usurp the throne for a politician. Sozomen relates Stilicho’s death: “Stilicho, the general of the troops of Honorius, was suspected of having conspired to proclaim his son Eucherius emperor of the East, and was, in consequence, slain by the army at Ravenna…He had attained almost absolute power; and all men, so to speak, whether Romans or barbarians, were under his control. Thus perished Stilicho, on a suspicion of having conspired against the emperors. Eucherius, his son, was also slain.” The Story of Gerontius: “The soldiers in Briton eventually settled on someone to be claimed emperor and named him Constantine. Constantine sent his son Constans to lead his armies and destroy those of Honorius’

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relations, Didymus and Verinian. After this was accomplished, Constantine’s best general Gerontius changed allegiance to that of Maximus, believing him to be the best candidate. However, as the army of Constantius advanced upon Constans, Gerontius retreated as many of his men joined Constantius’ ranks. This act of cowardice was so ill liked by the Spaniards that the following night they made to destroy Gerontius in his house, but were thwarted by the general and his servants, who climbed to the roof and shot arrows killing three hundred men. When at last his house was burning down, Gerontius killed himself.” Despite all efforts to keep the Western Empire whole, it slowly began to crumble from internal corruption and the great cultural carcass became prey to such scavengers as the Goths, the Persians, and the Slavs. The Ostrogoths and the Lombards would also take their turn sitting in the seat of Rome. Pope Leo the Great: the Catholic Encyclopedia says that “Leo’s chief aim was to sustain the unity of the Church.” He was a fighter of heresies and during his time he warded off the Pelagianism and routed the Manicheans out of Rome. Since the Church was spreading to so many of different cultures and dialects, Leo noticed the need to keep the dioceses in communion with Rome. He had a very “lofty conception” of “his thorough conviction of the primacy of the Bishop of Rome…” Leo aided in building many Churches and personally thwarted several Barbarian attacks. The Second Council of Ephesus, 449—or “the Robber Synod”—was announced by the emperor Theodosius II, with the approval of the pope. It would consider an appeal by Eutyches that he had been unjustly deposed and excommunicated by St. Flavian, Patriarch of Constantinople. From the council’s inception, a Monophysite faction within the imperial household and among the bishops of the east sought to influence its outcome. The resulting procedural irregularities and tenuous nature of the evidence presented on behalf of Eutyches undermined the legitimacy of this council. First, the council was hastily convened making it impossible for all but a few bishops of the west to attend. Secondly, a letter sent by Pope Leo affirming the doctrine of Christ’s two natures was suppressed at the proceedings. Lastly, the patriarch of Alexandria, Dioscorus, introduced a letter by his deceased predecessor, St. Cyril, in which the holy Doctor seemed to affirm the Monophysite doctrine. Cyril, in trying to convey the unity of God and Man in the person of Jesus introduced a formulation that implied also one nature. The context of the letter was this: it was intended to clarify the Catholic position against the Nestorian heresy. Cyril was trying, however clumsily, to defend traditional doctrine. The introduction of a new doctrine was the most remote thing from his mind. Nevertheless, this phrase was (is) appropriated by the Egyptians, Ethiopians, Armenian, and other brethren to support their divergence from the orthodox teaching. In summary, the council was fraught with irregularities. The Council of Chalcedon was convened in 451 to sort out this mess, and the “Tome of Leo”—his apostolic letter—was finally read at that assembly. Selections from the Cronicon of Isidore of Seville : Sozomen concludes with the dawn of the long and productive reign of Theodosius II, and a promise of stablity in the west. In fact, the west, as it was traditionally constituted, would endure for only fifty more years, and the fabric of the east would eventually be rent by heresies. Concerning the former, the western empire would see its last emperor (until 800) dethroned in 476 and a series of rulers without pedigrees would follow. Some, such as Theodoric, would be Arian while others, happily, would contribute to the glory of the Church. This era, too, for all its turmoil and privations was not devoid of ornamentation. Latin Christian literature could boast of several luminaries: Avitus of Vienne (grandson of the emperor Avitus), Venantius Fortunatus, Sidonius Appolinaris, Paulinus of Nola, Gennadius, Vincent of Lerins, Sulpitius Severus, and—slightly later—the holy and noble men Gregory the Great, Boethius, Licinian of Cartegena and Cassiodorus. In the east—the “Byzantine Empire” as we call it, or Romania, as they called it—the heretic Nestorius was

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exiled (and the title Theotokos, or God-bearer, bestowed on the Virgin Mary), but his teaching—that Christ is two persons and that Mary bore Christ but not God—persisted in Persia, India, and farther east for centuries to come. Other heresies such as Monophysitism and Iconoclasm were not so easily defeated. The east, too, in this era was not without its literary princes: Procopius, Moses of Chorene, Jacob of Serug, Evagrius Scholasticus, John of Ephesus, and John Philoponus. St. Benedict originated the idea of monastic rules and order. These are the four types of prayer according to St. Benedict. Benedict assigns the Psalms and Canticles, with readings from the Scriptures and Fathers… The form of prayer which thus covers the whole of our waking hours, St. Benedict calls the first degree of

humility. It consists in realizing the presence of God Secondly, there is public prayer. This is short and is to be said at intervals, at night and at seven distinct

hours during the day… he established it as the center of the common life to which he bound his monks… Lastly, there is private… "Our prayer ought to be short and with purity of heart, except it be perchance

prolonged by the inspiration of divine grace” Discuss: Consider the great amount of suffering and division that the Church endured over the word “homousious.” Is this peculiar to Christianity or do most religions and institutions undergo similar hardships? What is it about the Christian view of truth that necessitates strict uniformity especially where doctrine is concerned? How has the Nicean use of “consubstantiality” made its way into the creed recited at mass?

WEEK 3

KOLBE READER

BELLOC: Europe and the Faith

Belloc debunks the method and products of Protestant revisionist historians; the Feudal system; the survival of Europe; the work of St. Gregory the Great

Catholic Encyclopedia: Gregory

Study Guide Reader Volume I Semester 1, Week Three Questions. While reading, take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Explain in detail how Belloc debunks the biased protestant historians such as Gibbon, whose excerpt in “Europe and the Faith” seems to preach Anglo-Saxon supremacy.

Key points Introduction: In Europe and the Faith, Belloc gives an overview of how historians, particularly German and British protestants, attempted to make the Dark Ages particularly a period of backward social development. Although suffering from bias, these historians were also not exposed to the best documents or methods and it is not difficult for Belloc to debunk their historical analyses. It is only too clear that centuries of chaos and brutality, where science and knowledge were forgotten and texts were burnt, could not have yielded the incredible wealth of art and knowledge indicative of the late Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Furthermore, far from being a detriment to Renaissance enlightenment, the Church was the very vehicle for preserving the literature and works of antiquity. Monasteries especially were the original centers of learning and monks were considered generally the holiest and the most knowledgeable of the land. Protestant History: Belloc, not without a disdainful tone, admits: “Every revolt, however obscure, against the unity of European civilization in the Middle Ages (notably the worst revolt of all, the Albigensian), was presented as a worthy uplifting of the human mind against conditions of bondage. Most remarkable of all, the

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actual daily life of Catholic Europe, the habit, way of thought, and manner of men, during the period of unity—from, say, the eighth century to the fifteenth—was simply omitted!” The Fall of Rome: Belloc is quick to point out that Rome’s fall was not caused primarily by nobler, superior, and more enlightened barbarian tribes, but by internal strife and revolution. He shows that this is only natural in Rome’s case where the military is the true arbiter and controller of the nation. He divides the relationship between the people and the military into three phases: Phase 1: In the first phase the army consisted mainly of Roman civilians fighting for their nation and

their people, very indicative of the early republic. During this time the people’s sentiments were closely linked to and shared by those of the military, so that they were nearly one and the same.

Phase 2: Within this phase the military’s detachment from the Roman people is interestingly accompanied by a great decline in letters and the arts. It is considered the “silver age” of Roman Literature. The second phase spans from the civil wars consistent throughout the third century to the establishment of the Tetrarchy. During this time it was far from fashionable to be too closely associated with the military, which was composed of slaves or the poor who did not have a much better alternative. Also, the movements of the military generally reflected the sentiments, not of the people, but of ambitious generals and leaders, who directed it toward selfish goals and vanity. This detachment between the people and the military down spiraled to the point where recruitment was very difficult and it became necessary to hire mercenaries and barbarians, who might have known little or nothing about the sentiments of the Roman people.

Phase 3: As the relational rift between the military and the Roman people widened, the reigns of the great machine, the Roman Legion were taken up by a series of Barbarians and those most disassociated with Rome. Nevertheless, Barbarian tribes themselves, especially when coming in great numbers to attack Roman Legions, were always cut down to pieces, since they lacked the incredible training, skills, and military technique that made the Roman Legion what it was.

As part of his attempt to debunk the historical theories of Gibbons, Belloc shows how Alaric the Goth was really Roman in most of his ways. Alaric was loyal to Emperor Theodosius and became adapted to Roman customs and behavior and was “from birth a Roman.” He most certainly would have considered himself a Roman. Furthermore, his army which he used to sack Rome was not really Gothic, but was derived from a variety of Barbarian races. His rebellious acts and numerous defeats (he was crushed by the great Roman general Stilicho) are interestingly consistent with the behavior of young and ambitious Roman generals. The Feudal System, A Roman Offspring: Belloc also shows that the establishment of the Feudal system as well as the great French Empire, the “Rex Francorum,” was Roman innovation. The great leader who really militarized and organized Gaul, Clovis, was a Roman General originally only assigned to govern Gaul (Clodovicus was his real name). This point leads to Belloc’s observation that the Feudal system was really an offspring of the Roman custom of assigning Governors, who quickly became lords or kings of certain provinces as the system of Rome became less restraining. The notion of serfs, people forced to work the land but not owned by anyone, were long since established in Rome under the name “coloni” in order to replace slaves, who were becoming increasingly difficult to attain. Belloc says on this point, “The common unity that survived was expressed in the fixed Latin tongue, the tongue of the Church; and the Church, now everywhere supreme in the decay of Arianism and of paganism alike, was the principle of life throughout all this great area of the West…” The Dark Ages and the Survival of Europe: The latter half of the first millennium was indeed a time of war and turmoil, and it is nothing less than a miracle of God and a merit of Christendom that Europe survived. Belloc succinctly expresses the danger from which the Church saved Europe: “There was one unending series of

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attacks, Pagan and Mohammedan, from the North, from the East and from the South; attacks not comparable to the older raids of external hordes, eager only to enjoy civilization within the Empire, small in number and yet ready to accept the faith and customs of Europe. The barbarian incursions of the fifth and sixth centuries—at the end of the United Roman Empire—had been of this lesser kind. The mighty struggles of the eighth, ninth and especially the tenth centuries…were a very different matter. Had the military institutions of Europe failed in that struggle, our civilization would have been wiped out; and indeed at one or two critical points, as in the middle of the eighth against the Mohammedan, and at the end of the ninth century against the northern pirates, all human judgment would have decided that Europe was doomed… Europe was just barely saved. It was saved by the sword and by the intense Christian ideal which nerved the sword arm. But it was only just barely saved.” Pope St. Gregory the Great: St. Gregory the Great was the first monk to become pope. Early on his life he quit the secular ambitions which his parents wished him to pursue to enjoy the serenity of monkish simplicity and the pursuit of holiness. Using inherited property he founded a wealth of monasteries and was greatly esteemed as a spiritual advisor for monks. Much to his chagrin, he was ordered by Pope Pelagius II to be an ambassador to Constantinople. During his stay in Constantinople, Gregory realized that help from the Eastern Empire could no longer be expected, and Rome would have to help herself against surrounding enemies. Concerning Gregory’s view of the relationship between Church and State, the Catholic Encyclopedia says, “Gregory seems to have looked upon Church and State as co-operating to form a united whole, which acted in two distinct spheres, ecclesiastical and secular. Over this commonwealth were the pope and the emperor, each supreme in his own department, care being taken to keep these as far as possible distinct and independent.” Thus Gregory began replacing the administration of Church related things with ecclesiastics. Indeed, Gregory had to take much of the state’s care upon his own hands. Similar to Leo the Great’s ability to thwart invading barbarians, Gregory confronted and pacified the Lombards and was able to pay them to lift their siege. Discuss: Compare and contrast the military of Rome according to Belloc’s three phases with that of the American military. Pay close attention to the similarity between the first phase of Roman military during the early Roman Republic, as well as the early militia of the American colonies and their relationship to the people. Keeping in mind the connection between cause of war and the sentiment of the people, is it at all plausible to suggest that America has been in the second phase ever since the end of WWII, when the USA became involved in wars less connected with American affairs; specifically the Vietnam War, where the military was used to defend the principles of democracy and freedom, not to defend Americans (Compare this to the Roman desire to conquer for pure prestige, not in the defense of the people)? Furthermore, consider the constant use of foreign forces to manipulate regimes especially in the Middle East. Throughout the cold war both Soviet money and technology went to small tyrants who promised to follow socialist trends. Ultimately most of the weapons and technology used by the numerous dictatorships in third world countries either came from the First world (America and allies) or the second world (Soviet Russia). Consider the use of foreigners to fight for a nation’s ideal (democracy or communism) in relation to the third phase of the Roman military.

WEEK 4

BYZANTIUM Reading numbers: 164, 79, 37, 67, 247, 244-5, 12, 48-49a, 59, 140-1, 182, 180,

In the selections picked for reading the student will be introduced to the following areas of Byzantine culture: the city itself, the social life of the “coloni” (not slaves but still attached

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181, 183, 99a to the land), the military system (including the great general Belisarius), Byzantine currency, taxation, Emperor Zeno, Anastasius, and most importantly the character of Emperor Justinian.

Study Guide Reader Volume I Semester 1, Week Four Questions. While reading, take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic

Pretend to be an ambassador from a fictitious country in Early Christendom towards the end of Justinian’s reign. Your king has requested that you make a journey to Byzantium and report on everything that you discover there. Write a report for your King based on the various aspects of Byzantine life described in “Byzantium.” Include all of the following: descriptions of the city, Hagia Sophia, etc. Lay specific stress on the way that Emperor Justinian views the following: taxation, the papacy, and social unrest (refer to the Nika Riot). Remember to introduce your report and conclude it with a sentiment expressing your overall assessment of the Byzantine culture.

Key points The book Byzantium is a collection of excerpts from primary sources, particularly the historical work of Procopius. Emperor Zeno became sole ruler in 476 when “the German (Herul) leader Odovacar deposed the

Western emperor, the young Romulus Augustulus.” Zeno thanked this general by making him magister militum, a highly esteemed rank. However, Odovacar desired more power and it was necessary for Zeno to oust him through the army of Theodoric the Ostrogoth. Thus, the Ostrogoth Kingdom of Italy was established in 493. Although the Goths of Italy made Theodoric their king without imperial consent, peace was eventually established between Theodoric and Zeno’s successor Anastasius.

Byzantium is the ancient Greek city astride the continents of Asia and Europe. After Constantine’s death it was renamed “Constantinople” although the empire came to be known as the “Byzantine Empire” (the city may either be called Byzantium or Constantinople). The city’s name would change once more when the Ottoman Turks successfully invaded in 1453 and renamed it “Istanbul.” Constantinople held off from invasion for nearly a millennium due to its strategic location at the Hellespont and the great defenses that were established there. The students will read of how Emperor Theodosius II built a “double wall with a moat and flanked by 192 towers.” The city was considered “the gateway of Europe,” and all of Christendom realized that its downfall would threaten the rest of the continent.

The monetary system set in Byzantium by Emperor Anastasius I is highly “significant from a fiscal point of view.” The ratios which he created between the basic coins at the time, gold (nomisma), silver (denarius), and copper (follies), remained in use for about five hundred years after his reign.

The coloni is the name for the peasant class within Byzantium. The class of coloni originated in Rome and consisted of serfs (not owned by men but owned by the land they work). As Rome failed to win military victories, the need for slaves to do labor was increasingly replaced with coloni. In the laws coloni were only ever made free from the land if they escaped and were not discovered for thirty years (twenty for women). During the wars, rioting, famine, drought, plague and general economic unrest of the late Roman period, many people fled to the country, and those who could not afford their own land, became tenants on the land of others. To prevent further migration and preserve stability, Constantine and subsequent emperors passed laws binding these coloni to the land.

The Blues and Greens were two “factions” within Byzantium that held each other in utter contempt.

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Like some modern day sports fanatics, they sometimes used violence to express loyalty to their chariot racing team. While these “factions” took on dangerous gangster-like qualities it was not long before their leaders were incorporated into the government and thenceforth took very moderate approaches as they became increasingly detached from their childish and violent origins.

Economy: Anastasius’ brilliant economic strategies in Byzantium effectively met the needs of a city of 400,000 ctizens. His abolition of the oppressive taxation upon “handicrafts and professions,” known as the “chrysargyron tax” reflected his desire for justice. Nevertheless, the emperor Justinian instituted an unfair tax that was so heavy even to unite the factions (the greens and the blues) into open rebellion (the Nika Riot). Justinian callously handled this by quashing the seditious and killing 30,000 of his own people according to Procopius. As Justinian’s minister of state John the Cappadocian shares his responsibility toward the disastrous tax. John the Cappadocian a man lacking formal education, nevertheless possessing abilities to make him a brilliant planner and executioner, unfortunately disregarded moral and human laws to achieve his personal ends.

The Nika Riot of 532 is especially interesting because it united the Blues and the Greens, powerful rivalries. Furthermore, were it not for the wise actions of General Belisarius, this rebellion may have been successful, and the unwilling Hypatius, a relation of Anastasius, would have deposed Justinian. Justinian at one point contemplated fleeing the city.

Emperor Justinian although portrayed negatively in the works of Procopius was canonized by the Eastern Orthodox for his creation of the Corpus juris civilis and the Hagia Sophia. The nephew of Justin I, Justinian established himself in court during his uncle’s rise to power. Procopius antagonizes Justinian’s decision to kill a great number of those involved in the Nika Riot as well as Hypatius, who never played an active role in the riot nor wished to replace Justinian as emperor, as well as the unfair taxes which he through John the Cappadocian, levied against the people, which ultimately instigated the rebellion. Furthermore, Justinian’s taxes were used to wage a vain war, the renovatiis imperii (restoration of the empire). Even though he managed to take northern Africa, Italy, and parts of Spain, it resulted in financial ruin for Byzantine, and the majority of it was lost forever only a century and a half later. It is also notable that success would have been impossible without the leadership of General Belisarius whose military skills rivaled those of Alexander the Great or Caesar. Procopius was also hostile toward Justinian’s handling of the Church. Justinian’s involvement bordered despotism, and such meddle was more harmful than helpful. Although his intentions seem to have been good and he did manage to suppress many heretics, he was not altogether successful in reconciling the East with the Council of Chalcedon.

The Senate: Throughout Justinian’s reign the senate would convene, argue and make preordained decisions all for appearance sake. This is another way that Justinian tried to wield absolute power.

Empress Theodora was the wife of Justinian. Although she came from peasant stock (as did Justinian) she was a woman of considerable sensibility and a great aid to Justinian, although there are perhaps instances where she led him astray. For instance, she often pushed him toward favoring the Monophysites, a group of heretics almost as devastating as the Arians. Procopius also paints Theodora in a very negative light, perhaps unfairly.

Discuss: Consider the way that the historian Procopius portrays Emperor Justinian. Relying only on Procopius Justinian would appear like no more than a mean tyrant who levies burdensome taxes for useless political ambitions and war. Now, consider Justinian’s great achievements such as the Hagia Sophia, one of the most beautiful Churches ever constructed, and the Corpus juris civilis, books of laws still highly regarded today. Also consider the fact that Justinian was canonized by the Eastern Orthodox Church. With these two polar views of Justinian how ought one to view the massacre after the Nika Riot of 532 as described by Procopius?

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Ought one to try and cross reference Procopius’ story with other primary sources? Or given the facts as presented by Procopius how should Justinian’s killing of 30,000 including Hypatius, who seems to have played a very involuntary role, be viewed? Is it a sign of his greedy hold on power to enact such injustice or is the situation perhaps skewed by Procopius’ own bias? Finally, is it perhaps best to simply say that while Justinian excelled in surrounding himself with brilliant men to execute his ideas, he was certainly tyrannical in many respects?

WEEK 5

KOLBE READER

Catholic Encyclopedia: Patrick St. Patrick singlehandedly conquers Ireland for God. The Prayers granted to Patrick.

Bede: Book 1 The Britons struggle to survive. Pelagianism in Brittony. The Germanic (English) kingdoms. St. Augustine of Canterbury. King Ethelfrid

Study Guide Reader Volume I Semester 1, Week Five Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Write an essay concerning the survival of the Britons. What were the many forces against them, and what kept these forces eventually harnessed? To what extent did the Christianity and Roman affiliation of the Britons effect their survival against far more militant tribes?

Key points

The Early Struggle of the Britons: The Christianized Britons were still allied with the Romans, during the reign of Honorius, and were well defended by the Legions. However, after the departure of the troops to wage war on the continent against Attila and other enemies, the Britons fell prey to two great tribes: the Picts and the Scots. After thorough harassment from these two tribes, the Romans aided the Britons twice, but thereafter could

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promise no future help as the difficulties at home were ever increasing. Even the walls and towers built by the Romans could not keep the weak Britons defended from the menacing tribes surrounding her borders. Thereupon a council was called among the Britons and King Vortigern decided to hire the German Saxons to aid them. After the Saxons came and crushed the Picts and Scots, they brought more of their kind (the Jutes and the Angles) seeing that the Britons were cowardly, and the land extremely fertile. Eventually the German tribes subdued the Britons and drove what was left of their race into the wilderness (the very Southern West tip of Britain). However, placing all their trust in God and in their leader Ambrosius Aurelianus (possibly the source for the Arthurian legends) the Britons slowly regained strength and began repelling the German tribes. The climax of this conflict was the battle at Badon-Hill. Missionaries in England: The heresy of Pelagianism spread throughout Brittany though not with the greatest success. Many Britons were reluctant to accept it, but could not however, use argument against it. Thus, Rome decided to send the two holy bishops, Lupus and Germanus to battle the Pelagian heresy. Through nonviolence the bishops brought the people back to orthodoxy, and pelagianism largely ceased to threaten the Christians in Brittany. St. Augustine of Canterbury: After the German tribes had settled down in large areas of Brittany, bringing

with them their heathen practices, they divided up the land into four kingdoms: Kent, Mercia, Northumbria, and Wessex. For the purpose of converting these heathen Germans, Pope St. Gregory the Great sent St. Augustine of Canterbury with a group of monks to Kent. At this time King Ethlebert ruled Kent and kindly allowed Augustine and his monks to preach as they would, seeing little harm in what they had to say. Before long, because of the holiness and simplicity of these missionaries, Christianity was spread throughout the land and King Ethlebert was converted and later canonized. All this was done without violence. After Kent was thoroughly Christianized, Augustine set up his bishopric in Canterbury and wrote a series of questions to St. Gregory the Great concerning doctrinal uncertainties. Some of his questions along with Gregory’s answers are as follows: 2nd Question: Is it okay to practice different customs in the mass depending on where the mass is

being held. Answer: Yes, insofar as the customs are “pious, religious, and right” however Gregory reminds Augustine that “things are not to be loved for the sake of places, but places for the sake of good things”

3rd Question: “What punishment must be inflicted on anyone who steals from a Church?” Answer: Judge each case separately depending on the thief’s motivation. Those who steal through want should be punished mildly. Gregory reminds Augustine that all punishments should be enacted with charity and for the ultimate benefit of the culprit.

5th Question: “To what degree may the faithful marry with their kindred?” Is it lawful to marry with a stepmother or a brother’s wife?

Answer: Gregory notes that common law in Rome allows marriage between cousins, but he prohibits Christians from marrying cousins unless they are third or fourth cousins. Gregory says that marriage with one’s stepmother is a “heinous crime” and marriage with a sister-in-law is illicit because her former union would make them siblings. Gregory mentions that preaching against the latter atrocity caused John the Baptist’s holy martyrdom.

6th Question: “Whether a bishop may be consecrated without other bishops being present, if there be so great a distance between them, that they cannot easily come together?”

Answer: St. Gregory answers that Augustine should ordain a Bishop regardless if others cannot possibly come. However, his newly ordained bishops should come to the ordination of those who

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would come after them. King Ethelfrid of Northumbria: This ambitious king controlling much land in the north of Brittany began to harass the Britons worse than any of the other English Kings (At this point Bede refers to the German Kings of the Jutes, Angles, and Saxons as the “English.” Remember to distinguish them from the Britons). After observing his success with subduing the Britons, the Scot King Aedan waged war on Ethelfrid to check his power. The Scottish army was massacred at the Battle at Degsastan, and thenceforth the Scots did not invade Brittany for a long time. St. Patrick: grew up in Brittany, although his family background was mainly Roman and Gallic. This makes sense as the Britons were allies with the Romans and interbred. Patrick is believed to be distantly related to Martin of Tours. Patrick’s conquest of Ireland for the Catholic faith was done almost single handedly and with little violence, although with incredible sacrifice and suffering on his own part. Although he met with great adversaries, his faith and blessedness were so great that God allowed him to travel throughout Ireland preaching the message of salvation, establishing Churches, and ridding the country of its Druidical origins until he had all of Ireland. Patrick also spent time away from preaching in seclusion to nurture his spiritual life. During this time he met with great temptations but his faith was victorious. After long prayers and much suffering and “wrestling with God,” God answered four of Patrick’s prayers with the following:

many souls would be free from the pains of purgatory through his intercession; whoever in the spirit of penance would recite his hymn before death would attain the heavenly reward;

barbarian hordes would never obtain sway in his Church; seven years before the Judgment Day, the sea would spread over Ireland to save its people from the

temptations and terrors of the Antichrist; the greatest blessing of all, Patrick himself should be deputed to judge the whole Irish race on the last

day. The Catholic Encyclopedia quotes: “So complete was the saint’s victory over them (the devils) that, as the ancient narrative adds, ‘for seven years no evil thing was to be found in Ireland’.” Discuss the role of Christianity in the development of civilization. Does Christianity bring the greatest amount of prosperity to nations? Why or why not?

WEEK 6

KOLBE READER

Bede: Book 2, 3

Irish missionaries to England; monks from St. Columba’s island monastery; Heretics in Brittany; The Kingdoms of England: Kent, Northumbria, Mercia, Saxony and the Angles; The Synod of Whitby

Study Guide Reader Volume I Semester 1, Week Six Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Pretend that you are a news journalist in early England reporting on the Synod of Whitby for your hometown. Choose a creative name for your paper and article. Example: “Easter Celebrated on Wrong Day” featured in the Shield of Saxony newspaper. The article is to be written after the synod’s conclusion, and you are welcome to interview any of the attendants,

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Paper Topic

especially Bishop Finan, who was not happy with King Oswy’s decision to follow the Roman calendar. The article should contain a fair explanation about both sides of the issue. Because it is a news article, keep in mind the following generic formula: thoroughly answer the questions who, where, what (was the issue), when, and how. Make sure to give your reader whatever background information is necessary, while writing with word economy and the occasional stylish embellishment.

Key points Introduction: Venerable Bede begins Book II of his Ecclesiastical History with a brief summary of the life of Pope Gregory the Great. He includes this because as he says Pope Gregory, by both his prayers and great desire to evangelize Britain, should be rightly considered the nation’s Apostle. He speaks of Gregory being forced to leave the monastic life and become an ambassador to Constantinople where, besides stomping out the heretic Eutychius, he also composed an excellent commentary on the Book of Job as well as his Liber Pastoralis. Gregory suffered from indigestion and a slight but constant fever for most of his life, but nevertheless through these torments and his prayers gained many souls for Christ. Heretics in Brittany: St. Augustine through a miracle (he healed a blind man) convinced recalcitrant Bishops of his diocese to amend their heretical ways, for they were enacting rites inconsistent with the Church of Rome, particularly their manner of Baptizing and celebrating Easter Sunday. These final two points were the only which Augustine demanded. Although the Bishops saw their error through Augustine’s miracle, their people were unwilling to follow. Augustine’s prophesy that doom would follow the stubbornness of their recalcitrant sect was enacted via King Ethelfrid of Northumbria, whose armies slaughtered all of the monks of this heresy at the City of Legions. England’s Brief Return to Paganism: The selections from Book II of Bede’s history end with a revival of paganism in Brittany. In 604 Augustine ordained the Bishops Mellitus and Justus to hold the Sees of the East Saxons and Kent respectively. King Ethelbert and his relation King Sabert greatly aided these missionaries’ evangelization by building great Churches including those of Sts. Peter and Paul and St. Andrew’s. However, after the deaths of Augustine, Ethelbert, and Sabert, the temporal thrones were replaced with the sons of these kings who quickly reverted to paganism. After Miletus refused to give them Holy Communion as well as Baptism (for they wished this in a way that mocked its significance) and was forced to quit the region. After discussing the situation of things in Brittany with Justus and other Bishops, the two despaired of their mission and departed for Gaul. Although these evil pagan kings were slain in battle by the armies of the Gewissi, the people were already polluted with the falsity of paganism and idol worship. The Kings of Kent: King Vertigern of the Britons, it will be remembered, requested aid from the Saxons to fight the Scots and Picts, and so King Hengist arrived in Brittany. His line to Ethelbert is the following: Hengist > Oisc > Octa > Irmiuric > Ethelbert. Ethelbert’s son, Eadbald rejected his father’s Christian faith. These kings are called the “Oiscings.” Although Eadbald was a pagan, many of his relations became great saints and servants of God. Eadbald died in 640 and the throne of Kent went to his son Earconbert, a holy and pious man who returned his people to the faith of his grandfather Ethelbert by having all idols destroyed. Many of this King’s daughters were sent to monasteries in Gaul (as there were few at this time in England). His daughter Earcongata went to Brie; Ethelberg her aunt led such a holy life that her body never underwent corruption. The Kings of Northumbria: The first King of Northumbria to accept the faith was King Oswald, a man who became renowned for his outstanding charity to the poor and his ability to unite the many people of Northumbria. After Oswald gave his own food and silverware to a mob of poor, Bishop Aidan blessed this King’s hand saying, “May this hand never decay.” After the King was slain in battle at Maserfelth defending

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his people from the pagan tribe of Mercia his hand was preserved as a holy relic and never met corruption. The soil upon the spot where the King was slain also was discovered to have healing capacities. Oswald’s throne was bequeathed to his son Oswy, who had great trouble dealing with his own son Alchfrid, his nephew Oidiwald, and the Mercians. Venerable Bede paints this King in a bad light, especially for his murdering of his relation Oswin, a man known for his humility and well liked by most men. The two had argued and nearly met in civil war, but Oswin at the last minute, fearing a loss, disbanded his troops, and went home where he was betrayed and murdered through Oswy’s malicious designs. Bede uses an instance that shows the great blessedness of King Oswin. After, Oswin had given his best horse for Bishop Aidan’s personal use, the Bishop gave the horse to a beggar. He told Oswin, who complained that he should have given a horse of lesser value. Aidan responded, “Is that son of a mare more dear to you than that son of God?” This response brought the King to tears and fervent repentance. Aidan witnessed this King’s humility and prophesied his soon death. Twelve days after Oswin’s death Aidan himself died and the Bishopric of Northumbria was succeeded to Finan. The Kings of Mercia: The King Penda of Mercia was a warlike lord who constantly devastated his rival Northumbria. After years of winning battles, the King Penda was ready to destroy King Oswy and all of Northumbria. The King Oswy with his son Alchfrid and their much smaller army (Bede says that Penda’s army might have been thirty times the size of Oswy’s) commended their cause to God, and ended up victorious over Penda. Thus, Penda was killed in the year 655 AD and King Oswy established himself as Lord of both Morhumbria and Mercia, and made Penda’s son Pieda prince regent to the throne. Unfortunately, Pieda was killed by his treacherous wife, and the chiefs of Mercia rebelled against Oswy, who bequeathed rule of Mercia to Penda’s other son, Wulfhere. Nevertheless, because of the influence of both Oswy and Wulfere and many Bishops, Mercia also became converted to Christianity. The Irish Missionaries: In 565 AD, Justinian was succeeded by Justin II. At this time, St. Columba went to evangelize the Northern Picts who lived in Scotland. The Southern Picts had already been taken into the faith by the British missionary St. Ninnian. St. Columba’s island monastery at Dearmach (“the field of oaks”) was renowned for the holiness and piety of its members. The monastery’s only fault was that they did not celebrate Easter on the correct day, but they were soon informed of this by Egbert, a British priest banished to Ireland for his faith. Aidan came from this monastery and was sent to evangelize King Oswald of Northumbria. In this task he was extremely successful, and the King was able to help bring many of his people to Christ. Fursa came from Ireland to preach to and strengthen the faith of the East Angeles who were under the rule of King Sigbert. Fursa was visionary who beheld great heavenly sights. He eventually quit the monastery he built in the Est Angeles to become an anchorite with his brother Ultan. The Synod of Whitby: Unfortunately St. Columba celebrated Easter Sunday on the wrong day, and his Scottish monasteries continued to do so as well as produce plenty of prolific missionaries and Bishops who taught those they evangelized the same error. Thus conflict was met when a good many of English priests and Bishops came back from Italy or Gaul and had been given the proper instruction as to when Easter Sunday was celebrated throughout all of Christendom. Thus, King Oswy called The Synod of Whitby in 664 to meet at the Monastery at Streanaeshalch, which was under the direction of the abbess Hilda, to discuss the matter. All of the clergy and royalty from both sides of the issue arrived to discuss the matter. Bishop Colman who had succeeded to the Bishopric after Bishop Finan (who succeeded Aidan) represented and spoke for the Scots and those the evangelized who upheld the incorrect date for Easter. Wilfrid, a priest who had studied in Rome, explained at the Synod his wide experience and also the importance of keeping traditions and customs in alignment with those of the Church in Rome. King Oswy decided in favor of Wilfrid and adopted the Roman calendar as a means of determining when Easter fell.

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Discuss: Consider the decision of the missionary bishops Miletus and Justus to abandon their dioceses to the pagan kings who had ascended the thrones in place of their holy fathers who accepted the faith. Were these Bishops in any sense morally obliged to stay and continue their preaching for the sake of those there who might still be saved and accept the faith? Or were the situations in Brittany really far beyond the Bishops power to resurrect the faith? Does Bede make the motivations for flight in these Bishops clear? That is, does he say that “fear” or some such unworthy stimulation caused the Bishops to abandon their sees and the missions entrusted to them by St. Augustine?

WEEK 7 KOLBE

READER Bede: Book 4, 5

St. Theodore, Archbishop of Canterbury; Cuthbert, Egbert, and Wilfrid; English missionaries in Germany

Study Guide Reader Volume I Semester 1, Week Seven Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Why did Venerable Bede consider the episcopacy of Archbishop Theodore and the following years thereafter to be the happiest time in Britain since the arrival of the German Kings? How did Christianity unite the once warlike nations into a peaceful regime that brought about great learning, leisure, and the creation of Churches and monasteries?

Key points Introduction: Bede begins Book 4 of his Ecclesiastical History with what he considers to be one of the happiest times in Britain since the English Kings first came. The See of Canterbury had been succeeded to a holy a pious man, Archbishop Theodore, who would continue in this office until twenty one years after his taking it up in 669 AD. Also, Theodore named Hadrian, a man of great learning head abbot of the monastery of St. Peter the apostle. While the people were protected by brave Christian Kings from barbarian forces, and saved from heresies by courageous bishops and priests, learning flourished in these times. Hadrian and Theodore brought with them many other knowledgeable monks and priests with them and the study of Latin, Greek, Ecclesiastical and secular letters, as well astronomy, metrical art, arithmetic, and music was readily available. Indeed, it was not uncommon during this time for Bishops to retire as hermits, and Kings to retire as monks, fully intent on devoting the rest of their life on earth to spiritual perfection and holiness. Theodore calls a Synod: Archbishop Theodore called a synod of all of the English Bishops in the year 673, wherein he joined upon them the need for the Church in England to follow the tenets of Rome as established by the fathers of the Church. From a book of Canon Law, Theodore took the ten most pertinent articles to be discussed at length. These articles were chosen because Theodore decided that they were the least followed or understood in England. They consist of the following:

I. “That we all in common keep the holy day of Easter on the Sunday after the fourteenth moon of the first month.

II. That no bishop intrude into the diocese of another, but be satisfied with the government of the people committed to him.

III. That it shall not be lawful for any bishop to disturb in any matter monasteries dedicated to God nor to take away forcibly any part of their property.

IV. That the monks themselves do not wander… from monastery to monastery, unless with the consent of

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their own abbot; but that they continue in the obedience which they promised at the time of their conversion.

V. That no clerk, forsaking his own bishop, shall wander about, or be anywhere received without commendatory letters from his diocesan. But if he shall be once received and will not return when summoned, both the receiver, and he that is received shall be under excommunication.

VI. That bishops and clergy, when traveling, shall be content with the hospitality that is afforded them; and that it be not lawful for any one of them to exercise any priestly function without leave of the bishop in whose diocese he is known to be.

VII. That a synod be assembled twice a year; but on account of divers hindrances, it was approved by all, that we should meet once a year, on the 1st of August, at the place called Clofeshoch.

VIII. That no bishop, through ambition, shall set himself above another; but that they shall all observe the time and order of their consecration.

IX. The ninth Article was discussed in common, to the effect that more bishops should be made, as the number of the faithful increased; but this matter for the present was passed over.

X. Of marriages; that nothing be allowed but lawful wedlock; that none commit incest; no man leave his own wife…”

Great Kings and Saints of England: Bede gives some history of a few individuals of this time most renown for their holiness and simplicity. He writes at great length concerning the holy Bishop Cuthbert. Cuthbert began as a monk and was schooled at various monasteries, which were renowned for their holy and pious teachers. He became the provost of the monastery on the isle of Lindisfarne and brought many of the pagans who dwelt on the hillsides to the light of Christ through his earnest sermons as well as his confessions. Towards the end of his life he lived as a hermit for some time on a destitute island which teemed with wicked spirits. After completing great spiritual perseverance, he died and was buried. When his body was recovered to be removed to a Church, it was completely uncorrupted and his garments shone with a greater luster than ever. King Aldfrid (Caedwalla) of the West Saxons quit his temporal throne and traveled to Rome to receive Baptism and die in the faith. His successor, Ini, then ruled for thirty-seven years, after which he did the same as his predecessor. The Archbishop of Canterbury St. Theodore died in 690 at the age of 88, having held the episcopate for 21 years and was succeeded by Bertwald, a learned and pious man, but not of the stature of Theodore. English Missionaries in Germany: Egbert who had been exiled to Ireland for preaching the faith, decided to evangelize the Germans. However, prior to setting out he received a message from God to go teach and correct the monks at Columba who had fallen into some incorrect ways. Although very reluctantly he finally went to Columba and did rectify the monks there, he first sent some to evangelize to the German nations, which were still pagan barbarians. Among those he sent were Egbert and eleven companions. This group was able to make some headway, unlike their predecessors, with the aid of Pepin II of the Franks. Two others, who incidentally shared the same name and were only distinguished by the color of their hair, Black Hewald and White Hewald, also went to preach to the Old Saxons and both suffered martyrdoms for the sake of the Kingdom. Suidbert was consecrated Bishop by Wilfrid and sent to Frisland to attend to the Church there. Although Suidbert met some success with the Boructuari, these people were unfortunately routed and dispersed by the warlike Old Saxons. Thus Suidbert was largely forced to retire and was granted a Monastery on an island within the Rhine River. At Pepin’s request, Wilbrord was consecrated Bishop for Frisians and Pope Sergius named him “Clement.” This Clement proceeded to serve 36 years in this capacity and was still alive while Bede was writing his history. Wilfrid of Northumbria: Bede mentions at great length the life of Wilfrid who became a monk at the age of 14

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and studied at Lindisfarne. Desirous to learn more about the faith and teachings of the Church, he traveled to Rome where he studied under the tutelage of Boniface and Dalfinus. He then returned to England where he befriended King Alchfrid, who gave him much land in Northumbria. Because of his great learning, experience, and piety, King Oswy had Wilfrid sent to Gaul to be consecrated Bishop for Northumbria. Later on in his career he was banished under false charges by King Egfrid and so departed for Rome to take up the matter there. On route, his ship was misdirected by winds and ended up in Frisland, where Wilfrid spent much time earnestly converting the King and his people (this episcopacy would later be taken by Wilbrord). After arriving in Rome, Wilfrid was reinstated Bishop of Northumbria by Pope St. Agatho, who also had Wilfrid represent the Church in England during a Synod created to combat the Monothelite heresy, which claimed that Christ had only one will (the synods over this matter would finally be resolved at the Sixth Ecumenical Council of Constantinople). Not long after Wilfrid returned, he was deposed. Having lastly secured his right to Bishopric by traveling for a third time to Rome, he spent his final four peaceful years of life in Northumbria as Bishop. Discuss: Consider Egbert’s obstinate reluctance to go to Columba as instructed by the Lord, having his heart so set upon evangelizing the German peoples. Is one morally obligated to obey a dream or any type of vision? Or is it necessary to obtain some degree of assurance that the dream/vision is of holy and good origin? What appears to have been the case with Egbert; was he simply obstinate or uncertain?

WEEK 8 REVIEW WEEK 9

ERA OF CHRISTENDOM MIDTERM 1 EXAM WEEK 10

BYZANTIUM Readings: 61, 98a, 248, 249, 250, 68,

70-72, 74, 81

The Persian-Byzantine rivalry; the loss of Alexandria; military tactics of Leo VI; military reorganization in Byzantium; the Cataphractai; the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Islam.

KOLBE READER

Catholic Encyclopedia:

Genevieve

The Life of St. Genevieve, patron saint of Paris. The Life of St. Martin of Tours and the conversion of Gaul. Gregory of Tours:

Bk. 1, Life of Martin

Study Guides Reader Volume II Semester 1, Week Ten Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic

Thoroughly describe the rise and fall of the Byzantine Empire after the reign of Emperor Justinian. What were some of the crucial battles during this vacillation? Compare and contrast the rise and fall of the Byzantine military with that of the Roman army as described by Belloc’s three phases in “Europe and the Faith.”

Key points Introduction: Via the Byzantium Reader, the student will appreciate various aspects of the Byzantine military and will determine both its pinnacle of achievement as well as the factors that led to its fall. Additionally, the

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student will glean from the readings a major cause of Islamic success in Byzantine territories. Emperor Heraclius: Although Justinian prevented senatorial involvement, in 610 they were able to oust out the tyrant emperor Phocas, by whose authority Kosmas, the city exarch, was slaughtering many civilians needlessly. The son of the strategos (general) in Africa, Heraclius, took the throne, and reigned for thirty-one years, bringing some stability to the Empire. Using a system called “economia” whereby silver and gold could be taken from Churches to be used for military needs, Heraclius was able to finance a war with Persia, which was the latter’s ruin. The Byzantines adapted various Persian terms and custom:

~proskynesis: “obeisance to the emperor by prostration on the floor” ~basileus: this Persian term meaning “ruler of all the ecumens” was also used with the Greek word “autokrator” The Rise of Islam: The fall of the Persian Empire greatly fueled the growth of the Islamic Empire. The cultural respect of Byzantium toward the Arabs (they were never considered “barbarians”) lasted from the seventh to the eleventh centuries. Nevertheless, by the end of the seventh century, Islam controlled Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa. Alexandria was taken by the Islamic General Amr in 642. Emperor Heraclius was not nescient of his people’s plight and sent General Manuwil with three hundred ships to take back the city. Although it was recaptured, General Amr returned with 15,000 men, laid siege, and routed the Byzantine army, using “ballistae” to destroy the walls of Alexandria (see illustration). Another factor that greatly aided the growth of Islam, was the Monophysite heresy, which rejected the Council of Chalcedon. Also known as the “Coptic Christians,” this heretical sect helped the Islamic General Amr hold Alexandria. Byzantine Military: Since its earliest history, Byzantium had recruited from surrounding tribes. As loyalty towards the Byzantine Empire waned, Emperor Maurice approved a reorganization of military recruitment and technique. Through this system the Byzantine people were directly responsible for the military’s upkeep, and local militia was a norm. In Maurice’s directive, every young man was required to own a bow, forty arrows, and two javelins. Practice was also required and local militia became a very efficient way of deterring invaders. Later on, during the rule of Leo VI, the cataphract, or heavy calvary units, proved an invaluable component of the Byzantine military, as proven by Byzantine success in the Rus campaign in 971 AD. A series of military victories had been accomplished under Emperor John Tzimisces largely due to the use of the cataphracts. The dreaded Byzantine warship, the dromon, was well armored yet quite maneuverable, leaving enemy ships susceptible to a showering of deadly “Greek Fire.” The Decline of the Byzantine Empire: After the heyday of Byzantine conquest and military prowess, as established by their victories over the Rus, the Byzantine army slowly declined. This decline was caused by two particular circumstances: The battle of Manzikert: In 1071, the Byzantines lost this crucial battle in Armenia to the Seljuk Turks. This

loss left Asia Minor and Greece, Byzantine’s most important assets, highly vulnerable. The loss is attributed to the following: The General Romanus Diogenes skirted pass many of the brilliant rules of Leo VI’s Tactica; many Turkish mercenaries fled to their foe’s more familiar camp; and, a Greek general was disobedient to commands.

The degeneration and instability of politics in Byzantium led to increasing neglect of the Byzantine war sector.

St. Genevieve: the patron saint of Paris, lived from 419/422 to 512. Genevieve grew up in the small town of

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Nanterre near Paris. While Sts Germain and Lupus were on route to Britain to combat Pelagianism, they gave sermons and taught in Genevieve’s town. They recognized the saintliness of the young girl and so through exhortation and prayer commended her to a life of austerity and holiness. Thus, in her early years she “received the religious veil” and lived a life dedicated to penance and prayer in Paris. Although she suffered from the jealousy and envy of others due to the visions with which God blessed her, these resentments soon subsided as St. Germain reaffirmed her goodly gifts and as she used “charity and self sacrifice” to thwart Attila the Hun from sacking Paris and to bring clemency from Childeric and Clovis. St. Genevieve was put in charge of the virgin nuns of Paris and she brought many closer to saintliness. The many miracles rendered near her grave sight and in her name attest abundantly to her sainthood. St. Martin of Tours: St. Gregory’s the History of the Franks initially presents a short biography of St. Martin of Tours, who played such an important role in the conversion of France, and therefore in the history of France. After leading a life of saintliness amidst pagan parents and the rigors of the military, which he was forced to join (it will be remembered that an edict was issued ordering sons to take the place of their fallen fathers). Nevertheless, he maintained a life of monkish simplicity and showed great generosity and self sacrifice toward his fellow soldiers. One day of deadly cold, Martin ripped his one cloak and gave the half to a naked man dying on the street. This exemplifies Martin’s great love and sacrifice. Eventually, Martin is said to have “reluctantly abandoned his desire to be a hermit and became Bishop of Tours.” Martin’s life borders on the fantastic as he was said to frequently converse with angels, and the vigilant eye, which he kept on Satan, allowed him to recognize all of his tricky forms. Although there was initial dispute concerning where St. Martin was to be buried, the people of Tours eventually snuck his body out to their city, greatly disappointing the people of Poitiers. Discuss: Consider how Benjamin was established by the Muslims in Alexandria. The Coptic Christians (The Monophysite sect) preferred Islamic control to any sort of affiliation with Orthodox Christianity, considering the former to be liberators from the oppression of the latter. Consider the great loss of Alexandria, one of the most important port cities in the Mediterranean, and the gateway to the rest of North Africa. Do you think that, had the Coptic Christians helped deter the Muslim advance, then Mohammed’s designs for the rest of North Africa would have been thwarted? Is this a reasonable suggestion? Explain.

WEEK 11

KOLBE READER

Gregory of Tours: Books 2, 3, 4,

5.2-20

The conversion of Clovis; the conquering of Gaul; kingdom divided by Childebert, Theuderic, Chlodomer, and Clothar; the struggle for Burgundy; the sons of Clothar ;

Study Guides

Reader Volume II Semester 1, Week Eleven Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic

The early history of the Merovingian line of Frankish Kings is full of licentious and murderous Kings, although all of them professed the faith of the Catholic Church. Keeping in mind that God brings about good despite the evil wrought by sinful men, explain how the Merovingian dynasty brought Christianity throughout Europe. Were all of the Kings evil men or only some? Which ones in particular ruled with justice and charity, and which ones seemed to have truly converted from their heathen ways?

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Key points Introduction: Much of what St. Gregory journals is the Merovingian line of the Franks beginning with Clovis I. Additionally, he traces the life of the Church in France beginning with St. Martin of Tours. Although many of the kings of the Merovingian line lived licentious and dissipated lives, the fear of God and the truth of the faith kept at least some of them in line, and helped these few establish the great kingdoms of the Franks. Although Theuderic was a mean ruler, his son Theodobert was known for his goodness and munificence. Additionally, Clothar, who murdered many and had various wives, eventually made a heartfelt confession and repentance before his death. Thus, it is important to keep track of the genealogy of the line of Clovis. The King of the Franks: The tribe known as the “Franks” established their kingdom under the directive of Childeric I, thus beginning the long line of royalty known as the “Merovingians.” However, it was not until Clovis took the throne that the Franks began to conquer and dominate most of Gaul. Clovis was a pagan, (according to Belloc of Roman descent) and throughout his early victories against King Siagrius his army devastated Church property. After subduing the Thuringi people and claiming their land for the Franks, Clovis married Clotilda, whose uncles, Gundobad and Godegisel were for the throne of Burgundy. Clotilda was a devout Catholic and insisted on having her sons baptized and brought up in the faith. Clovis largely ignored Clotilda’s religious lectures, and seemed unmoved by her sentiments. However, during a desperate battle with the Alamanni, Clovis realized that he would lose regardless of the earnestness with which he prayed to his heathen gods. In utter despair he raised his voice to Heaven to asked Christ to grant him victory, and in return he would be baptized and urge the baptism of his people. In an instant the battle turned in his favor and the Franks were victorious. Thus, Clovis and his people were baptized by St. Remi of Rheims. The Struggle for Burgundy: As civil war waged between the brother kings of Burgundy, Gundobad and Godegisel, the latter conspired with Clovis to jointly attack his brother. Clovis agreed and marched his army into Burgundy were they banded with Godegisel’s forces and crushed Gundobad, who was forced to flee. However, Gundobad was not quite out of the picture. While he was being hunted down, he sent his advisor, Aridius, to manipulate Clovis into sparing the deposed king’s life. Clovis agreed but demanded heavy annual payments from Gundobad. After Gundobad had regained his strength, he quit paying Clovis and made an assault on his witless brother residing in Vienne, slew him, and took the throne of Burgundy. After Gundobad’s death, his son Sigismund took the throne with his brother Godomer, who was finally killed by the Frankish Kings in 534 and became absorbed into the growing Frankish kingdom. Burgundy was also targeted by the Lombards who frequently invaded, plundered, and went back to Italy. Eusenius, who had been made patriarch by Guntram was able to help the Burgundians ward off the Lombards. The Four Kingdoms of France: At Clovis’ death (511) the Kingdom was bequeathed to his four sons: Childebert: remained childless. By his instigation the three sons of Chlodomer were murdered. He seems to have enjoyed conquering lands and conspiring with his brother Clothar. After he died, Clothar inherited his land and was sole ruler of the Kingdoms of Gaul. Theuderic: the bastard child of Clovis. Theuderic seems to have a meanness toward those he conquered, and he was a ruthless murderer. He was bequeathed the kingdom in the north of Gaul and constantly fought with the Thuringians and other German tribes. However, his son Theodobert proceeded to rule the land with mercy and justice and he conquered most of Italy through his General, Buccelenus. Theodobert’s son Theodoald was a sickly man, who died young, and his kingdom (Francia) was inherited by Clothar. During Theodoald’s reign the hard earned kingdom of Italy was lost, and general Buccelenus was killed. Chlodomer: At his mother’s bidding he attacked Burgundy and almost seized the throne, however, he was deceived and killed by the enemy. He left three sons to the care of his mother. Two of the three were

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mercilessly murdered by the hands of their uncles Childebert and Clothar. Clodoald escaped. Clothar: Joined his brother Theuderic in fighting the Thuringians. He took Radegunda from that tribe to be his wife. He also fought south past the Pyrenees with his brother Childebert and gained much land from Spain. He eventually died after fifty-one years of reign, and had acquired, mainly through inheritance, most of Gaul. Gregory says that before he died he made heartfelt repentance for all of his sins. ~Church Tax: Clothar imposed a heavy tax on the Churches. The only Bishop to oppose this tax was Bishop Injurious of Tours. His successor to this important bishopric was Bandinus

The Sons of Clothar: The succesors to the kingdoms of Gaul were the sons of Clothar, who had many children from different wives. Although many of his sons died before his own death, he left behind four sons to vie for Gaul: Guntram, Charibert, Sigebert and Chilperic. Guntram: Plundered Churches and proved himself a dissipated and licentious ruler. Charibert: Like Guntram, he lived a very licentious life and died. His wife Theogild went to Guntram after

her husband died, and after he took all of her treasure he sent her to the convent at Arles. Here she was beaten for trying to escape with a young Goth, and here she spent her remaining years.

Sigibert: Seeing his brothers’ foolish choices in wives, decided to pick a good and virtuous Christian woman and remain faithful. Thus, he wedded Brunhilda from Spain, who was willing to change from her Arian upbringing and embrace the truth of the Trinity. When the Huns again attempted to invade Gaul, Sigibert met them in battle, lost, but was able to negotiate peace. Sigibert seems to have ended rather badly. After attempting to murder his brother Chilperic, he was murdered by the designs of Fredegunda.

Chilperic: Followed his brother Sigibert’s choice to wed, though only after he had many children and mistresses. He wedded Brunhilda’s sister, Galswitha. However, he was still in love with a former mistress, Fredegunda, and had Galswitha murdered. Chilperic had three sons: Theudebert, Merovech, and Clovis.

The flight of Merovech: Merovech the son of Chilperic, married Brunhilda, his uncle’s widow. Chilperic was enraged by this offense to God and the Church, and took him away from Brunhilda, gave him the tonsure, and sent him to a monastery. However, on his way to the monastery, his servant Galen saved him and brought him to the chapel of St. Martin’s where he took sanctuary for two months. During this time, Chilperic wrote to the people of Tours: "Cast that apostate out of the church. If you don't I will burn that whole country with fire." Merovech told Brunhilda, "Far be it from me that the church of the master Martin should submit to outrage on my account, or his country be put into captivity for me." After dodging Queen Fredegunda’s assassination attempts, he was forced to quit the Church, when his father Chilperic came to Tours and raided both the Church and the countryside. He fled to Brunhilda but was not welcomed by the Austrasians. Thus, he told his servant Galen, “Up to the present we have had one mind and purpose. I ask you not to allow me to fall into the hands of my enemies, but to take your sword and rush upon me.” After this was accomplished, the servants of Merovech who had aided him in his escapes, were all tortured brutally and killed. The Jews of Clermont: Although not compelled to convert, the Bishop realizing the growing hostilities between the Jews and Christians in his region, gave the former a mandate: they must either convert or leave. Although many decided to leave, about five hundred of them were converted to the truth of Christ. Bishops Sagitarrius and Salunius: These evil bishops are reported to have seized property, murdered, committed adultery, and inflicted various other grievances against the Church and their holy office. Although they were removed from their bishoprics by the act of King Guntram and the Synod of Lyons, they manipulated Pope John into reinstating them. However, the people of their bishoprics demanded justice and Guntram imprisoned the lecherous bishops. Unfortunately, they were released and after a short period of penitence they fell back into their evil ways.

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Discuss: The early kings of the Merovingian dynasty, while professing the Nicene Creed, lived extremely sinful lives. Consider the culpability of their crimes in light of Clovis’ conversion (he spent most of his life as a pagan and his son Theuderic especially was brought up with pagan customs). In other words, are they less guilty of their sins since they were so largely exposed to pagan ways and cultures? Consider this question in light of Church doctrine as well as King Gregory’s answers to St. Augustine’s questions, read about in Week Five of Semester One. WEEK 12

KOLBE READER

Gregory of Tours: Books 5.28-44, 6,

7, 8

Hermits and Saints of Gaul; King Chilperic; Civil war; Queen Fredegunda; treachery of Dukes and Bishops; the insurrection of Gundovald; Jews in Christendom; the munificence and wisdom of King Guntram;

Study Guides

Reader Volume II Semester 1, Week Twelve Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Compare and contrast the reigns of King Chilperic and King Guntram. Consider their general behavior toward their people and their means of ruling.

Key points Introduction: This time in France is marked by deceitfulness and treachery among members of the royal families, as well as the bishops and dukes of the land, who at this time are gaining far too much influence. Vying for power and complete control, wars devastated the land and continual plagues and famine inflicted countless suffering upon the poor people of Gaul, some of whom could turn to neither King, bishop, nor Duke for relief. Nevertheless, this was also the age of miracles and visions, and St. Gregory includes many accounts of the great saints of this time. Hermits and Saints of Gaul: The recluse Hospicius, renown for his acts of penance and fasting, prophesied the invasion of the Lombards into Gaul. He performed many other miracles including giving hearing, speech, and sight to those lacking these faculties, as well as driving out demons from the possessed. After great suffering he died a very holy death. Ebarchius: Gregory also speaks at length about the recluse Ebarchius, who established a small

monastery with a band of fellow pious men. This saint was known for his munificent generosity to the ransomed and the poor. He pleaded for the imprisoned, and Gregory relates a story about his bringing a man back to life.

St. Gregory: At this time, St. Gregory himself was alive, and he relates how he himself prevented the thieves, who took much from St. Martin’s Church, from being killed by King Chilperic, believing that no such injury would be wished upon any on account of St. Martin.

Salvinus: This great saint, who died in 584, spent years of penitent sacrificial suffering in a monastery, before leaving to become an abbot for the people of France. He died for a short time and was given a wonderful vision of Heaven, which St. Gregory relates, but was told to return to do more good works for the people of God.

Deacon Vulfiac: St. Gregory on route to Childebert, was received at a monastery, where after much urging provoked Deacon Vulfiac to tell him his life story of how he came to the monastery. He was from

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the Lombard race, but after seeing a miracle performed in the name of St. Martin he took to a hermit’s life, where he endured great suffering and hardship. He began to preach to the surrounding people against their Roman gods. When after, through the grace of God, he pushed down a great column dedicated to the goddess Diana, he was immediately covered with boils, by the enemy’s designs. After covering himself with oil and falling asleep, he awoke and was absolutely cured.

King Chilperic: The son of Clothar eventually allied with King Childebert II, the son of his brother Sigibert. St. Gregory calls this king, “the Nero and Herod of our time.”

Tax: At Fredegunda’s urging, a heavy tax was levied upon his people and many fled to other kingdoms. His demand for payment was harsh and when his people refused, he murdered many of them. As civil war loomed over Gaul, a devastating plague struck the land killing many children, including Chilperic’s youngest two sons. At the instigation of Fredegunda, Chilperic ended the heavy taxes and became far more generous to his people’s needs.

Heresy: Chilperic wrote a pathetic treatise on the Trinity, which asserted that the word “person” should no longer be used in reference to God. Although St. Gregory and Bishop Salvinus both argued him down, he had the treatise distributed and urged young boys to read it.

Civil War: King Chilperic, having received Childebert II as an ally, began seizing Guntram’s towns to quench his thrust for ultimate power. Chilperic then stirred up his army in Paris who did much damage to the countryside. The corrupt Dukes Desiderius and Bladast pillaged and utterly destroyed the town of Bourges, who refused to take the oath of fidelity to King Chilperic. Guntram eventually rammed his army into Chilperic’s and slew many. They eventually called a truce, with very little accomplished.

Fredegunda: this evil wife of Guntram seems to play some role in all of his devious undertakings. On two separate occasions she herself ruthlessly murdered and tortured many innocent people. The first involved the death of her son, and she killed Mummolus the Prefect and everybody else who might have been involved. The second was when her daughter, Riguntha, on route to her new husband in Spain, was raided at Toulouse by Duke Desiderius. On this occasion, she killed those who told her about the raid and whoever else was able to escape.

King Guntram: Although Guntram seems to have had a rough beginning to his life full of licentiousness and cruelty, he seems to have improved with age. St. Gregory says the following about him: “And king Guntram by process of justice restored all that king Chilperic's followers had wrongfully taken from various sources, and he himself gave much to the churches, and he gave effect to the wills of the dead which had contained bequests to churches and had been broken by Chilperic, and he was generous to many and gave much to the poor.” Austrechild: During the plague, Guntram’s worthless and wicked wife Austrechild fell ill and before she

died, demanded that Guntram have her physicians killed. Guntram enacted these murders and Gregory writes that many believed that he greatly sinned by killing these men.

Civil War: Guntram finally seems to have recognized his nephew Childebert’s greed and deceitfulness, so that when Childebert sent his legates (Bishop Egidius, Guntham Boso, and Sigivald) to offer peace negotiations, Guntram fantastically spurned them all, calling them liars and power-mongers.

Count Lupus: A duke of Champagne and supporter of Brunhilda and Childebert II, was attacked by the evil barons Ursio and Bertefred, who believed that the Kings of France should be under the influence of the Barons. Lupus was forced to flee and escaped to the court of King Guntram. The Siege of Comminges: Gundovald, an illegitimate son of Cholthar, claimed the throne of France and gained the support of such evil and power hungry officials as Bishop Sagittarius and Duke Bladast, who hoped

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to institute this naïve prince for their own advantage. Guntram fought Gundovald’s troops to the town of Comminges, which was held and fortified. After many days of useless sieges, Guntram’s magister, Ludegisel, offered to spare the lives of Mummolus, Sagittarius, Chariulf, and Waddo if they would only betray Gundovald and hand over Comminges. After this betrayal was enacted, Guntram decided to kill all of these evil Dukes and Bishops, as well as Gundovald. Jewish/Christian Conflicts: King Chilperic ordered that the Jews convert to Christianity. Many of course refused. Gregory mentions one particular case. Priscus pretended to be a Christian but secretly performed his Jewish obligations. He was slain by a fellow Jewish convert to Christianity named Phatir, who was then in turn slain by Pricus’ kin. Even as King Guntram entered the city of Orleans amid cheers from both the Jews and Christians, he said the following in regard to the Jews: "Woe to the Jewish tribe, wicked, treacherous, and always living by cunning. Here's what they were after," said he, "they cried out their flattering praises today, that all the nations were to honor me as master, in order that their synagogue, long ago torn down by the Christians, be rebuilt at the public cost; but by the Lord's command I will never do it.” Discuss: Consider how the Christians treated the Jews who lived in Gaul. According to St. Gregory, were the Jews forced to convert by pain of death or torture? Were the Christians welcoming and desirous of Jewish/Christian “coexistence”? Why does St. Gregory call the Jews “heretics”? How were heretics generally treated at this time? Was such treatment necessary for the survival of the Church, or did it have purely malignant origins? Use St. Athanasius’ attempt to quash the Arian heresy as an example.

WEEK 13

KOLBE READER

Gregory of Tours: Books 9, 10

The Death of Guntram Boso; The Treaty of Andelot; Good King Guntram; The Synod of Kalends; Childebert’s legates in Carthage; the cunning of Duke Eulalius; the evil Clotild; the children of Childbert

Study Guides

Reader Volume II Semester 1, Week Thirteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic

Create a detailed family tree of the Merovingian bloodline from the beginning to the end (the Carolingian Line). Under each name give as many children/spouses as possible. Keep in mind the four kingdoms of Gaul, which were constantly going back and forth between the kings: Neustria, Aquitania, Burgundy, and Austrasia. Try to adorn and stylize the family tree so that it is amendable for presentation. Since the Merovingian family line is extensive, resourcefulness and creativity will accommodate the necessary furnishings. Also, keep in mind that additional research will be necessary.

Key points Introduction: Gregory tells the story of King Guntram’s mercy toward an assassin who very nearly killed him. Gregory relates various stories about false prophets, false healers, and false relics. There were still many evil Counts and Dukes, but good Christian Kings still ruled France and would continue to do so for many years. In France there were various plagues and famine which harassed the people about these things, Gregory says: “Now in Gaul the disease I have mentioned attacked the province of Marseilles, and a great famine oppressed Angers, Nantes, and Mans. These are the beginning of sorrows according to what the Lord says in the Gospel: ‘There shall be pestilence and famines and earthquakes in different places and false Christs and false prophets shall arise and give signs and prodigies in the heavens so as to put the elect astray’ as is true at the present

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time.” The Death of Gunthram Boso: Both King Guntram and Childebert II judged Gunthram Boso on several charges and decided to have him executed. When he escaped the guard, he fled to the house of Bishop Megnaric, whom he forced to plead for his mercy on pain of death. Guntram refused the Bishop’s offer, which was sent him by dispatch, and decided to burn down the bishop’s house with both of them in it. Megnaric was able to escape with his clerics; Gunthram Boso on the other hand was struck with several lance blows as soon as he exited the conflagration. The Arian Heresy ends in Spain: After the death of King Leuvilgild 586, King Recared assumed the throne of Spain. Perceiving that the Nicene Christians continually performed great miracles while the Arians performed none, he called a gathering of the Bishops to settle the matter permanently, at least in Spain. After both sides gave their arguments for their respective creeds, the King settled on the creed made by the Nicene Christians. The Treaty of Andelot: Established between King Guntram of Burgundy, Childebert II, and Queen Brunhilda of Austrasia. This treaty, among other things, is an early example of a will, which stipulates the distribution of possessions after the kings’ deaths.

1. Guntram took a third of Paris originally given him by Sigibert 2. Childebert II took two thirds of many important cities, however, the real significance of the second

article of the treaty is that Childebert would be the heir to Guntram’s realm. 3. Princess Clotechild, Guntram’s daughter, had protection after her father’s death and could keep all

that she inherited from him. 4. This article stipulated that if Childebert died before his uncle, then Guntram would take care of his

sons, Theuderic and Theudebert. 5. Queen Brunhilda and her daughter Clodosind would be protected. 6. Most of the lands originally given to Galswintha would pass onto Guntram. At his death, these lands

would pass to Brunhilda, then eventually to the sons of Childebert 7. Childebert would take the whole of Senlis, and Guntram would take the whole of Ressons. 8. The Leudes, who were second in command to the Kings of Gaul, were to be judged to see who had

switched allegiance over the year; the penalty of such disloyalty would be expulsion from the realm. 9. Anything rightly given to the Church by Kings, were not to be taken back. 10. This article establish a hearing for any future disputes of anything taken from anyone in the realm 11. The Leudes had to remain in their own domain. Furthermore, the Kings of Gaul could freely travel in

and out of each other’s territories. 12. If either party tried to manipulate the agreements in the Treaty, then the other party would receive all

advantages of the Treaty. The Deeds of Good King Guntram: The Bubonic Plague: In response to this terror, king Guntram ordered all to assemble at the church and engage devoutly in prayer. He directed that nothing other than barley bread and clean water should be taken in the way of food and that all without intermission should keep watch. This was done for three days. He gave alms with more than usual generosity, and he showed such fear for all the people that he was now believed to be not merely a king but a bishop of God, placing all his hope in God's mercy, and in the purity of his faith turning all his thoughts to him by whom he believed that these thoughts could be given effect. The Synod of Kalends: King Guntram explained the purpose of the Synod thus: “There is much to be looked into that has gone wrong, both acts of incest and matters which are in discussion between us. But the most important case of all is that of God, since you must investigate why bishop Praetextatus was slain by the sword in his church. Moreover there ought to be an examination of those who are accused of wantonness so that if

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found guilty they can be corrected by the bishops' sentence, or if they prove innocent that the falsity of the charge can be publicly recognized." The Death of a Merchant: During the reign of Emperor Maurice, legates were sent from Gaul to reaffirm the Roman-French peace. The legates included Bodigisel, Mummolinus, Evantius, and Grippo as well as their servants. While in Carthage, one of Evantius’ servants stole something from a merchant. After the merchant demanded it back, the servant killed him; however, he did not inform his fellow travelers of his treacherous deed. After the people of Carthage, so enraged, slew Bodigisel and Evantius, Grippo returned home immediately. Having informed King Childbert II of the hostile treatment toward his legates, the King immediately dispatched twenty Dukes to invade the Lombards in Italy. These Dukes, while marching through Gaul did great damage to the French. The troops returned three months later, hungry and sick. King Guntram, warned that the plague was in Italy, and refused to send Childebert aid. Little was accomplished by King Childebert’s invasion. The Cruelty of Eulalius: A synod of Bishops met to hear a case against a woman named Tetradia. Her former husband Eulalius had accused her of absconding with much of his wealth, and he demanded it back. Eulalius was a nobleman, who is rumored to have strangled his mother at an early age. He was known to beat his wife Tetradia and use her dowry and personal possessions to pay off gambling debt. Virus, Desiderius’ nephew, desired to marry Tetradia himself, and so had her sent to Duke Desiderius until the wedding could be arranged. However, Eulalius discovered the plot and killed his nephew before its execution. Meanwhile, Tretradia had absconded with much of Eulalius’ money. Eulalius traded his son John for the favor of Bishop Innocent of Rodez. With this advantage he won a court case against his wife and received four times what she had taken. Holy Cross Convent at Poitiers: Clotild, daughter of Charibert, vied for the rank of Prioress of the convent. Her struggle to have the former prioress murdered yielded bitter fueding. According to St. Gregory, “Afterward many feuds arose between these factions and who could ever set forth in words such wounds, such killings, and such wrong-doings, where scarcely a day passed without a murder, or an hour without a quarrel, or a moment without tears.” Thus a court was called of many Bishops to punish the various crimes there committed. At the trial, St. Gregory provides a very thorough account of Clotild’s insupportable and outlandish accusations, and the counter defense, with whom little was found in want. The Bishops reported to the King the following: “Then we opened and read the canons, and it seemed most just that until they made a suitable repentance they should be excommunicated and the abbess should continue permanently in her place.” The Children of Childebert: After the death of Guntram (593) and Childebert II (595), the land was inherited by Theuderic (Austrasia), Theudebert (Burgundy), and Chlothar II (Neustra). Unfortunately, Theudebert and Theuderic became quarrelsome and the two were consecutively assassinated. The Kingdoms were reunited under Chlothar II in 613 and was succeeded to his son Dagobert in 629. The historian Guzat writes about these later rulers. Dagobert is considered to be the last strong Merovingian King; the line would eventually peter out and succumb to the Carolingian line. Discuss: After being condemned to death, Gunthram Boso fled to the house of Bishop Megnaric, whom he forced to plead on his behalf. The Bishop was then forced to send legates to his close friend King Guntram. Appalled that this Bishop would hold a condemned man in such a fashion, the King decided to burn the Bishop’s house down as a means of killing both Gunthram Boso and the Bishop, if necessary. Consider King Guntram’s decision to have the house of Bishop Megnaric burned down. Was this a wise and just choice of his, or was it cruel, inhumane, and foolish?

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WEEK 14

KOLBE READER

Catholic Encyclopedia:

Boniface

The Missionary to Germany Frankish culture and society Powers:

Medieval People

BYZANTIUM Readings 147, 148,

114 Papal primacy, Iconoclasm

Study Guides Reader Volume II Semester 1, Week Fourteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Write a journal entry about one day in the life of a peasant, a serf, or a steward living in Medieval Gaul based on the information from the excerpt from Eileen Power’s Medieval People.

Key points St. Boniface: martyred on 5th of June 755/754. Originally from the British Isles, young Winfrid’s great learning and piety at the Monasteries and as a Benedictine priest eventually allowed to him to travel abroad with the hope of preaching to the old Saxons of Germany. Thus, He went to Friesland in 716, and set up a religious center for the training of native clergy at Amoneburg near River Ohm. He was consecrated Bishop Boniface in 722 and appointed to Thuringia and Hessia. He was never given a location for his see until he was made archbishop of Gaul and Germany in 738, and the archbishopric was assigned to Mainz. Boniface strove constantly to confirm the achievements of the Church in Germany through various synods as well as frequent consultation of the Canonical Books, in order to keep in touch with the practices in Rome. His earnest desire to preach to the Saxons was eventually granted by God in 755. He went to preach to the Heathen Frisians and there was slaughtered with many new converts. The Medieval Life: Eileen Power uses the extant documents from Charlemagne’s time, which describe how things were to be organized on the large abbey estates, and she creates a day in the life of a character named Bodo. This interesting medium thoroughly describes both Bodo’s work as well as his free time: The lands of the abbey of St. Germain (and any other large abbey) were divided into estates called “Fiscs.” The fiscs are divided into seigniorial and tributary lands. ~Seigniorial: administered by the monks via an abbey ~Tributary: self sufficient cluster of farms There are also various dependent manses on a fisc. The Steward overlooked the work of the peasants and serfs and could demand two things: ~Field Work: fixed amount of plowing/ corvee (an unfixed amount if necessary) ~Hand Work: Building Repair/lumber felling/fruit gathering/ale making/etc… Rent was also collected by the Steward: there were various taxes levied on the monastery which subsequently fell upon the shoulders of the peasants. Additionally, money was collected along with a whole store of supplies and handicrafts. Powers points out that the serfs and the peasants, even though the latter are free from the land, are nearly indistinguishable. Although Bodo worked sometimes everyday for most of daylight, he did have Christian holidays as well as

Notes

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Sundays off, and he took advantage of his free time for leisure: ~Spent time in small groups dancing and singing (although they mainly sang pagan songs, much to the Church’s chagrin) ~Missi Dominici: The court justices. If Bodo needed to make a complaint of any sort, then he would have to take some time to make it during a specially appointed time when the courts were open somewhere on the estate. ~The Great Fair of St. Denys: This was an annual favorite of Bodo. After helping to set up the booths, he was free to walk about and look at the fantastic gathering of human ingenuity and strange creatures from all over Europe. The Great Schism: The ascendancy of Photius to the Patriarchate of Byzantium in the mid-ninth century incurred a decisive break between the Eastern and Western Churches. The former bishop was Ignatius, who was removed from office, “by no rule or ecclesiastical order.” Thus, Pope Nicholas I wrote to Byzantine Emperor Michael III reaffirming the primacy of the Bishop of Rome as the heir to the See of St. Peter and head of God’s Church on earth, as well as ordering the reinstatement of Ignatius, who “had resigned under great political pressure.” Additionally, tension existed over the proper jurisdiction of the Balkan peninsula, southern Italy, and Sicily, widening the gap between the Churches even further. There was also the question as to who would become the missionary Church to the Bulgars and whether they would learn Christianity via the West or the East. In response to these actions taken by Nicholas, Photius summoned a council of the Eastern Bishops held in Constantinople, the object of which was to depose the Pope. At this council three complaints were issued against the Western Church. These complaints remain in existence today. The biggest complaint involved the use of “filioque” (and the Son) to express the belief that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son (not just the Father). The schism is known as the “Photian Schism” and was the first real crack on the bridge between the East and the West. Iconoclasm: Emperor Leo V reinstated the use of iconoclasm to thwart what he considered “idol worship,” (reaching the Divine through material means). This emperor was firm in his belief that Christians were worshiping the material icons themselves and not using them as a means to venerate and pray. He expressed his belief that the Christians were losing battles to the pagans, and the former emperors had died in strife because of this practice. Discuss: Consider the excerpt from Eileen Power. Is her concept of the calm simplicity of peasantry life, the three dear children and a small farm, and the happy Sunday afternoons of leisurely gatherings simply a gross understatement stemming from a too abstract nostalgia? Consider particularly the sentence: “They used to spend their holidays in dancing and singing and buffoonery, as country folk have always done until our own gloomier, more self-conscious age.”

WEEK 15

KOLBE READER Einhard:

Life of Charlemagne Charles the Great and his era. Overall summary of the many conquests of Charlemagne; summary of Charlemagne’s public and private life;

BYZANTIUM Readings 146a,

257-261, 83, 262-263

Byzantine reaction to Charles, the conversion of the Slavs and Rus

Study Guides Reader Volume II Semester 1, Week Fifteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

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Paper Topic

Write a paper giving a brief overview of the many battles and victories of Charlemagne. Can Charlemagne’s conquests be compared to those of Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great? In what ways do his conquests differ from those of Caesar and Alexander?

Key points Introduction: Einhard’s Life of Charlemagne chronicles the deeds, behavior, and general character of one of the greatest military leaders of all time. It also establishes the beginning of the Carolingian dynasty in Gaul, as well as the dominance of the Holy Roman Empire and her continual need to call upon strong Christian kings from all over Europe to her defense. The End of the Merovingian Line: The Merovingian Line was terminated when Childeric III was humiliated and cloistered by the Roman Pontiff, Stephen. However, power had long since been transferred to the “Mayor of the Palace.” At the time of Childeric III’s deposition, the Mayor was Pepin III along with his brother Carloman. Their father Charles Martel fought back the invading Saracens and drove them back into Spain. Carloman retired to Rome to enter Monastic life, however, he was continually interrupted by pilgrims from Gaul, and so he left to Monte Casino Monastery. The Roman Pontiff, after cloistering Childeric, made Pepin III King of Gaul. He gladly received this office and made war with Duke William of Aquitania, which was eventually concluded by the King’s son, Charlemagne. After ruling for fifteen years, the throne of Gaul was bequeathed to the King’s sons, Charles and Carloman. However, after two years of sickness the latter died. The Great Deeds of Charles the Great: Charlemagne nearly tripled the Kingdom he inherited during his long forty-seven year reign. Einhard is careful to balance the warlike nature of Charles with his propensity for friendship and the great love, care, and affection that he showed toward his children and the people of Gaul. The Aquitanian War: One of Charles’ first decisive victories was over the long disputed area of

Aquitania. Einhard notes that not only did Charles defeat the Duke Hunold and take Aquitania, he also was able to take Gascony, the refuge of the wayward Duke.

The Lombard War: Pope Adrian urged Charles to attack the Lombards, just as Pope Stephen had incited Pepin III to attack the Lombard King Aistulf. The latter quickly and smoothly ended, but Charles’ situation was altogether different. Charles completely reduced the Lombard King Desiderius, and established rule over most of Italy, putting his son Pepin in command there.

The Saxon War: As there was really no boundary between the Franks and the warrior-like Saxons, the two groups continually inflicted such crimes against each other that great enmity evolved into long years of hard war. Eventually the Saxons were subdued and forced to accept Christianity and live harmoniously with the Franks. The war with the Saxons lasted about thirty-two years, and Charles was able yet to balance its precarious nature with various other needs of the state.

The Spanish War: Charlemagne marched through the Pyrenees into Spain and subdued many towns and castles. While departing, the rear guard of his army fell victim to ambuscade by the treacherous Gascons. Charlemagne was unable to avenge the deaths of his friends trapped and forced to fight for dear life, because the ambushers had dispersed. Among those slain were his steward Anselm, Count Palatine, and Count Roland.

Duke Tassilo and the Bavarian Expedition: The wife of Duke Tassilo wanted to avenge her father, King Desiderius, and so incited her husband to ally with the Avars and declare war on Charlemagne. Charlemagne’s expedition against Duke Tassilo was short lived. After Tassilo saw the enormity of Charlemagne’s forces, he yielded all pretensions to the great King. Legates were sent, and the Duke surrendered unconditionally. Although the matter concluded peacefully, the Duke was stripped of his rank.

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The Slavic War: The Slavic people were hostile to some of France’s allies and Charlemagne was forced to invade and subdue them.

The Huns and Avars: These two tribes had long since lived in central Europe and were, for years, raiders and plunderers. Charlemagne’s conquest of these warrior-like people was his second greatest after the Saxons. When these tribes were eventually subdued, Einhard records the amount of plunder received by France to be beyond unprecedented.

The Danish War: King Godfred of the Danes claimed all of Germany as his domain and declared war on France. However, before anything could really happen, the tyrant Godfred was assassinated by his own body guard.

Foreign Relations: Charlemagne had marvelous diplomatic success. He gained the favor of many great kings and nations including the Scots and the Persians who gave him his famous elephant. Public Works: Charlemagne supervised the building of many Churches in his domain. Also, he set up an excellent coastal defense system, which for years thwarted the Northmen and the piratical Moors in the South. Private Life: Charlemagne had many children via wives and concubines. However, he was most attentive in the matter of his children’s education. He forced discipline upon both his sons and daughters. At an early age they were made to study the liberal arts, as well as horseback riding, war, and hunting. The girls were made to learn such necessary skills as cloth-making, distaff, and spindle using. Charlemagne always ate his meals with his family and took them wherever he traveled. Interestingly, he refused to allow his daughters to marry prior to his death “saying that he could not dispense with their society.” Conspiracies Against Charlemagne: Through a concubine, Charlemagne had one son named Pepin (IV) who, through the evil influence of counts and dukes, conspired against his father during the Frankish expedition in Bavaria. However, the conspiracy was discovered, and Pepin was punished and then sent to a monastery. Few other plots were made against Charlemagne, due to his general good will and very likable nature. Personal Life and Habits: Einhard gives much information regarding the personal habits of Charlemagne. He was very handsome, of considerable height, and exceedingly healthy. His favorite meal was the Roast. At dinner time he would either have music played or such works as St. Augustine’s City of God read aloud. He was a great lover of linguistics and earnestly learned to speak fluent French, Latin, and Greek. Nevertheless, he never learned how to write, although he practiced very diligently. He studied liberal arts under the great thinker and teacher Alcuin. He went to Church very often, but rarely sang in public. He was extremely generous toward all Christians and strove to befriend far away Christian Kings so as to help their poor. He loved the Church of St. Peter in Rome the best and dreamed of restoring Christendom to the See of St. Peter. Holy Roman Emperor: After Pope Leo was assaulted by the Romans, Charlemagne arrived in Italy and saved him. He was then named Holy Roman Emperor and defender of the Pope. After Charlemagne had reigned for forty-seven years, he died at the ripe age of seventy-two in the year 814 AD. His son, King Louis of Aquitaine was named successor. In order to prevent squabbling among relatives, and in order to keep peace between Dukes, Counts, and the royal family, Charlemagne drew up a very impressive will, which made stipulations for all of his possessions. Byzantium: The rise of the Holy Roman Empire marks the beginning stages of the decline of the Byzantine Empire. The rift dividing the two halves of the Old Roman Empire was widened when Charlemagne was made Holy Roman Emperor.

The Coronation of Charlemagne: The Byzantium Reader speaks of why this event was so devastating for the unity between East and West: “To the Byzantines such claims appeared ridiculous, directly conflicting with the fundamental Byzantine belief in the inalienable unity of the Roman Empire. Indeed, the actions of the pope and Charlemagne appeared as the insubordination of “barbarians”

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toward the legitimate Roman sovereign, the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople.” The Taming of the Slavs: Although the Slavs received Orthodox Christianity, they did inherit Greek

antiquity. (Generically, the Slavs include the tribes called Moravians, Bulgars, Rus, and the Serbs.) The Bulgars were originally Turkic people assimilated into the Slavic culture and were considered Byzantium’s greatest threat in the 9th and 10th century, before the Rus invasion. The Bulgars received a crushing blow from Emperor Basil II, “Bulgar-Slayer.” Emperor Nicephorus I was killed in an 811 campaign against the Bulgar leader Khan Krum. Although the campaign was originally working splendidly for the Byzantines, the over confidence and haughtiness of Emperor Nicephorus was the ultimate downfall of him and his army. The two Slavic Apostles Cyril and Methodius converted most of the Slavs, Moravians, and the Rus.

The Bulgars: Although they would eventually became Islamic, the Bulgar King Boris decided to adopt Christianity, even in the face of his hostile Boyars (noblemen) who did not cooperate. They however, were all slain after their rebellion failed.

The Rus: Louis the Pious (the successor of Charlemagne) discovered that the Rus were originally from the tribe of the Swedes. The original attack of the Rus piratical ships coming down from the Black Sea was extremely terrifying to the Byzantines. The defeat of the Rus fleet under Prince Igor was largely due to the use of dromones (large galleons that issued explosive “Greek Fire”) by Emperor Romanus in 941 AD. However, after the conversion of the Russian Princess Olga, followed by that of her grandson Prince Vladimir, the Russians became Orthodox Catholics and adopted the Greek tradition (988-989 AD).

Discuss: Consider Charlemagne’s refusal to allow any of his daughters to marry prior to his own death. Was this a fair and just burden for Charlemagne to place this on his daughters? Consider this quotation from Einhard’s Life of Charlemagne: “Strange to say, although they were very handsome women, and he loved them very dearly, he was never willing to marry any of them to a man of their own nation or to a foreigner, but kept them all at home until his death, saying that he could not dispense with their society.”

WEEK 16

KOLBE READER Anonymous: Anglo-Saxon

Chronicle

The Anglo-Saxon Kings, the later Carolingians and the coming of the Northmen; King Alfred the Great

VIKING Pages 407-9 The Normans in Britain

Study Guides Reader Volume II Semester 1, Week Sixteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Compare and contrast Alfred the Great of England with Emperor Charlemagne of the Holy Roman Empire.

Key points The following names are generally interchangeable in this context: Danes, Norsemen (Northmen), pirates, Vikings, Heathen. Introduction: The excerpts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle begin about a century before the ascension of Alfred the Great to the throne of Wessex. In the late eighth century the Vikings from Denmark area first began their raids upon the coasts of Britain. This was a poor time for all of England. Just as France was beginning to

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reunite under the powerful Carolingian Kings, Britain was falling head-first down a pit of destruction and division. The English Kings lost decisive battles to the invading Danes very early on in the invasion process, which allowed the Danish armies to stay in Britain for long periods of time. As the Kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria experienced long successions of weak Kings who were quickly slain by their enemies, the only real hope for England against the invading marauders was the smaller kingdom of Wessex. Alfred the Great would rise to the task and establish The House of Wessex as the defender of Britain, while Northumbria and Mercia both fell into the hands of the Danes. Just as Pepin and his son Charlemagne united France in a time of division and turmoil, so Alfred would unite what remained of the English after the Danish invasion, and establish a force readily able to withstand the warlike barbarians from the North. Alfred the Great: He is the son of Ethelwulf and brother of both Ethelbald and Ethelbert, the latter of whom often fought side by side with Alfred. Ethelwulf’s immediate successors were his sons Ethelbald and Ethelbert; however, they died after relatively short reigns, and Alfred, who had been consecrated King by the Pope and well liked in Rome, soon found himself as sole ruler of the Kingdom of Wessex. Throughout his reign, he battled with the Danish army, which constantly lied and broke its truces. The year 871 was a turning point for the English. Even with the loss of Northumbria and East Anglia to the Danes, there were some major victories for the English. The Alderman of Wessex, Ethelwulf, defeated a Danish army at Englefield. Additionally, Ethered and Alfred teamed up to destroy a large host of Danes under the command of the Kings Bagsac and Healfdon. The former was slain as well as many Danish earls. By 875 Alfred was the sole ruler of Wessex and began taking the offensive by destroying Viking ships (“longboats”) before they could land and wreak havoc. In 878, the Danish army nearly obliterated all of Wessex, except Alfred, who fled to the woods with a small band of men, and began recruiting local militia. From there, Alfred was able to defeat small gangs of Vikings and continued to win naval battles. In 886, Alfred fortified the Thames, making it impossible for Viking ships to travel thus. In 897, Alfred procured a specialized version of the longboat which devastated the Viking navy. In 901 Alfred died after having reigned for thirty years and having established the House of Wessex as the representative of all of Britain not under the dominion of the Vikings. The strife between the House of Wessex and the rest of Britain under Viking control would continue for another century and a half, until William the Conqueror invaded Britain from Normandy and defeated Edward the Confessor at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Vikings in France: In 876 the Viking Rolla penetrated Normandy and reigned there for fifty years. As the Norse army began infiltrating France, and doing great damage, the French emperors continually sent troops to deter them. Louis III defeated a great portion of the Norse army in 881. The Danish army’s march through France was finally stopped by the Bretons who won a crushing victory and drove the Danish remnant into the sea. The Norman Invasion: The control of England once again fell into the hands of foreigners after the defeat of Edward the Confessor to the Norman invader William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings, 1066. William of Malmsebury discusses at length the differences in manner between the Anglo-Saxons and their conquerors the Normans. First he briefly summarizes the past history of England and its many changes and perturbations from the early barbaric Kings to the Christian Kings. The English people were at the time when William wrote of a slovenly, unkempt nation of drunkenness and little religious observance, although he notes there were plenty of good virtuous men left. Of the Normans he gives a far more favorable account. He lauds their dress, manners, and religious fervors; however, he also recognizes a terrible greed: “They weigh treachery by its chance of success, and change their sentiments with money.” Nevertheless, he calls them “the kindest of nations,” and most importantly says, “They revived, by their arrival, the observances of religion, which were everywhere grown lifeless in England.”

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WEEK 17 REVIEW

WEEK 18 ERA OF CHRISTENDOM SEMESTER 1 EXAM

Notes

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SECOND SEMESTER WEEK 1

KOLBE READER Giovanni Villani The Normans in Italy

BYZANTIUM Readings 103, 150,

151a The Eastern Schism

KOLBE READER Encyclopedia Britannica:

Crusades & Robert the Monk

Events anticipating the Crusades, Urban II’s speech at Clermont

VIKING Pages 430-443, 325-

326 The First Crusade, Bohemond the Norman

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Week One Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Based on the readings how would you describe the First Crusade to someone unfamiliar with it? What was it? Why did it happen? Make specific reference to the sources.

Key points Villani: The Vikings, now “Normans”, whom we met in the first semester, have been very busy since they were granted land—“Normandy”—along the French coast. The conquest of England, southern Italy, and Sicily (not to mention their crusading activities in Spain and the Holy Land) gave ample proof of their daring, if not their martial skill. They finally met their match when they decided to invade the Balkans. Though they inflicted much damage, their advance was ultimately halted by the Byzantine army. Nevertheless, when their high spirits were channeled properly, they proved themselves great contributors to the life of the Church, e.g. the First Crusade was brimming with Norman participants such as Bohemond. More examples will follow in week 2. Byzantine readings: The 11th century saw the culmination of a power struggle between the eastern and western churches. In reading 103 the Patriarch Michael Cerularius is depicted as bold and cocksure. Born to a wealthy family, he reached for fame early, conspiring with his future emperor and patron Constantine Monomachus to overthrow the emperor Michael IV (1034-1041). The plot was a failure. Even in exile, though, he was considered such a threat that the emperor had him tonsured and confined to a monastery. He was recalled to Constantinople when Constantine ascended the throne through marriage to Michael’s widow and was made patriarch in 1043. He seemed determined to provoke a new schism when he began to criticize Western liturgical practices (reading 150) and to address the pope as if he were an equal. Traded insults lead to the excommunication of Cerularius in 1054 by a western delegation, and the majority of Eastern Christians have remained separated from their brethren ever since. Encyclopedia Britannica excerpt: The tone of this article, written in 1911, is striking for its sympathy toward the Crusade movement. It does not attempt to portray the Crusades as isolated acts of aggression by the West, but rather puts the event into a context that allows us to view them as defensive. (Equally as important is the fact that the Crusades were also penitential in nature.) Viking Reader: The previous reading contained a reference to increasing difficulties for Christian pilgrims in the 10th century to reach the Holy Land. The first reading in this anthology, Lambert of Hersfeld’s account, elaborates upon this claim. As an aside, when we read of a bishop punching an Arab, we have to realize that the regular clergy were not prohibited from acts of violence during this time. There are quite a few examples from this time of clergymen donning armor and bearing sword and shield in times of need. Pope Gregory VII had proposed leading a crusade himself during the latter half of the 11th century. Bishop Otto of Friesing, uncle to the emperor and historian, led imperial troops into battle on the Second Crusade. By the

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middle of the 12th century, several crusading orders, e.g. The Templars, existed, and could boast of having St. Bernard as their celebrity advocate.

The Seal of the Templars The second reading, a condensed account of the First Crusade, reaches a climax with the fall of Jerusalem to the western army. The accompanying bloodletting, often used to impute the crusading movement, is an example of behavior resulting from combat stress and anxiety. This phenomena is now widely recognized by psychologists and allows us to question the voluntariness of some of the acts described (without minimizing the revulsion we feel toward their mindless violence). When we consider all that the crusaders endured we cannot but pity them a little. Michaud, in his History of the Crusades (New York: A.C. Armstrong and Sons, 1881) wrote:

…we must not forget that the…[Muslims] sustained a long siege with obstinacy; and that the companions of Godfrey, who were in an unknown land, in the midst of hostile nations, carried the city by assault, after braving numberless perils, and suffering all kinds of miseries [fatigue, heat-stroke, famine, disease, ambush]…[p.432]

Nor must we forget that the Christians themselves endured massacre throughout this period: the massacre of the army of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless that preceded the arrival of Bohemond and Duke Godfrey, the massacre at Aleppo in 1148, that in Antioch in 1268, and the slaughter of the remnants of the Christian army after the Battle of Hattin (1187). (In the same book refer to pages 406 and 424, for examples of slaughter at the behest of Saladin, the Muslim leader much admired by later western intellectuals.) Nevertheless, Urban II, the great reformer pope, never authorized any unnecessary shedding of blood, and, to their credit, Duke Godfrey and the others were wise enough to know that by hurrying to pray at the Holy Sepulchre they would induce their vassals to imitate them, thus quelling the bloodlust. Incidentally, when the anonymous writer of the “History of the First Crusade” calls the Turks “iniquitous” for their use of hit-and-run attacks, we should be aware that this tactic was considered dishonorable in Europe. Warfare in the west was once more circumscribed than it is now.

WEEK 2

KOLBE READER Henry Adams:

Mont Sant Michel and Chartres

The Achievements of the French

Notes

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VIKING Pages 447-450, 452-

457, 259-261, 281-283 The Crusader Kingdoms, the Second and Third Crusades, the Italian Communes

KOLBE READER Letter from King Louis, Ibn Jubair, Investiture

Controversy documents

The Second Crusade, The struggles between Pope and Emperor

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Week Two Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Describe relations among Western Christians, Byzantines, and Muslims in the period following the First Crusade. From the readings, how do the cultures view each other? What are the strengths of each culture, and what are the weaknesses?

Key points In the Adams reading, two religious monuments serve as a window into which we may view France in the 10 -12th centuries. We are first introduced to an era of steel and blood—reminiscent of the world we encountered in Gregory of Tours last semester. This one chose St. Michael as patron for one of its finest monuments. The Mont exudes strength and is spare in detail. It evokes the plainspoken Norman rovers who plied the unknown seas and crossed great distances on land. By the time the finishing touches are put on Chartres (dedicated to the Virgin), we have left that era for one that was wealthier and more sophisticated. It was an era of great queens, for many men had gone off to war in the Holy Land and returned somehow less energetic. Chartres is a panorama of colors and hopes. It seems to signify the re-emergence of Europe. Christian civilization was not merely concerned with survival and could now flourish. Viking Reader: The first text, written by Usamah, taken with the Kolbe Reader text, by Ibn Jabair, provide colorful examples of life in the Crusader kingdoms founded after the First Crusade. The interaction of cultures, access to trade routes to Asia, and opportunities these fledgling kingdoms provided for restless young nobles had a profound effect on western Europe. Ibn Jabair refers, for example, to several fabulously wealthy merchants residing in the Holy Land. These no doubt utilized the trade routes linking China and the eastern Mediterranean, shipping perfumes, cloth, and spices back to a Europe that, owing to warming temperatures, was experiencing increased fertility among livestock and bumper crops. Land holders could afford those luxury goods because they were able to sell off their crop and animal surpluses. [cf. Jean Favier, Gold and Spices (New York: Holmes and Meir, 1998] We are also struck by the relative civility between Muslims and Christians. In Usamah’s account we read of Templars rescuing the Muslim Usamah when a zealous Frank tried to make him pray eastward. Ibn Jubair, meanwhile, refers to Muslims who live in “great comfort” on land they owned. The anti-Catholic historian Zoe Oldenbourg in her work The Crusades was forced to admit that the Frankish style of governing offered more freedom and opportunity to peasants and merchants than they had experienced under Byzantine and Muslim rule.[New York: Pantheon Books, 1966, pages478, 488-490] The reading by Ibn Jubair also makes reference to the holy Frankish king Badouin IV. Afflicted by leprosy, he was a second-generation native of the Holy Land who assumed the throne at age thirteen. Though he was not expected to live long, he ruled for 11 years. Even as the disease advanced through his body, he still managed to conduct the business of the kingdom, though he had to be carried around on a litter. In the early years of his reign, however, he was fairly mobile and earned the rare distinction of being one of the few to inflict a defeat on the Muslim general Saladin (at the Battle of Montgisard). The Second Crusade: The second crusade, conceived by St. Bernard as a dual attack on Muslim positions in the Holy Land and the Iberian peninsula, was the first to be led by kings, specifically Louis VII, the western

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Emperor Conrad III, and initially, the eastern Emperor Manuel I. The only notable success was in Portugal, where a group of Frisians, Flemings, and English came to the aid of Henry of Burgundy (future count of Portugal), a noble whose prospects for advancement at home were so limited he had joined the Iberian crusades as a vassal of Alfonso VI, king of Castille and Leon. In the text by Odo of Deuil we read of the growing tension between the two Christian camps, east and west. Religious and linguistic differences already complicated the situation, but the westerners complained of being treated poorly by their Byzantine hosts, while the easterners complained of the unruliness of their guests. At one point the western army contemplated seizing Constantinople, but they were dissuaded by King Louis. In the letter home from Louis, in the Kolbe Reader, we read of further insult—the “treachery” of the emperor--given when Manuel failed to deliver promised troops and ships. The Third Crusade and the Investiture Controversy: In the Viking Reader we have a decree by Frederick Barbarossa that serves as a good introduction to the partially successful Third Crusade. This, taken with the Investiture Controversy documents in the Kolbe Reader, introduce us to several major political currents in Europe in the 11-12th centuries and their effect on the Crusades and crusader kingdoms. The Investiture Controversy centered around liberties taken by the Holy Roman Emperors in the awarding of German dioceses. In short, the emperors were appointing relatives or wealthy benefactors as bishops without ecclesial approval. Let us remember that bishops often had large tracts of land—mostly acquired as benefices from pious laity—and that this was a source of great wealth. Many noble families would vie for these positions for their younger sons (those who were unlikely to inherit the family title and lands). They were not above offering money to increase their chance of obtaining the position. This simonical practice greatly disturbed the popes, who tried to restrain the emperors. However, emperors such as “Barbarossa” [Redbeard] insisted that they were supreme masters of their realm and that included appointing their candidates for bishoprics. This often led to the excommunication of the emperor and the subsequent rebellion of his subjects, followed by an invasion of papal land in Italy to compel obedience from the pope, or the installation of an anti-pope (as Frederick had done in 1160). Complicating matters were the endless wars for control of Italy between the Emperors and the Normans of Sicily. The marriage of princess Constance to the emperor Henry VI (1186) did nothing to bring peace to the situation, for in every city throughout Italy there were deeply entrenched pro- and anti-imperial factions: the Ghibellines and Guelfs. The reading on the Lombard communes suffices for now to introduce us to the fiercely independent city-states of northern Italy. (Among the semi-democratic states of this era were the Italian cities, England, and the Empire itself.) We will read more about this in future weeks. Despite these troubles at home (and this is one reason why the emperors were reluctant to go on crusade) Frederick, Richard the Lion-Hearted of Anjou, Normandy and England, and Philip II of France became the leaders of the Third Crusade. Frederick drowned either while bathing in, or trying to cross, a river in Cilicia, and his troops largely abandoned the effort. This left the Crusader forces greatly reduced in size. It was, nevertheless, a sufficiently menacing force that Saladin agreed to a treaty granting Christians free access to Jerusalem, though it would remain in Muslim hands.

WEEK 3

VIKING

90-92, 120-122, 130-136, 138-149, 170-173,

82-89

Life in the West: knighthood, life in a great house (manor), merchants, Jews

Notes

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KOLBE READER Richard de Bury Scholarly/clerical pursuits

BYZANTIUM Readings 30, 31, 18, 144-145, 239, 222a, 192, 202, 229, 204

Life in the East: Byzantine bureaucracy, the wonders of Constantinople, a fair

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Week Three Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Contrast the social-economic ideals of the 11-13th century, as depicted in these readings, with our own. What aspects of feudal society do you find appealing? Could they be integrated into our own system?

Key points The readings selected for this week allow us to step back from the names, dates and events and simply contemplate the cultures we have been studying. We tend to take many things for granted in our lives of convenience, and it is important at this time to expel any preconceptions we have of life eight hundred years ago. Society in the Era of Christendom tended to be organized according to “estates”, namely those who fought, those who prayed, and those who worked. One was either 1) a noble of one variety or other—one who owned land and governed, but who was required to fight (to equip himself—very expensive—and to levy other fighting men and support them) when his lord or the pope beckoned and to share his wealth; 2) a clerk, a nun, a hermit, or a member of a religious order—one who depended entirely upon God and the laity for support in exchange for prayers, education and the sacraments; or 3) a peasant—one who either owned or occupied land that he farmed and used to raise livestock. In some ways the most free was the latter. He was self-sufficient, could marry whomever he wanted, and was not obliged to fight or administer anything other than his own land (and where applicable the land of his lord). The noble, on the other hand, was not free to marry as he pleased. He was also required, under the feudal system, to provide for the protection of those who tilled his land, as well as for those in religious life. Further, he had the Church looking over his shoulder to ensure he was not overworking his subjects (the average peasant from this era had more days of rest than people today in most instances), treating them unfairly or starting unlawful wars. The members of the religious estate had all sorts of rules they had to comply with as well and the friars especially had to work very hard. Where do merchants fit into all this? The merchant we know today was a fairly new phenomenon in the west when we reach the eleventh century. Peasants living on large estates relied on themselves and their neighbors for services. Things changed when agricultural production increased. This allowed for the division of labor, and the emergence of a strictly artisan class. The few “merchants” were more like traveling consultants—freemen, or those who scuttled their feudal obligations and ran away--who traded expertise, e.g. tinkers. Annual fairs allowed people from the surrounding manors to meet and barter. At some point, certain freemen decided to stockpile goods and sell them during the off-season. They also acquired land that they cleared and on which they built a head semesters/ warehouse. Other freemen were attracted, some looking for work and others—artisans--offering their own goods or services. In this way a new type of village was born—not one centered around the lord, or a monastery—and it eventually became enfranchised, i.e. what is called a “free city”. (This evolution is described in more detail by Henri Pirenne in his works.) By the time bankers arrived on the scene, the Church was already formulating its concerns: it had qualms about a class of people who were not tied to the old cooperative structure of society and for whom the spirit of gain was supreme. The merchant seemed incongruous—somewhat anti-social. The response of the Church was to try to curb speculation, usury (excess interest) and to advocate just prices (prices that obtained for the

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merchant a modest profit*). While the Church was regulating merchants, guilds were formed to regulate the artisans (to ensure the integrity of the profession and the quality of the goods, and to provide for older or disabled members). And the cities grew more bustling… The Crusades also had a dramatic effect on trade, as I mentioned previously. But, apart from the obvious influx of unusual goods, there is another aspect to consider. With the Holy Land once again in European hands, pilgrims began to flock to the East to visit the holy sites. Monarchs such as St. Stephen of Hungary anticipated the needs of these pilgrims by building hostels, fixing roads, and establishing proto-police stations throughout their realms. People such as Richard de Bury also benefited from this invigoration of trade and the founding of new cities, villages, and roadside inns. Travel became less daunting—the countryside was suddenly not so empty, the roads less forsaken. As we read, he acquired many books from other travelers, including the new class of friars (Franciscans, Dominicans, etc)—monks who were active in the secular world, traveling and preaching wherever they went. The cities of the east were marvels by comparison, but the west seemed to have all the vitality. Constantinople had become a city sustained by imports, and that is a dangerous thing. The loss of north Africa, the near east, and parts of the Balkan peninsula meant the loss of important farm land. Still the goods flowed in and out. As long as peace reigned, the situation was not problematic, and there were some Muslim rulers who tried to avoid war—who were content to share the prosperity. *St. Thomas Aquinas summarizes the Church’s view: “It is altogether sinful to have recourse to deceit in order to sell a thing for more than its just price, because this is to deceive one's neighbor so as to injure him…[W]e may speak of buying and selling in two ways. First, as considered in themselves, and from this point of view, buying and selling seem to be established for the common advantage of both parties…Now whatever is established for the common advantage, should not be more of a burden to one party than to another, and consequently all contracts between them should observe equality of thing and thing. Again, the quality of a thing that comes into human use is measured by the price given for it, for which purpose money was invented…Therefore if either the price exceed the quantity of the thing's worth, or, conversely, the thing exceed the price, there is no longer the equality of justice: and consequently, to sell a thing for more than its worth, or to buy it for less than its worth, is in itself unjust and unlawful. Secondly we may speak of buying and selling, considered as accidentally tending to the advantage of one party, and to the disadvantage of the other: for instance, when a man has great need of a certain thing, while an other man will suffer if he be without it. On such a case the just price will depend not only on the thing sold, but on the loss which the sale brings on the seller…[Summa Theologica 2.2.77.1]

WEEK 4

VIKING Pages 458-464, 466-476,

421-423, 426-429, 369-378

William of Rubruck’s journey to the Mongols, The Teutonic Knights (the “Northern Crusades”), Ramon Mutaner and his companions, St. Louis.

Notes

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BYZANTIUM

Readings 199, 271a, 272, 273, 274, 276,

277, 282, 17, 283, 91, 193

The Serbs, Crusaders in Constantinople, the Fourth Crusade, Fall of the Latin Empire

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Week Four Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Discuss the varying attitudes of the Western expeditions you read about this week. Which aspects of them were truly Christian, and which were not?

Key points This week’s readings cover the Western explorations and conquests in the late 13th century. Some of them were honorable, some not, but almost all were made in the name of Christianity. Roger de Flor: The passage by Ramón Muntaner describes the voyage of Roger de Flor (called Frey Roger) to Constantinople. Roger and his group, called the Catalan Company, were sent by King Fadrique I of Sicily in order to make an alliance with Emperor Andronicus II. Roger was received well by the emperor, who wanted the Catalans to assist him in his fight against the Turks. The emperor gave Roger his daughter in marriage and the title of grand duke of the empire. This encouraged the king and a group of Sicilians to journey to Constantinople. There they celebrated Roger’s wedding to the emperor’s daughter. All was going pleasantly until the Genoese, who had formerly possessed power in the empire, became jealous. They picked a fight with the Catalans but got the worst of it. The Catalans wanted to go farther and pillage a city where the Genoese dwelt, but the emperor stopped them, sending them on their appointed mission to fight the Turks. William of Rubruck: Another interesting expedition was made by William of Rubruck, a Franciscan. He went to convert the Mongols, and wrote a letter to King Louis IX describing his experience. He came to the court of Mangu Khan in January, finding it full of Nestorian priests. Nestorians were a group of heretic Christians who were widespread in the East. They were so far from true Christianity that William did not even recognize them as Christians. Mangu was friendly to the missionaries and allowed them to stay for two months, until the cold was over. The missionaries had only moderate success in their task of conversions, baptizing six people, but learned a great deal about the exotic and luscious world of the Mangu’s court. The “Northern Crusades”: The “Northern Crusades” were the Church’s efforts to spread Christianity within Europe. The Teutonic Knights were a group formed to fight in the Crusades in the Holy Land, but under the leadership of Hermann von Salza, they fought in Prussia, the region which now includes Poland, Lithuania, and parts of Russia. The pagan Prussians had been terrorizing the lands of Duke Conrad of Masovia and Kujavia, so he invited the Teutonic Knights to assist him in fighting against them. The passage goes into detail describing the pagan customs of the Prussians, which included nature worship, a propensity for drunkenness, and suicide. St. Louis: The next passage describes King Louis IX, who became St. Louis. We will hear about his participation in the Seventh Crusade at the end of this semester. He is the only king of France to be made a saint, and was known throughout Europe as the paradigm of a Christian prince. This account of his virtues was written by Jean of Joinville, the seneschal (royal officer) of Champagne. He explains that King Louis was greatly affected by the preaching of a Franciscan who told him that no king who ruled justly ever lost his kingdom. Therefore, the king made an effort to gather his nobles around him and settle disputes among them personally. He also placed such an emphasis on justice, rather than on honor for himself or his family, that he would rather have a Scot sit on his throne after him than his son, if his son did not show that he would be able to rule well. He heard at least one Mass a day, and the Divine Office as well. He avoided drunkenness and cursing. He was greatly devoted to his mother, despite the fact that she disapproved of the relationship

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between himself and his wife. After his death, miracles were performed at his grave, and he was speedily canonized. The founding of the Serb nation: This reading serves as a reminder of two important points. 1) just as the Roman Empire, the Papacy and the Franks shaped the central and western Europe we know today, so too the Byzantine Empire influenced the present cultural and political reality of the Balkans, eastern Europe and parts of Asia (cf. Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Georgia, Armenia, Russia, etc.), 2) the continued migration of peoples to Europe during this time, e.g. the Cumans. The fall of the Byzantine empire: The readings from the Byzantine reader cover the relations between the Latins and Byzantines in the 12th and 13th centuries. The first one, from Odo of Deuil, describes how the soldiers in the Second Crusade viewed the Byzantines. Their practices of the faith were so different that they did not even recognize the same baptism. Therefore, the Crusaders did not hesitate to kill them and pillage their cities, feeling that they were not Christians. During the reign of Manuel I in the mid-1100’s, the emperor began to show excessive favoritism toward the Latins living in the empire, hoping either to take over some of their lands or to prevent them from taking over any more of his. He would bestow positions of honor upon Latins rather than people native to the empire. This caused the Byzantines to foster a jealousy toward the Latins which burst forth after the death of Manuel I. They fell upon the Latin semester of the city, destroyed it, and killed everyone they could, including sick and the clergy. Only a couple of decades later, those fighting the Fourth Crusade completed the rift between the Byzantines and the Latins once and for all. Pope Innocent III intended the crusaders to travel to Egypt and take command of Cairo. However, when the crusaders gathered in Venice, the Venetians, who were hit hardest by the massacre of the Latins in Constantinople, convinced them to attack Constantinople instead. The clergy in the army justified this plan by saying that they must fight the heretical Byzantines. Thus, in 1204, the crusaders sacked Constantinople and retained possession of it for fifty-seven years. During this time, the Latins attempted to Westernize Byzantine society. An example of this was a papal initiative to start a branch of the University of Paris in Constantinople. Finally, in 1261, the Byzantines, under the leadership of Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus, managed to recapture Constantinople. The emperor and the people did not enter the city triumphantly, but humbly, chanting Kyrie Eleison and bearing and image of Our Lady. The reason for this, according to Michael VIII’s address to the people, was that their loss of the city was, like the Israelite exile in the Old Testament, a punishment for their sins. In addition to showing repentance for sins, the emperor took other measures to ensure that the Byzantines would not lose Constantinople again. He entered into an alliance with the Latin prince William of Achaia, making him his own son’s godfather. He went to great pains to repair the ruined city and fill it with people. He especially encouraged the Laconians to live there, since they were good soldiers.

WEEK 5

KOLBE READER Matthew Paris, Pages 276-296

The Early 13th Century: The Mongols, The Lombard League

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Week Five Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Notes

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Paper Topic Describe the ways in which Emperor Frederick II harms the Church. Why do you think that Matthew Paris, himself a monk, does not seem to condemn the emperor, but rather gives him the benefit of the doubt in almost every situation?

Key points The Chronicle of Matthew Paris is a narrative of the years 1236 – 1250 written by a French monk who experienced the dramatic events of these years first hand. It describes the Seventh Crusade in the Holy Land, as well as the intrigue going on in Europe between Emperor Frederick II and Popes Gregory IX and Innocent IV. Matthew Paris’s style is vivid and personal, showing the emotions and motivations of his characters. Relations between the emperor and the pope: The Chronicle begins by giving some of the background of the strife between the emperor and the pope. This tension had always been present in the Holy Roman Empire, since it was difficult for the two entities to share power in Europe. It reached a head during the time of Frederick II, because he was a particularly ambitious emperor. We first see him defying Pope Gregory IX’s desire to start a new Crusade in the Holy Land, saying that he would rather turn his military attention to the problem of the Lombard League. This was a band of Northern Italian cities which denied the authority of the empire and was supported by the popes, who also disliked the idea of too much imperial power in Italy. Baited by the emperor’s attempts to put a religious spin on his war (he said that he wanted to root out heretics from Italy), the pope at first promises to aid the emperor, but actually sends money to Milan. Matthew Paris also hints at the possibility that the pope stirs up a disturbance in the German states which forces the emperor to abandon his first offensive in Milan. Undismayed by this interruption, the emperor returns to the war on the Lombard League. He again asks the pope for help, but the pope, who had been in Lombardy for 10 years, turns tail and heads back to Rome, staying out of the whole affair. Undismayed, the emperor marches into Milan with an army. The Milanese boldly come out to meet him and fight a day’s worth of fierce battle. Despite the fact that the emperor’s army comes out on top, the emperor does not wish to fight anymore, and instead lays a siege on the city. At first the Milanese are deeply oppressed by the siege, then they become penitent. The emperor, however, refuses to accept their offer of reconciliation, thus gaining himself the reputation of a tyrant. Next, the emperor turns his attentions back to antagonizing the pope. He takes over part of Sardinia, which had long been an important piece of papal property. The pope responds by excommunicating him [this was actually the third time Gregory IX had excommunicated him: the first time was for not going on the Sixth Crusade, and the second time was for going without Church approval]. The pope tells all the nobles of the empire that they must rise up against the emperor because his authority is no longer valid, but most of the nobles continue to stand by the emperor. In response to the excommunication, Frederick sets up an anti-pope named Brother Elias, a Franciscan, who wreaks havoc in the Church. The emperor once again turns his attentions to the unruly Italians. This time, his offensive is against Bologna. He succeeds in subduing the city and forces the citizens to march against Milan with him. This attack is going well until the pope stirs up another disturbance in a distant place that the emperor must go and attend to. At this point, the Lombards are able to take over another city. Finally, however, the emperor returns to Italy, gets the Milanese and the Bolognese on his side, and subdues many of the cities in the area. This drives the pope to despair and causes many of the cardinals to turn against him. Problems in the Holy Land: All of the issues between the pope, the emperor, and the Lombards are a distraction from the biggest issue confronting Europe: the problems in the Holy Land. As mentioned at the beginning of the Chronicle, the Church had been gathering soldiers to go on a crusade. When the Crusaders gather at the appointed place, however, they find that the pope and the emperor, too busy fighting against each other to support an effort in the Holy Land, both order the Crusaders to delay their journey until the

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following spring. Despite these admonitions, a group of French and English make their way to the Holy Land without papal or imperial approval. At first, the unorganized group merely provides easy fodder for the swords of the Saracens. However, after a defeat at Damascus, the sultan of Damascus actually offers to make a truce with the Christians, asking in return their aid in fighting the sultan of Babylon. The Christians are overjoyed about this, but their hopes are soon dashed when the sultan has a change of heart, due to a lie told by one of the French captives. Not long after this, the French disconsolately go back to their own country. The Tartars: Another important problem in Europe and Asia during this period was the threat of the Tartars. The Tartars are also known as the Mongols, and were a group of fierce barbarians who were attempting to take over Asia and then move on to Europe. The Saracens send messengers to France and England asking for help in overthrowing the Tartars, since, if they succeed in taking over Asia, they will come after the West as well. The French and English refuse to help, but five Christian and pagan kings do manage to root the Tartars out of Hungary. This does not solve the problem in Asia, though, where they continue to torment the Saracens. The French court: Since Matthew Paris is closely associated with the French court, he also discusses matters of specific importance to the French. One of these is the last emperor of Constantinople, Baudoin II (also known as Baldwin II), who is in dire financial straits and requires assistance from France with his war in Greece. The French king provides him with an army and buys many relics from him. Two of these relics are the Crown of Thorns and the Holy Cross, which are received in France with great excitement. WEEK 6

KOLBE READER Matthew Paris

Pages 296-317 Preparations for the 7th Crusade, the conflict between the pope and Frederick II

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Week Six Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Pretend that you are the chronicler of a debate between Pope Innocent IV and Emperor Frederick II. Invent questions for them and give each of them a chance to defend his actions and argue his position.

Key points Relations between the emperor and the pope: The next episode in the power struggle between the emperor and the Church occurs after the death of Pope Gregory IX. Naturally, Emperor Frederick II wishes to influence the election of a new pope so that the new pope will be in league with him. He holds two of the cardinals captive until they promise to elect someone who meets his approval. He then parks an army outside the palace where the cardinals are deliberating in order to intimidate them. They elect Geoffrey (Celestine III), a man favorable to the emperor, but he dies after just sixteen days on the throne. This leaves the Church in a terrible situation. Only six or seven of the twelve cardinals who had elected Celestine were still alive; the deaths of the others, like Celestine’s, having been hastened by the bad conditions imposed upon them by the emperor. Those who are left are unwilling to submit themselves to another painful election process, and hide themselves with their families. Meanwhile, the emperor bullies the prelates, legates, and the citizens of Rome itself, since he is unable to force the cardinals to do his bidding. Finally, he gets them to gather to elect a pope by sending his army to plunder their property. After the papal chair had been

Notes

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vacant a year and nine months, the cardinals elect Innocent IV. Contrary to the emperor’s hopes, the new pope picks up Gregory IX’s vendetta against the emperor. Soon after the election, the emperor must deal with the rebellion of Viterbo, a city which joins with Rome in a battle against the emperor. The two cities manage to cause enough damage to the emperor’s army that he is forced to retreat. After this, public approbation of the emperor begins to wane, and many nobles cease to ally with him. Some of the emperor’s other projects during this time include his involvement with Constantinople and the Greeks. He effects a truce between these two entities, and also allies himself with the Greeks by marrying his daughter to one of their chieftains. This gives the pope another thing to hold against him, since the Greeks were schismatic. In other parts of the world, the emperor’s army manages to push the Tartars back to the East, where the sultan of Babylon encourages them to attack the Christian territory in the Holy Land. In a section missing from this version of the Chronicle, the pope and emperor enact a brief peace, perhaps in response to the emperor’s weakened position after the battle with the Viterbians. However, there is too much distrust between the two for this to be successful, and soon the pope feels so threatened by the emperor that he escapes to Asti and the protection of his relatives. This enrages the emperor, and he once again declares himself an enemy of the pope. Now the pope calls a general council of the Church in Lyons, where he plans to discuss the problem of the emperor, as well as form a plan to aid the Holy Land. The pope begins the council by naming his “five griefs”, comparing them to Christ’s five wounds. These are: 1) The Tartars 2) the schism of the Byzantine Church 3) the violence in the Holy Land 4) the heresies in the Church 5) the insolence of the emperor. After this, the pope proceeds to excommunicate the emperor and announces that anyone who disregards the excommunication will be excommunicated as well. He also asks that the Church gather troops to send to the Holy Land. Upon hearing the news from Lyon, the emperor is furious. He proceeds to crown himself emperor on his own authority. From this point on, he determines that he will now attempt to show no deference whatsoever to the pope, and instead do everything he can to thwart him. His chance to lash out against the pope comes before long. The pope announces that he wishes the landgrave (a title for a German nobleman) of Thuringia to be elected emperor. The landgrave hesitates, not wishing to provoke the emperor, so the Milanese add their exhortations to those of the pope. When the emperor hears this, he attacks Milan out of pure vengeance, killing many citizens. In the next year, however, the emperor wishes to reconcile himself to the pope, probably motivated mainly by fear of his enemies, although Matthew Paris hastens to add that it could have been out of fear of God. The emperor offers to go to the Holy Land and never return, with the condition that his son be placed on his throne. But even with the king of France encouraging the pope to accept this apology, the pope refuses his forgiveness, not trusting that the emperor will keep his word. After this, the pope succeeds in getting the landgrave of Thuringia elected emperor, and encourages him to wage war against Frederick. Wars break out all over Germany between those who support Frederick and those who support the pope’s emperor. Preparations for the Seventh Crusade: Aside from accounts of the strife between the pope and the emperor, Matthew Paris recounts the events leading up to the Seventh Crusade. The first of these is the miraculous recovery of the king of France (Louis IX) through the Holy Cross and the Crown of Thorns. After this miracle, the king makes a vow to God that he will go to fight in the Holy Land. To begin his preparations, he sends assistance to the Christians living there, and then gives an eloquent legate the task of preaching the Crusade in France. The king’s actions come none too soon, as the Khwarezmians, some new Muslim allies, are beginning to

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wreak havoc in the Holy Land. Together with the Babylonians, they take over Damascus, which had formerly been friendly to the Christians. Fortunately, many French nobles pledge themselves to the Crusade. The Church attempts to persuade the English to join in the effort, but as the English king and the French king are at odds, the English king refuses to give his official approval. He does, however, agree not to harass France while King Louis is at war. One of his nobles, William Longuespee, is inspired by the example of the French to join the Crusade, and since he cannot receive aid from his own king, he manages to procure supplies and knights from the pope. Matthew Paris recounts the continued news from the Holy Land and the fluctuations between hope and despair which this news brings to Europe. First, the Christians are heartened by a seeming break of the alliance between the Khwarezmians and the Babylonians due to a dispute over the spoils of war. Before long, however, hope changes to despair when they hear that the Khwarezmians and Babylonians have taken over almost all of the Holy Land, and are holding the city of Acre, where many Christians dwell, under siege. Emperor Frederick, in his bitterness toward the Roman Church, blocks all supplies being sent to aid the Christians. In their despair, many Christians turned away from their faith and joined the Muslim side. The Mendicant Friars: One other important concern to the Church in Europe regards the mendicant friars, the Franciscans and the Dominicans (called the Preachers and the Minorites). They had received papal approval in their efforts to preach in the dioceses, but their involvement in parish affairs is not always well received by the Church hierarchy. Matthew Paris cites the archdeacon of St. Alban’s, who gives an angry condemnation of the mendicant friars’ practice of hearing confessions in the parishes. This, he says, undermines the authority of the parish priests and encourages parishioners to sin openly, without the fear of confessing to someone who knows them. The archdeacon cites a decree by Pope Innocent III on the necessity of confessing at least once a year to one’s own priest, and of asking one’s own priest for permission to confess to a strange priest. The archdeacon says that for his own people, he denies them permission to confess to one of the mendicants. Discuss: In the modern Western world, we have a belief in separation of church and state which did not exist in the Middle Ages. In some ways, this has been to the detriment of our civilization. However, in light of the saga of Frederick II and the popes, how has the separation of church and state improved the situation of both the Church and the state?

WEEK 7

KOLBE READER Matthew Paris

Pages 317-336 The 7th Crusade

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Week Seven Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Describe the character of King Louis IX. Tell his motivations for going to fight in the Holy Land and describe how his virtues shine through his actions. Contrast his personality and actions with those of his brother, Count Robert of Artois.

Key points The king of Norway: The next event in the Chronicle is of great interest to Matthew Paris, since he himself took part in it. The king of Norway, as soon as he ascends the throne, decides to take an army to the Holy Land. When the king of France hears this, he sends Matthew Paris with a letter, asking the king of Norway to accompany him on the Crusade. The king of Norway refuses, fearing that jealousy between the

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two armies would deter their efforts. He does ask that France aid him by providing for his army as they pass along the coast, an order which the king of France has already put into effect. The journey to the Holy Land: Next, the French king begins his journey to the Holy Land. He first visits with the pope in Lyons, where he gains the pope’s blessing, as well as an assurance that he will protect France from the threat of Emperor Frederick. During his continued journey through France, the king is reminded of more reasons France needs watching. He is attacked by heretics in Avignon and in Marseilles, and his men beg him to fight back. However, he remains single-minded in his intention to fight in the Holy Land, and refuses to be distracted. The king’s next obstacle on the way to the Holy Land comes from his own mother and bishop. They believe that it would be unwise for him to leave his country surrounded by the dangers of the emperor, the king of England, and the heretics. They try to tell him that he was ill at the time of taking up the crusader’s cross and not in his right mind. He therefore takes off the cross, gives it to the bishop, then takes it back again, saying that now he has assumed it in his right mind and will go to the Holy Land. At this time, the French court is wintering in Cyprus, and is in want of provisions. Many people come to their aid, including Emperor Frederick. King Louis and his mother once again attempt to persuade the pope to forgive Frederick, but he once again refuses. Capture of Damietta: Now the French king and his army set off to begin their crusade, accompanied by a good number of English noblemen. They go to Egypt, considering it a strategic area from which to attack the Holy Land, and one which is weak because of a dying empire. They are immediately successful in capturing Damietta, a city on the banks of the Nile. The Saracens soon begin to gather around the city. The Christians are able to attack them victoriously at first, but then their numbers grow too large for the Christians to stand against. The sultan offers the besieged Christians terms of peace, but count Robert of Artois prevents the French king from accepting them. So the Christians remain under siege, suffering greatly from want of food. Many of them leave the city and join the Saracens. The Christians gain a measure of hope when the sultan dies, but this hope was misplaced. The former sultan had been disliked by most of his people and was therefore unable to unite them properly, but the new sultan brings everyone together against the Christians. Now, many Christians despair entirely, thinking that God has abandoned them. The fortunes of the Christians begin to improve when they receive a large sum of money, together with provisions, which had been extorted from Church property. This enables King Louis to set forth from Damietta in hopes of capturing Cairo. He leaves a substantial group behind to keep the city safe. Expedition to Cairo: Matthew Paris now turns to the affairs of the Saracens. The sultan must have been feeling threatened by the fact that the Christian army could sally forth throughout Egypt from their base in Cairo; he turns his wrath on the governor who had been in charge of Damietta when it was captured. The governor attempts to explain his difficult situation when he had to give up the city, but the sultan is not appeased and hangs him. When the governor of Cairo, the brother of the governor of Damietta, hears this, he is furious. He had been formerly sympathetic to Christianity, and now he embraces it. He releases all his Christian prisoners and tells them to go to the French king and tell them that he surrenders his city to them and wishes to be baptized. On hearing this news, the Christians are overjoyed, and sally forth triumphantly. The sultan is terrified by their new attitude and offers his terms of peace again, these more generous than the last. The next turn of events Matthew Paris recounts in the form of a letter written to Earl Richard in London. It tells how, when the Christian army is on his way to Cairo, Count Robert of Artois, a brother of the king, who is very arrogant and desirous of honor, breaks off from the main army to fight on his own. He is joined by William Longuespee and others. At first they are able to slay many Saracens, and Count Robert is

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emboldened by his success. The master of the Templars attempts to convince him to return to the main army, but he resists. As they are arguing, a huge group of Saracens comes upon them and surrounds them. Count Robert realizes the cause is hopeless and tries to flee, but drowns in the river. William Longuespee fights bravely to the end but is eventually killed, along with all others of high name in the group. Defeat of the Christians: When the French king hears this news, he grieves, but does not curse God, saying that the army deserved this punishment for their sins. He announces that he will not retreat, as that will give more glory to the Saracens and encourage them to follow and slay the Christians. His men agree to follow him to war, after sending the wounded on boats back to Damietta. The Saracens pursue these boats and kill everyone on them. Hearing this news, the army is even more dispirited, but they make their way to the spot of Count Robert’s battle. As they mourn the dead they find there, the Saracens come upon them. The Christians are able to put up very little resistance, and the king and his closest nobles are captured. Once the Saracens have the king captive, they offer to release him, if he will give up Damietta to them along with ransom money. At first the king refuses, but he eventually realizes that he has no other choice. The Saracens tell the people in Damietta the news, and at first they are hesitant to hand over the city, fearing that the king is not actually alive. They finally are convinced to do it, but first they destroy all the provisions in the city. When the sultan sees what has happened, he decapitates everyone left in the city. After the Saracens hear that the sultan has released the king of France, they are angry with him, especially since none of the army received any of the ransom money. Back in France, the people are in such disbelief upon hearing the terrible news from the crusade that they hang the first messengers bringing it. After a time, they realize the truth and fall into despair. The only way the bishops are able to keep the people from falling into apostasy is by telling them that the slain are martyrs in Heaven. King Louis remains in Acre, too ashamed to return to France, but he sends his two remaining brothers home. Matthew Paris now reaches the end of his chronicle. He tells how the Emperor Frederick dies after having lived the end of his life as a monk in reparation for his sins. He then lists all the amazing events of the past fifty years, including many strange signs in the sky, which he takes to be apocalyptic. Discuss: How did the Seventh Crusade differ from the other Crusades we have studied? What was the motivation behind it? How was it fought? What was its outcome? What do you think accounts for these differences?

WEEK 8

Study Guide Reader Volume III Semester 2, Review Week Questions; Review all your notes, questions and your answers from previous weeks.

REVIEW WEEK 9

ERA OF CHRISTENDOM MIDTERM 2 EXAM

WEEK 10 KOLBE READER Salimbene The latter half of the 13th century.

VIKING Pages 387 – 389 Giotto BYZANTIUM Reading 288 Byzantine Art after the Latin Empire

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Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 2, Week Ten Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic What do we learn about the medieval Church from Salimbene? What influence does the papacy seem to wield? What other influences exercise power in the Church?

Key points Most of this week’s readings come from the Chronicle of Salimbene. He was an Italian Franciscan who lived from 1221-1290. He traveled around Italy and France and related the events he witnessed. His Chronicle covers some of the same issues as Matthew Paris’s, but from the Italian perspective. Great Alleluia: The first thing Salimbene relates in the Chronicle is a religious revival which he calls the “Great Alleluia”. He describes it as a time of peace which is spent praising God. There were many preachers who fueled this revival, including an independent monk, Brother Benedict, and many Franciscans and Dominicans. Salimbene describes these monks in detail and tells some anecdotes about their activities. Salimbene’s Early Life: Next, Salimbene tells about his own background. He was born in Parma to a crusader and a devout lady, who became a Poor Clare nun after the death of her husband. His father was opposed to his entrance into the order of the Franciscans and even got Emperor Frederick II to write a letter asking Brother Elias, Minister-General of the Order, to release him. However, both Brother Elias and Salimbene insisted on Salimbene’s vocation. Despite his devotion to his vocation, Salimbene laments the many abuses he sees in the Order. There is no strict rule followed by all; everyone seems to live the religious life however he wants. Church Issues: Salimbene next discusses various aspects of the life of the Church. He tells about Pope Innocent III, calling him a good pope, despite the fact that he encouraged Otto IV and Frederick II to take over many Church lands. He mentions that Innocent had tried to improve the liturgy, but he still considers it to have problems. Salimbene then tells about the wrongdoings of the people of Reggio, who did not observe Lent as a penitential season. Rather, they spent it reveling and eating what they pleased. They would even dress up like Franciscans so that people would think that the monks were participating in their frivolity. Salimbene also tells how he saw the place in France where it was believed Mary Magdalene’s body lay, and he relates a miracle to prove that it was truly there. Frederick II’s Campaign in Italy: Now Salimbene turns his attention to Frederick II, whom he describes as someone who “if he had been rightly Catholic, and had loved God and His Church, […] would have had few emperors his equals in the world.” Salimbene centers his narrative on Frederick mainly on his campaign against Parma, Salimbene’s hometown. Along with the emperor, other enemies of Parma were the Ghibellines, a group of nobles who sided with the emperor in the imperial-papal struggle. The Guelfs were those who sided with the pope. They had control of Parma, and therefore the emperor and the Ghibellines wanted to take it over. The Guelfs took control of Parma in 1247 when a group of knights entered the city and killed the

emperor’s men who had been there, including the Podestà (the highest authority in Italian cities). The first

Ghibelline who came to get it back was King Enzio of Sardinia. The emperor followed close behind and set up his headsemesters near Parma, calling the town he created “Victoria.” Lord Ugo Boteria also joined the emperor, even though he was a nephew of the pope, and Lord Ezzelino da Romano, who was renowned for his cruelty. There was also a great army from all over Italy. However, they could do little to penetrate the city. Salimbene attributes this to the Parmese’s intense prayers to the Blessed Virgin. The emperor and his army surrounded Parma for 8 months, attempting to cow the city by destroying its countryside and executing prisoners. Finally, all the citizens of Parma, including women and old men, set out and captured the town of Victoria, throwing the emperor out and plundering his treasure.

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During the siege of Parma, Salimbene had left the city and was staying in France. There he visited with the Pope and Giovanni di Piano Carpini, who was one of the first Europeans to enter the court of the Great Khan of the Mongols. While in France, he heard the news about Parma defeating the emperor, and also about some of the Ghibelline lords being captured or killed in other Guelf cities in Italy. Salimbene continues from here to list the cruelties of the Ghibellines; for example, Lord Guido da Sesso hanged his captives without allowing them absolution, and cities like Modena, Reggio, and Cremona would mistreat any Franciscans who entered them. The Shepherds’ Crusade and the Flagellants: Next, Salimbene describes some difficult times for the Church. After the failure of the Seventh Crusade, the French commoners, in a spirit of revenge against the Saracens for capturing their king, banded together to go on their own crusade. They never even started for the Holy Land, but they did create much strife in Europe because they were so belligerent. Later, a religious trend spread through Italy which encouraged people to scourge (flagellate) themselves. Anyone who did not participate in the scourging was considered to be siding with Satan. This practice was condemned by the Church, but Salimbene seemed to have been taken in by it. Conflicts within Italy: Salimbene continues by describing the “accursed parties and divisions in Italy.” One of these was the battle between Charles of Anjou (a brother of King Louis IX) and King Peter of Aragon over Sicily. King Peter’s men killed all the French in Palermo and blinded all the captives they took in a naval battle. However, it is about the French in general that Salimbene rants, saying how proud and cruel they were. Next, Salimbene tells about the battles between Pisa and Genoa. He prefaces this by saying that the defeat of Pisa was predicted by Asdente the prophet, a man whom Dante placed in his Inferno because of the amount of strife he stirred up, but whom Salimbene describes as humble, devout, and possessing remarkable powers. The Pisans and the Genoese fought three naval battles, the third of which was enormously bloody. Even though the Genoese came out on top, they mourned the great loss of life in the battle. After the defeat of Pisa, the Florentines and the Luccans saw their chance to finish off their enemies the Pisans, but Pope Martin IV defended Pisa. Salimbene’s Chronicle ends by telling how the common people of Bologna took over the city for a while, banishing the nobles to their country estates. Salimbene feels that this is an untenable situation. He believes that peasants are not meant to rule, and that they will eventually be crushed by the nobility. Developments in Art: The other two readings from this week show a shift in European art from the icons of the medieval period to the more realistic art of the Renaissance. The groundbreaker for this style was Giotto. His teacher was Cimabue, a famous Tuscan painter. Giotto imitated his style in some ways, but went beyond it by adding more dimension to make his figures more lifelike. His paintings adorn churches all over Italy, including the Basilica of St. Francis in Assisi. Below on the left is a Madonna and child by Giotto, and on the right one by Cimabue. The readings from the Byzantine reader show how the Byzantines distrusted the realistic art of the Latins and continued to paint in icons. Discuss: How does Salimbene’s portrayal of Frederick II differ from Matthew Paris’s? Why do you think this is? How does Salimbene portray the popes?

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WEEK 11 VIKING Pages 216 – 222 The Black Death

BYZANTIUM Readings 18, 161-163,

287, 290,77, 195, 295, 333

The Council of Ferrara-Florence, the Fall of Constantinople

CHRONICLES Pages 55 – 61

Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 2, Week Eleven Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic From all you have read about the Byzantine Empire, what is your general impression of the Byzantine culture and character? What are some good things about it, and what are some bad things?

Key points The Black Death: The Black Death was a plague (probably the Bubonic Plague) which spread across Asia and Europe in the mid-1300s. It killed 75 million people, 25-50 million of which were in Europe. That meant 30-60% of Europe’s population was wiped out. This account of England during the Black Death was written shortly after it happened and shows the effects, particularly the financial ones, of this massive loss of life. The author says that those who caught the disease usually died within three days. Everyone from bishops to peasants was affected by it. Prices on everything except labor dropped. The Church suffered from a lack of priests until widowers began to be ordained in great numbers. Some villages were completely wiped out. It was fortunate for England that the countries surrounding it were also suffering from the plague, because otherwise countries like Scotland would have invaded it. The author of this passage mentions that, along with the pestilence of the plague, much of Europe was hit by earthquakes.

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The End of the Byzantine Empire: By the end of the 14th century, the once mighty and beautiful Byzantine Empire had become weak and poor, although it retained its pride and appearance of grandeur. It was constantly beleaguered by the Turks and did not have the strength to fight them. In 1400, Emperor Manuel II Palaeologus had to travel to England to ask for assistance against the Turks, prompting the passage by Adam Usk in which he remarks how low the empire had sunk. Many of the Byzantine hierarchy believed that the only way to save the empire would be to reunite with the Western Church. This idea prompted the Council of Ferrara-Florence in 1438-39. The bitter argument which took place during this council is illustrated in three of the readings. One of the points of doctrine debated was the idea of filioque, the belief of the Roman Church that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Son, not directly from the Father, as the Byzantines believed. Some of the Byzantine bishops pointed out that the early Church Fathers proclaimed the doctrine of filioque, but other bishops refused to depart from the tradition their Church had long followed. In the end, the differences between the East and the West were too deep-seated to be reconciled (and, of course, have still not been reconciled to this day). The hurt of the Latin occupation of the 13th century still rankled, and many of the Byzantines did not trust that the Latins would actually help them. The bishops returned to Constantinople and pledged their trust in the Blessed Virgin to help them, rather than the Latins. However, the Turks seemed to be unstoppable. Throughout the 14th century, they had been taking over the territory surrounding Constantinople and enslaving the Christian inhabitants. Fearing the Turks, thousands of people fled Constantinople and went to Italy. This meant that there were very few left to defend the city when in 1453 the Turks surrounded it. Only 5,000 Byzantines faced 150,000 Turks. They stood their ground bravely, but the Turks crushed the Byzantine army and sacked the city. The loss of this beautiful city was a tragedy from which the Byzantine culture never recovered. There is a lament as part of this week’s readings which describes all the priceless treasures lost with the city. Another thing we see as an aftermath of the fall of Constantinople is the vying of other cultures to be able to become the “Third Rome.” After the fall of Rome, Byzantium had been considered the “Second Rome.” Now, the Ottoman Empire of the Turks considered itself to be the “Third Rome,” but Russia aspired to that position as well. Russia did make an approach to Constantinople in the 18th and 19th centuries, but to this day, Constantinople (now Istanbul) is a part of Turkey. Discuss: How did pride contribute to the fall of Constantinople? What could the Byzantines have done differently that would perhaps have prevented their downfall? Start of the Hundred Years’ War: The Hundred Years’ War was a conflict between England and France which was fought on and off between 1337 and 1453. The basis of the dispute was whether the House of the Plantagenets or the House of the Valois had the legitimate claim to the throne of France. The Chronicles, which will be our source for the Hundred Years’ War, was written by Jean Froissart, a man who gained a first hand view of the events of the time as the poet and historian for Queen Philippa, wife of King Edward III of England. The dispute over the rule of France began after the death of King Charles IV, the last in the direct line of the Capetian Dynasty. His closest relative was his nephew, son of his sister Isabella, who had been married to King Edward II of England. Now Edward III was king of England, and part of the Plantagenet family. The people of France did not want the king of England to rule over them, so they named Philip of Valois, Charles’ cousin, as king. Edward took the throne at the age of fourteen, so at first, he did not make any claim to the throne of France. Philip took advantage of Edward’s youth, calling him to England to make him beg for territory which the English had held for centuries. Froissart describes this trip, taken in 1329, and the condescension Philip

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showed to the seventeen-year-old king. By 1337, however, Edward had come into his own and realized his legitimate claim to the French throne. He tried to start peaceful negotiations with France, sending a delegation to Valenciennes, but the French refused to show up. After this, the parliament advised the king to challenge France to war. The Bishop of Lincoln delivered this challenge to a still condescending King Philip, but there was no immediate fighting. Once Edward had gathered allies in the Netherlands and Germany, he made a renewed challenge, and the fighting began in earnest. The first French attack came at Southampton, where Sir Hugh Kieret attacked the villagers while they were at Mass. WEEK 12

CHRONICLES Pages62-65, 68-82 The 15th Century, The Hundred Years’ War

Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 42, Week Twelve Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Weigh King Edward III’s decision to wage war against France. Did he have a legitimate reason for it? Was it overall a good idea?

Key points During the next four weeks, you may refer to this map, which shows the major battles and campaigns of the Hundred Years’ War: The Battle of Sluys: In 1340, King Edward III set sail for Flanders with a large fleet of ships. He was met off the coast by the entire French navy, as well as France’s Genoese allies. King Edward jumped at the chance to battle with the French navy, since they had caused injury to England at Southampton and other places. The French, also eager to fight, made the first move. However, the English took the upper hand early on, capturing the big ship Christopher and using it against the French. They also received reinforcements from their Flemish allies from Bruges. The battle was fierce and bloody, and almost the entire French navy was destroyed. This made it necessary for most of the war to be fought in France,

since the French now had no way to invade England.

The Campaign of Crécy: With the encouragement of the Pope, France and England formed a temporary truce

in 1343. It was supposed to be for three years, but after two, King Edward sent forces into Bordeaux. The resulting struggle ended in a French siege of a castle held by the English.

The Campaign of Crécy began merely as a mission to help the besieged English. King Edward set out with

a large army and a fleet of ships, but they were not able to get far before the wind drove them back to the

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coast. At this point, the king’s trusted advisor, Sir Godfrey of Harcourt, took the opportunity to suggest that the army invade Normandy, a land which was wealthy, fertile, and not well fortified. Edward did not hesitate to follow this suggestion. When King Philip saw that the English were landing in Normandy, he sent reinforcements to the town of Caen. He was in the process of gathering allies from all over Europe. During the time it took for his army to grow, the English army ranged across the Norman countryside, plundering and destroying towns as it went. The first town at which the English met any resistance was Caen. The Commander-in-Chief of the French army (whom Froissart calls the Constable) and the Count of Tancarville gathered with the people of the town and made plans to go out and meet the English, feeling confident that they could fight them off. However, when the townspeople, unaccustomed to war, saw the formidable sight of the approaching English army, they turned and fled back to the town. Seeing that there was no hope of reassembling their forces, the Constable and the Count took refuge in the castle. From there, they begged to be taken prisoner so as not to be killed. Meanwhile, the English massacred the people of the town. The only way the townspeople were able to kill any Englishmen was to drop beams and bricks from their windows. Otherwise, the English did as they pleased with them, although the commanders of the army did their best to prevent rapes and other excess cruelty. The English gathered up a great amount of plunder from Caen, then sent it and the prisoners back to England on their ships. The English set off toward Paris, where the people grew afraid of attack. King Philip set off for St. Denis, where his army was gathered, reassuring the Parisians that he would defend them. The French army began to pursue the English away from Paris, toward the Somme river. Philip had ordered all the bridges over the river to be destroyed or strongly fortified, hoping to trap the English. Edward could see what was happening and asked his French prisoners if any of them knew of a place where his army could cross. One of them told him of a ford called La Blanchetaque, which was crossable when the tide was out. The English made for it, but since they had to wait for the tide to go out, a group of twelve thousand Frenchmen had gathered on the other side by the time they were ready to cross. Thanks to the skilled archery and jousting of the English, the army made it across the river and scattered the French on the other side. Philip had halted some way behind the Somme, waiting for his army to catch up with him, since he was confident the English were trapped. When he found out that the English had crossed the river, he rushed to La Blanchetaque, but since the tide had come back in, was unable to pursue them. Meanwhile, the English

continued north and halted near Crécy.

WEEK 13 CHRONICLES Pages 82 -110 The Hundred Years’ War, pt. 2

Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 2, Week Thirteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic What advantages do the English have over the French which allow them to be successful in the events we have studied so far in the Hundred Years’ War?

Key points

The Campaign of Crécy, cont. King Edward was able to spend over a day preparing his troops for battle

while waiting for the French to arrive. He split them into three divisions, one led by himself, one by his son,

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and one by a group of nobles. The orderly ranks sat out in the battleground, resting up for the fight. As the French army drew near, King Philip sent four scouts to see what the English were doing. When the scouts saw how well organized and rested the English were, they suggested that the French spend some time to rest and get organized as well. King Philip thought this was a good idea, but it turned out to be impossible to put into effect. The front of the army was supposed to wait for the rear to catch up, but when those in front saw that those in back were still moving forward, the front continued to advance. The generals were unable to halt this huge army, full of so many important men eager to gain glory in battle. Thus, the French army arrived at the battleground disorganized and weary. King Philip, eager to begin fighting upon seeing the English, ordered the Genoese archers to advance first. They were so tired that they were reluctant to do so and were quickly beaten back by English arrows. Seeing their failure, King Philip ordered his troops to kill the Genoese. Others of the French allies proved to be a disappointment, such as Lord Charles of Bohemia, who turned and left when he saw how badly the battle was going. The French army, which was eight times the size of the English one, was quickly decimated. This was even with King Edward’s division of the army staying out of the battle. Edward insisted that his son’s division do the main portion of fighting, so that his son could gain glory for himself and prepare to be a worthy successor to the throne. Even on the day after the battle, many Frenchmen from the surrounding countryside who had come to investigate the battle scene were killed by the English. The Siege of Calais: The English marched on to Calais, which was a strongly fortified city on the coast. It was the closest part of France to England, so King Edward was determined to take it. Knowing he could not attack the city, he set up an elaborate camp around it, preparing for a prolonged siege. He was prepared to starve the city out, but first allowed the poorest citizens, who had no food stored up, to leave. Back in England, Queen Philippa subdued a Scottish uprising, then decided to come visit her husband. She arrived at the English “village” outside Calais with a grand retinue. In addition to entertaining her, King Edward kept busy preventing supplies from reaching Calais. He also engaged in an attempt to get the Count of Flanders on his side by offering to let him marry his daughter Isabella. The Count was only fifteen years old, but he was determined to follow the lead of his father, who had died in service of the French. He actually became betrothed to Princess Isabella but then escaped to King Philip while out falconing. When the siege of Calais had been going on for almost a year, King Philip gathered an army to relieve the city. When he came close, he saw that the English had strongly guarded all possible approaches to Calais. He sent messengers to ask if the two armies could meet at a spot away from the city to do battle for it. King Edward refused. Some cardinals attempted to negotiate peace between the two kings, but neither one would surrender on any terms. Eventually, King Philip gave up and took his army away. Seeing this, the people of Calais realized they must take matters into their own hands. Starving and exhausted, they could not hold up any longer under the siege. They asked to speak to the English, and the king sent Sir Walter Manny and Lord Basset. Sir Jean de Vienne, the Governor of Calais, said that he was ready to hand over the city, on the condition that the English let the people of Calais go free. Sir Walter warned Sir Jean that King Edward was not inclined to be lenient to the townspeople, for he felt they deserved punishment for making him use up so many of his resources. He said, however, that he would do his best to soften the king’s heart. True to Sir Walter’s warning, King Edward was determined to treat the people of Calais harshly. Sir Walter told him that he and his fellow soldiers would be more likely to defend a city for England if they knew that France was more likely to treat them leniently due to their own lenient treatment by the English. At this, King Edward decided to let all the people go free, except for the six most important citizens. Back in Calais, the people were sad to hear this news. For the good of their townspeople, six wealthy and

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important men volunteered to give themselves up to the English. When they presented themselves to King Edward, he ordered them executed at once. All his nobles begged him not to be harsh, particularly Sir Walter Manny, who said that it would be bad for his reputation to do so. Edward held firm until his pregnant wife threw herself at his feet and asked him to let her do as she pleased with the men. He could not refuse this plea, and the Queen took them, gave them new clothes and a good dinner, and let them go free. Discussion Point: What do you think about the quality of Froissart’s narrative? Although he is on the English side, do you think he gives a reliable account of the war?

WEEK 14 CHRONICLES Pages 120 -145 The Hundred Year’s War, pt. 3

VIKING Pages 491 – 494 Henry the Navigator

Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 2, Week Fourteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic How does the Church become involved in the Hundred Years’ War? How does it compare to Church involvement in wars in the 13th century? How does it compare to Church involvement in wars today?

Key points The Siege of Bretuil: The next phase of the Hundred Years’ War had new players. King Philip VI had died, so his son John II “the Good” took over the throne. Edward III was still alive, but he had passed the main responsibilities for leading the army to his son, Edward the Prince of Wales, called the “Black Prince.” There was also another power fighting for land in France: Charles “the Bad” of Navarre (an area in northern Spain), who claimed much of northern France because his father had been a French nobleman. In 1356, King John had turned his attention from fighting the English and was busy with the Navarrese. He had captured King Charles, and next was attempting to oust the Navarrese from their strongholds in France. One of these was Breteuil, to which the French laid siege. This siege was not like the siege of Calais, in which the attackers sought to starve out the town, but rather one in which the attackers did all they could to fight the town and wear down the people. First, the French spent a great deal of time building a tower on wheels from which they could shoot over the tops of the city walls. They also had to fill in the moat so that the tower could come near to the walls. The Navarrese quickly put an end to this mode of attack by setting fire to the tower. Despite the ingenuity of the Navarrese, the French finally wore them down with fighting and were able to negotiate a surrender in which they let the people of the city go free. The Poitiers Campaign: King John had been ready to end the siege of Breteuil because he was eager to turn his military attention to the Prince of Wales. During the siege, the Prince had twice left his stronghold in Bordeaux with his army, first striking to the south and then to the north. He had terrorized much of the French countryside, burning and pillaging. All the while, he had met no opposition from the French army. As King John began assembling his army, he sent out a group of soldiers to shadow the English. The group skirmished with a detachment of English soldiers and were beaten back to the castle of Romorantin, where they took refuge. The rest of the English army soon surrounded the castle. They offered the men inside a chance to surrender, but the men refused. Next, the English attempted to take the castle by shooting and throwing rocks at it. This went on for over a day, with much loss on the English side, until the English decided to use Greek fire, a weapon which used burning liquid, on the castle. Once the roof of the castle was on fire,

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the French inside quickly surrendered. At this point, the King had gathered his army and was trying to meet up with the English. He managed to get ahead of them, and when he had come close to Poitiers, he halted and set up camp. Soon after, the English arrived. Once again, they had far fewer numbers than the French army, but they set themselves up strategically on the field. They lined their archers up along a narrow, hedge-lined road which the French had to use in order to reach the army.

Before the French had a chance to advance, Cardinal de Périgord arrived. He was sent by the Pope to

make peace between the two armies. He first told King John that he was going to ask Prince Edward to surrender, thinking that he might be willing to do so since his force was so inferior to the French one. The Prince agreed to discuss terms with the King, so the Cardinal got the King to agree to put off the battle for another day. During that whole day, the Cardinal traveled back and forth between the rulers, trying to get them to come to an agreement. However, the King’s conditions for accepting a surrender were so demanding that the Prince could not agree to them. Finally, the Cardinal left, having succeeded in nothing but giving the armies an extra day to prepare for battle. After some fighting between small groups, the King sent his Marshals down the road which the English had lined with archers. Their advance was met by such a fierce onslaught of arrows that they were not able to reach the main body of the English. Seeing that the French were wavering upon the defeat of their Marshals, the English army was filled with confidence and rode out to fight. Many of the French nobles fought bravely, but many also turned tail and fled, including three of the King’s own sons. Nothing could stop the English, who pushed forward until they reached the King’s division. So many French nobles were killed at Poitiers and at Crécy that more of the aristocracy was wiped out by those two battles than by the Black Death. Once the ranks of the English reached King John, he was ready to surrender. However, there was no one knight who could take credit for having captured him, so a great crowd surrounded him, each claiming the prisoner for his own. The King asked to be taken to Prince Edward, but the crowd was too disorderly to do so. Finally, two English Marshals arrived and took the King to the Prince. The Prince treated him and the other prisoners courteously and gave them a good meal. The next day, the English traveled back to Bordeaux with their prisoners and their loot. Henry the Navigator: Henry the Navigator was a prince of Portugal, also known as the Infante Henrique, Duke of Viseu (thus, he is referred to in the reading as the Lord Infant). He was filled with a spirit of expedition, but did not go on any trips himself. Rather, he sponsored the first explorations of the coast of Africa in the mid-1400’s. Before this, no European had traveled further south than the Canary Islands and Cape Bojador in Morocco. The selection from the Viking Reader tells Henry’s motivations for sponsoring the expeditions. First, he had a curiosity about the unexplored lands, and he felt that if he did not make an effort to explore them, no one would. Also, he hoped to trade with people who had not bought European goods before and to bring the Gospel to those who had never heard it. Another reason stemmed from the fact that he was engaged in a war with the Moors in northern Africa. He wanted to see how far their territory stretched and whether he could find other rulers to assist him in the war. Henry sent many ships down the African coast, but they kept turning back, fearful of the unknown. After twelve years, a man named Gil Eannes, after having once failed in his expedition, was inspired by Henry’s earnest exhortations. He eventually made it past Cape Bojador in 1434. After him, other Portugese explorers rounded the Cape of Good Hope and, by 1498, one of them had made it to India. Discussion Point: What about Henry the Navigator’s attitude toward new discoveries made him a valuable historical figure?

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WEEK 15

CHRONICLES Pages 175 – 198,

201 – 210 The Hundred Years’ War, pt. 4, The Great Schism

Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 2, Week Fifteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic Discuss the important role of negotiations during the Hundred Years’ War. Why do you think there is so much more negotiating in this war than in the previous ones we have studied? What could have allowed greater success in the negotiations?

Key points The Sack of Limoges: The next episode in the Hundred Years’ War began in 1369. The Black Prince was still military commander for England, but Charles V was now king of France. The events leading to the sack of

Limoges came after a nine years’ peace which had followed the Treaty of Brétigny. The treaty was signed

soon after King John’s capture at Poitiers. In it, King Edward rescinded his claim to the throne of France and gave up some of the territories he had been holding, but he also received a large portion of southwest France. It was King Charles who restarted the war in 1369, sending troops to attack some English strongholds. One of these was Limoges, which was commanded by the Bishop of Limoges, a close friend of the Black Prince. The French besieged the city, then managed to convince the bishop to give it over to them without resistance. When the Prince heard of this, he was furious. He traveled to Limoges (with some difficulty, because he was in poor health) to punish his trusted friend’s treachery. By this time, the English had developed a new tactic for entering fortified cities. They sent miners to dig under the wall, then started a fire in the mine, causing the wall to collapse. When they had succeeded in knocking down some of Limoges’ wall, the soldiers entered the city and began killing the citizens. At the Prince’s orders, even women and children were killed. A few of the city’s knights put up a hopeless fight and were captured. When the bishop was found, the Prince wanted to have him executed, but his brother, the Duke of Lancaster, asked to have control of the situation. He handed the bishop over to the Pope, and thus his life was spared. However, three thousand of the people of Limoges were not so lucky, and the town itself was burnt and destroyed. Discuss: Even Froissart condemns the English behavior at the sack of Limoges. What do you think led to the Black Prince’s brutal actions here? The Turn of the War toward the French: The era of French failure in battle ended when Sir Bertrand du Guesclin was made Constable of the French army. He was a knight of relatively humble origin who had distinguished himself in various French campaigns which had taken place during the peace of 1360-69. At first he refused the position of constable, thinking that greater nobles would not respect him, but the King insisted. From 1370-72, du Guesclin conducted various successful attacks on the territory England had gained in the Treaty of Brétigny. One of the cities he gained back was Poitiers. The neighboring city of La Rochelle was returned to the French through the wiles of its mayor. He was a loyal Frenchman, and he took the opportunity to take back the city when its main English commander had gone to fight in Poitiers. The man he left in charge was named Philippot, a simple man who did not know how to read. The mayor pretended to have received a

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letter from the King of England saying that he wished to have all the soldiers in the town counted during a parade. When all the English soldiers had left the castle for the parade, a group of armed men from the town came out of hiding and took over the castle. Once the people of La Rochelle had control of the town, a delegation of them went to the King of France and agreed to let him rule their city, after he met a number of conditions. After this, King Edward sent his son, the Duke of Lancaster (John of Gaunt) and the Duke of Brittany to begin a new campaign in Calais. They made their way through the countryside, looking for a fight, but found none. The French had learned their lessons from the defeats at Crécy and Poitiers, and they refused to confront the English in pitched battle. Instead, they kept constantly near the English army with a group of soldiers, keeping the English on edge. There were a few skirmishes to the disadvantage of the English, but the main detriment to their army was due to hunger and cold. They spent the whole winter sleeping on the ground, unable to gather many supplies because of their French escort, and their army was considerably worn down because of this. The End of King Edward III’s Reign: In 1376, the Black Prince became the first Prince of Wales to die before his father, never having ascended the throne of England. After his death, King Edward began peace talks with the French in Bruges. There was an attempt to marry Prince Richard, the Black Prince’s son and heir to the throne, to Princess Marie of France. However, each side made too many demands, and a treaty could not be agreed upon. During the negotiations, the King of France had been keeping a fleet at sea, and soon after the talks were over, it attacked several towns on the coast of England. In the meantime, King Edward died after fifty years on the throne. He was succeeded by the eleven-year-old Richard, who became Richard II. All mourned King Edward’s death, including King Charles of France. The Great Schism: Since 1309, the popes had been living in Avignon instead of Rome. They found this location advantageous because it kept them out of reach of the Holy Roman Emperor and allowed them to be involved in the affairs of France. Finally, in 1376, Pope Gregory XI decided to go to Rome. He knew he was near his death, and he had always longed to rule from the seat of St. Peter. The French nobles did their best to stop him, knowing that if he died in Rome, the Romans would influence the election of a new pope. The Pope was determined to have his way, and indeed, not long after he made it to Rome, he died. The people of Rome immediately began bullying the cardinals to pick someone according to their liking, surrounding the conclave hall in a mob. To appease them, the cardinals elected, or appeared to elect, a popular cardinal. However, he was very old and died soon after his election. The cardinals next chose the Archbishop of Bari, who took the name Urban VI. At first all of the cardinals approved of the new pope, but soon some of them began to grow dissatisfied with his capricious exercise of power. When Urban was away from Rome on his summer vacation, the cardinals gathered to elect a new pope. This one was the Cardinal of Geneva, who took the name of Clement. They established him in the Castel Sant’Angelo and procured an army from Brittany to protect him. The Great Schism was the division in Christendom between those who supported Urban and those who supported Clement. The Romans and the Germans were on Urban’s side, while the French were on Clement’s. For this reason, Clement hoped to take his seat in Avignon. He went to Fondi in order to prepare for the trip to Avignon, while the Romans and the Bretons fought in Rome, throwing the city into chaos. Eventually, Clement made his way to Avignon, thanks to a gift from the Queen of Naples. She gave all her territory to him, which included the region of Provence, in which Avignon was situated.

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WEEK 16

KOLBE READER Valdes, Cellini,

Harvel The 16th century, The Protestant Revolt

Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 2, Week Sixteen Questions. While reading take notes and then answer study guide questions.

Paper Topic According to Valdes’ account of the story of Martin Luther, how did personality clashes and petty concerns allow Luther to gain influence? Discuss how human relations can change the course of history, and explain how disasters such as the Protestant Revolt can be avoided.

Key points The readings for this week describe the drama and divisions of the 16th century. It included the wonders of Renaissance art as well as the discord of the Protestant Revolt. Once the split between the Protestants and the Catholic Church was complete, the union of Europe under one Church was ruined, thus ending the Era of Christendom. Martin Luther: The story of Martin Luther, the instigator of the Protestant Revolt, is told here by Juan de Valdes, a Spanish religious writer. Valdes was outspoken against the corruptions in the Church but did not advocate a split with it. Rather, he hoped to truly reform the Church. Therefore, his discussion of Martin Luther is quite harsh. Valdes begins the story of Luther’s revolt by telling how Pope Julius II planned to rebuild St. Peter’s Basilica (he began this effort in 1505 and it was more or less completed by Pope Sixtus V in 1590). In order to do this, he collected funds from throughout Europe. Indulgences were given to those who contributed towards this work. In Wittenburg, the hometown of Martin Luther, a Dominican had the task of collecting donations. Luther, an Augustinian monk, publicly accused the Dominican of promising indulgences that were too extensive. Things became more complicated when the Duke of Saxony found out that the Archbishop of Mentz would receive a portion of the funds collected in his archdiocese. The Duke seized all the funds collected in his duchy, saying that he would get someone to deliver them to Rome. However, he held onto the money, even when exhorted by the Pope to release it. The Pope then excommunicated the Duke, which gave Luther a chance to claim that this was outside of the Pope’s power to do. The Germans, many of whom had already had an unfavorable opinion of Roman authority, were easily swayed by Luther’s arguments. Some Germans asked for a council of the whole Church, but the Pope opposed it. According to Valdes, he should have approved it, but he cared for his own concerns more than for those of the Church. Instead, an Imperial Parliament formed a hearing for Luther. Because there was a disagreement between the imperial authorities and the cardinal involved in the hearing, no condemnation of Luther was made. The Pope wrote a Bull condemning Luther’s writings, but this only gave Luther a chance to further criticize the Church, saying that it was held under a “Babylonian captivity.” Once again, Emperor Karl V and his court gathered to decide what to do about Luther. The court summoned Luther to come before them. Luther stubbornly refused to retract any of his statements, and said that he would not abide by any of the Councils of the Church. The Emperor ordered that all Luther’s books be

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burned and told Luther to flee to a hiding place. However, since most of Germany, including much of the Emperor’s court, agreed with Luther’s denunciation of the Roman Church, the Emperor’s decrees were mainly disregarded, and Luther’s books continued to be sold. Cellini: Benvenuto Cellini was a great artist of the Italian Renaissance who lived from 1500 – 1571. His autobiography is a fascinating and colorful inside look at life during this period. Cellini is quite boastful about his achievements, and many of the stories are probably embellished to stretch the truth. The segment which we read covers his rise from a young apprentice to a well-known figure in Rome. Cellini arrived in Rome at the age of nineteen (he had been born in Florence, then lived in Siena and Bologna for a time). He apprenticed as a goldsmith in a shop where he worked with a man named Lucagnolo. Along with his work in gold, he would make sketches of the beautiful paintings around Rome. While doing this, he met a lady named Madame Porzia, who became his lifelong patron. Cellini tells in detail the story of how, as he was executing a piece for Madame Porzia, Lucagnolo, who was working on something for Pope Clement VII, challenged him to a competition. Cellini was paid more for his piece, causing Lucagnolo to be very jealous of him. Cellini’s career began to prosper as he created artwork for important bishops. Then he captured the attention of the Pope when a friend convinced him to play cornet for a music festival. The Pope enjoyed his playing, and he became part of the musical group for the Vatican. The Pope saw his work in gold and was impressed with that as well. Cellini received commissions for work in the papal palace and was able to open a shop of his own. Cellini was next able to gain importance in Rome through his involvement in protecting the city from a Ghibelline invasion. Charles III, Duke of Bourbon, was sent with an army by the emperor to attack the Pope. Some of the soldiers were motivated to attack Rome because they were followers of Luther. Pompeo Cardinal Colonna, a personal enemy of the Pope’s, also joined the attack. When they surrounded the city, the Pope and many of the cardinals took refuge in the Castel Sant’Angelo, a fortress which is connected to the Vatican by an underground passage. Cellini made his way to the castle, and because he was known to the Pope, he was let in. Cellini took over the artillery for the men who were too upset at seeing their homes being attacked to shoot properly. He showed himself to be so adept at this that he was given the main responsibility for manning the artillery. Cellini, at least by his own account, did much to harm the enemy. He killed a Spanish colonel, injured the Prince of Orange, and damaged a house where the injured soldiers where being kept. He also shot at the guards by one of the city gates, causing them to change their guard route. He helped the Pope to keep some of his jewels safe by sewing them into garments. However, he also raised the ire of several cardinals, one time when his gun knocked a casks of stones and nearly killed two cardinals, and another time when he disobeyed a cardinal in order to obey the captain of the gunners. While shut up in the castle with many of the leaders of the Church, Cellini was able to see all the discord among them. Amid all his talk of the good he did defending the city, Cellini neglects to mention that the Pope was forced to surrender and that he had to continue struggling with the Emperor for the rest of his life. Harvel: Edmond Harvel was an Englishman living in Venice in the 1530’s. The two letters in the reading were written by Harvel to his friend in England, discussing the important events of the period. During this time, the general strife between the Christians and Muslims was still going on, though it was for the most part overshadowed by the divisions within Christianity. Two Turkish pirates, called the Barbarossa (or “Redbeard”) were terrorizing the Mediterranean from their headsemesters in Algiers. Harvel twice witnessed Emperor Charles V gathering fleets of ships to battle the Barbarossa. These attempts did not defeat the Turks; it was not until the Battle of Lepanto in 1571 that they were finally routed.

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Harvel also speaks of religious matters. He mentions Cardinal Reginald Pole, who was living in Venice after being exiled from England for defying Henry VIII. He also relates the opinions in Venice about Henry VIII’s execution of eighteen Carthusian monks. Harvel says that he had never seen Italians so angry as they were about this matter. WEEK 17

Study Guide Reader Volume IV Semester 2, Review Week Questions; Review all your notes, questions and your answers from previous weeks.

REVIEW WEEK 18

ERA OF CHRISTENDOM SEMESTER 2 EXAM

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Kolbe Academy Home School PAPER TOPIC ANSWER KEY

History Grade 11



For your grading convenience the information that should be given in the paper is simply given in bulleted phrases and sentences. Your student’s essay should not be in such a form, but should be written as an essay employing transitions and a creative personal style. Each essay should be 1 – 2 pages type in a 12 pt regular font, or very neatly handwritten in cursive. Each essay should contain a strong and creative introductory thesis, a body made up of substantial supporting evidence, and final conclusion that knits the whole paper together tightly.

FIRST SEMESTER

WEEK 1 The Emperor Julian in his letter to the pagan priest Arsacius wrote:

Erect many hostels, one in each city, in order that strangers may enjoy my kindness, not only those of our own faith but also of others whosoever is in want of money. I have just been devising a plan by which you will be able to get supplies. For I have ordered that every year throughout all Galatia 30,000 modii of grain and 60,000 pints of wine shall be provided. The fifth part of these I order to be expended on the poor who serve the priests, and the rest must be distributed from me to strangers and beggars. For it is disgraceful when no Jew is a beggar and that the impious Galileans [his pejorative name for Christians] support our poor in addition to their own; everyone is able to see that our coreligionists are in want of aid from us.

What is your opinion of the character of Julian? Do his actions, as reported by Sozomen, agree with his sentiments above? Give specific examples from the text to make a case for Julian as a mild, charitable ruler or a hypocrite. What were his praiseworthy actions? What were his faults? Answers will vary, however, should tend more toward viewing Julian as a hypocrite. Although Julian never made full out persecution of Christians (as was feared), he did put them at great disadvantages by levying heavy taxes upon them and imprisoning those who could not pay. He seems to be, interestingly, envious of Catholic charity, which is perhaps unique. One of Julian’s great faults was his apostasy, as well as his association with unholy Diviners.

WEEK 2 Write an essay concerning the relationship between the Early Middle Ages and Church History. Is the study of one necessarily the study of the other? Week 2 concludes the Sozomen readings, which affirm the essential relationship between the Church and the Early Middle Ages. The student should point out using a variety of examples how all of the Emperors of the Late Roman Empire had to take Christianity very seriously. Even Julian, the last pagan emperor, was obsessed about either outshining Christianity or trying to blot out its effects on his people. Popes played a huge role in state matters and would continue to do so until the end of the Middle Ages. During this time of Civil Wars threatening the inner structure of the Empire, and ever-increasing hostility on the frontiers challenging Roman supremacy, the infant Church and the Ecumenical Councils establishing a coherent philosophical system of Christianity, remained a stabilizing force for the people of Rome.

WEEK 3 Explain in detail how Belloc debunks the biased protestant historians such as Gibbon, whose excerpt in “Europe and the Faith” seems to preach Anglo-Saxon supremacy.

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The majority of Hilarie Belloc’s Europe and the Faith focuses on debunking the historian Gibbon whose Fall and Decline of the Roman Empire posits the idea that nothing good came from the Roman Empire or the Catholic Church and the superior German races wiped out the corrupt Romans. Furthermore, he posits the idea that the Middle Ages were a great waste of time and completely useless as far as learning is concerned. Most of the points from the following outline taken from Europe and the Faith should be elaborated in the student’s essay: “There was no conquest of effete Mediterranean peoples by vigorous barbarians. The vast number of

barbarians who lived as slaves within the Empire, the far smaller number who were pressed or hired into the military service of the Empire, the still smaller number which entered the Empire as marauders, during the weakness of the Central Government towards its end, were not of the sort which this anti-Catholic theory, mistaking its desires for realities, pre-supposed.

The barbarians were not “Germans” (a term difficult to define), they were of very mixed stocks, which, if we go by speech (a bad guide to race) some of them were Germanic, some Slav, some even Mongol, some Berber, some of the old unnamed races: the Picts, for instance, and the dark men of the extreme North and West.

They had no conspicuous respect for women of the sort which should produce the chivalric ideal. They were not free societies, but slave-owning societies. They did not desire, attempt, or even dream the destruction of the Imperial power: that misfortune—

which was gradual and never complete—in so far as it came about at all, came about in spite of the barbarians and not by their conscious effort.

They were not numerous; on the contrary, they were but handfuls of men, even when they appeared as successful pillagers and raiders over the frontiers. When they came in large numbers, they were wiped out.

They did not introduce any new institutions or any new ideas.” WEEK 4

Pretend to be an ambassador from a fictitious country in Early Christendom towards the end of Justinian’s reign. Your king has requested that you make a journey to Byzantium and report on everything that you discover there. Write a report for your King based on the various aspects of Byzantine life described in “Byzantium.” Include all of the following: descriptions of the city, Hagia Sophia, etc. Lay specific stress on the way that Emperor Justinian views the following: taxation, the papacy, and social unrest (refer to the Nika Riot). Remember to introduce your report and conclude it with a sentiment expressing your overall assessment of the Byzantine culture. In this paper the student must write in the voice of an ambassador from a fictitious country assigned to investigate Byzantium, and so there is room for creativity as far as writing style is concerned (grammatical mistakes are, of course, unacceptable). The student should describe in his own words details concerning the overall physical structure of Byzantium laying emphasis on its extremely envious position between numerous trade routes; the social institutions in Rome that is the “coloni” (not slaves but still attached to the land); the military system (including the great general Belisarius) as well as the military ambitions of Justinian and his desire to recreate the Roman Empire; Byzantine currency as established by Anastasius; taxation with emphasis on the great need for high taxes to support bold military expeditions, Emperor Zeno, Anastasius, and most importantly the character of Emperor Justinian especially in regard to his interference in military matters. The student’s overall assessment of Byzantium should probably be moderate, since Justinian’s reign was both prosperous and disastrous in different sectors and from different points of view.

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History Grade 11



WEEK 5 Write an essay concerning the survival of the Britons. What were the many forces against them and what kept these forces eventually harnessed? To what extent did the Christianity and Roman affiliation of the Britons effect their survival against far more militant tribes? The student should mention the main threats to the survival of the Britons including: the Picts, the Scots, Irish marauders, and then the three tribes from Germany: the Jutes, the Angles, and the Saxons. Initially the Britons were saved from extinction at the hands of the Picts and Scots by intercession of the Romans. When the Romans could no longer afford to aid their allies, it was necessary for them to call for assistance from the German tribes in exchange for food, land and wealth. Once the German tribes arrived, they stayed for good and treated the Britons worse than their former foes. The Irish ceased their raiding after they were converted to Christianity by St. Patrick. The Scots stopped after they were defeated by the evil king Ethelfrid of Northumbria. The Picts were converted by St. Ninnian and St. Columba. After St. Augustine of Canterbury came to Kent and converted King Ethelbert, a safe haven for the Britons was finally established in their native home. By in large it was the faith of the Britons that saved them, since some of their greatest threats, particularly the Picts, had been Christianized and largely ceased to plunder and raid.

WEEK 6 Pretend that you are a news journalist in early England reporting on the Synod of Whitby for your hometown. Choose a creative name for your paper and article. Example: “Easter Celebrated on Wrong Day” featured in the Shield of Saxony newspaper. The article is to be written after the synod’s conclusion and you are welcome to interview any of attendants, especially Bishop Finan, who was not happy with the King Oswy’s decision to follow the Roman calendar. The article should contain a fair explanation about both sides of the issue. Because it is a news article keep in mind the following generic formula: thoroughly answer the questions who, where, what (was the issue), when, and how. Make sure to give your reader whatever background information is necessary, while writing with word economy and the occasional stylish embellishment. The student should give a name to both their newspaper and their article. They should write in the present or future tense when appropriate. The essential information that should be included can be read in the course plans (below), however, there is certainly room for creativity; they are allowed to invent quotes, so long as the quotes are consistent with the sentiments of the synod members as related by Bede. They should mention something concerning Bishop Finan’s reluctance to accept King Oswy’s decision. Unfortunately St. Columba celebrated Easter Sunday on the wrong day, and his Scottish monasteries continued to do so as well as produce plenty of prolific missionaries and Bishops who taught those they evangelized the same error. Thus conflict was met when a good many of English priests and Bishops came back from Italy or Gaul and had been given the proper instruction as to when Easter Sunday was celebrated throughout all of Christendom. Thus, King Oswy called The Synod of Whitby in 664 to meet at the Monastery at Streanaeshalch, which was under the direction of the abbess Hilda, to discuss the matter. All of the clergy and royalty from both sides of the issue arrived to discuss the matter. Bishop Colman who had succeeded to the Bishopric after Bishop Finan (who succeeded Aidan) represented and spoke for the Scots and those he evangelized who upheld the incorrect date for Easter. Wilfrid, a priest who had studied in Rome, explained at the Synod his wide experience and also the importance of keeping traditions and customs in alignment with those of the Church in Rome. King Oswy decided in favor of Wilfrid and adopted the Roman calendar as a means of determining when Easter fell.

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History Grade 11



WEEK 7 Why did Venerable Bede consider the episcopacy of Archbishop Theodore and the following years thereafter to be the happiest time in Britain since the arrival of the German Kings? How did Christianity unite the once warlike nations into a peaceful regime that brought about great learning, leisure, and the creation of Churches and monasteries? Bede begins Book 4 of his Ecclesiastical History with what he considers to be one of the happiest times in Britain since the English Kings first came. The See of Canterbury had been succeeded to a holy and pious man, Archbishop Theodore, who would continue in this office until twenty-one years after his taking it up in 669 AD. Also, Theodore named Hadrian, a man of great learning, head abbot of the monastery of St. Peter the apostle. While the people were protected by brave Christian Kings from barbarian forces and saved from heresies by courageous bishops and priests, learning flourished in these times. Hadrian and Theodore brought with them many other knowledgeable monks and priests with them and the study of Latin, Greek, Ecclesiastical and secular letters, as well as astronomy, metrical art, arithmetic, and music was readily available. Indeed, it was not uncommon during this time for Bishops to retire as hermits, and Kings to retire as monks, fully intent on devoting the rest of their life on earth to spiritual perfection and holiness.

WEEK 10 Thoroughly describe the rise and fall of the Byzantine Empire after the reign of Emperor Justinian. What were some of the crucial battles during this vacillation? Compare and contrast the rise and fall of the Byzantine military with that of the Roman army as described by Belloc’s three phases in “Europe and the Faith.” Byzantine Military: Since its earliest history, Byzantium had recruited from surrounding tribes. As loyalty towards the Byzantine Empire waned, Emperor Maurice approved a reorganization of military recruitment and technique. Through this system the Byzantine people were directly responsible for the military’s upkeep, and local militia was a norm. In Maurice’s directive, every young man was required to own a bow, forty arrows, and two javelins. Practice was also required and local militia became a very efficient way of deterring invaders. Later on, during the rule of Leo VI, the cataphract, or heavy calvary units, proved an invaluable component of the Byzantine military, as shown through Byzantine success in the Rus campaign in 971 AD. A series of military victories had been accomplished under Emperor John Tzimisces largely due to the use of the cataphracts. The Decline of the Byzantine Empire: After the heyday of Byzantine conquest and military prowess, as established by their victories over the Rus, the Byzantine army slowly declined. This decline was caused by two particular circumstances:

The battle of Manzikert: In 1071, the Byzantines lost this crucial battle in Armenia to the Seljuk Turks. This loss left Asia Minor and Greece, Byzantine’s most important assets, highly vulnerable. The loss is attributed to the following: The General Romanus Diogenes skirted past many of the brilliant rules of Leo VI’s Tactica; many Turkish mercenaries fled to their foe’s more familiar camp; and, a Greek general was disobedient to commands.

The degeneration and instability of politics in Byzantium led to increasing neglect of the Byzantine war sector.

Belloc divides the fall of the Roman army into three phases: Phase 1: the army consisted mainly of Roman civilians fighting for their nation and their people, very indicative the early republic. During this time the people’s sentiments were closely linked to and shared by those of the military, so that they were nearly one and the same. Phase 2: The second phase spans from the civil wars consistent throughout the third century to the establishment of the Tetrarchy. During this time it was unfashionable to be too closely associated with the

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military, which was composed of slaves or the poor who did not have a much better alternative. Also, the movements of the military generally reflected the sentiments, not of the people, but of ambitious generals and leaders, who directed it toward selfish goals and vanity. This detachment between the people and the military down spiraled to the point where it became necessary to hire mercenaries and barbarians, who might have known little or nothing about the sentiments of the Roman people. Phase 3: As the relational rift between the military and the Roman people widened, the reigns of the great machine, the Roman Legion were taken up by a series of Barbarians and those most disassociated with Rome. The student should point out how the increasing need to utilize foreign soldiers greatly injured both the Romans and the Byzantine Empire; this degeneration took longer in the case of Byzantium because they had a great revitalization of military learning during the reign of Maurice and again during the reign of Leo VI. The local militia established by Maurice is very similar to the army of Rome named phase 1 by Belloc. Phase 2 and phase 3 are closely aligned to Byzantine’s use of foreign arms, especially manifested in the battle of Manzikert where they lost partially because of disloyalty from their Turkish mercenaries.

WEEK 11 The early history of the Merovingian line of Frankish Kings is full of licentious and murderous Kings, although all of them professed the faith of the Catholic Church. Keeping in mind that God brings about good despite the evil wrought by sinful men, explain how the Merovingian dynasty brought Christianity throughout Europe. Were all of the Kings evil men or only sons? Which ones in particular ruled with justice and charity, and which ones seemed to have truly converted from their evil ways? Answers will vary. The student should reference various Merovingian kings who most represent goodness and virtue and those who were the most vicious. The history of the Merovingian dynasty is full of sinful kings and bishops, deception and disloyalty. Nevertheless, God worked much good through the conversion of Clovis. The following must be considered in regard to these rulers:

The Medieval idea of war was far more a question of survival than ever. Lacking easy communication with Rome led to deviance from Catholic doctrine. The Merovingian Kings were still steeped in paganism and knew less about Christian doctrine. King Guntram was obedient to Pope John when he told him to return the Bishops Salunius and

Sagittarius to their bishoprics. King Theodobert reigned with justice and virtue. Clothar gave a heartfelt confession of all his crimes prior to his death. King Clovis’ conversion did as a matter of fact lead to the Baptism of his subjects.

WEEK 12 Compare and contrast the reigns of King Chilperic and King Guntram. Consider their general behavior toward their people and their means of ruling. The student should note the very great contrast that exists between these two kings.

Chilperic is an evil, power hungry tyrant, whom St. Gregory likens to Nero and Herod. In regard to Chilperic’s death, St. Gregory says the following: “And what killed Chilperic, unless it was his own wickedness and your prayers? For he laid many plots for you contrary to justice and they brought death to him.”

Guntram is described by Gregory as “And King Guntram by process of justice restored all that king Chilperic’s followers had wrongfully taken from various sources, and he himself gave much to the churches, and he gave effect to the wills of the dead which had contained bequests to churches and had been broken by Chilperic, and he was generous to many and gave much to the poor.” (Note:

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despite his early period of intemperance, Guntram is recognized as a Saint of the Church.) Nevertheless, the student should also note the various similarities between these two leaders:

They were both misguided by evil wives: 1. Chilperic’s Fredegunda: At Fredegunda’s urging, a heavy tax was levied upon his people and

many fled to other kingdoms. His demand for payment was harsh and when his people refused he murdered many of them. As civil war loomed over Gaul, a devastating plague struck the land killing many children, including Chilperic’s youngest two sons. At the instigation of Fredegunda, Chilperic ended the heavy taxes and became far more generous to his people’s needs.

2. Guntram’s Austrechild: During the plague, Guntram’s worthless and wicked wife Austrechild fell ill and before she died, demanded that Guntram have her physicians killed. Guntram enacted these murders and Gregory writes that many believed that he greatly sinned by killing these men.

They both instigated civil war. They both lived very licentious lives.

WEEK 13 Create a detailed family tree of the Merovingian bloodline from the beginning to the end (the Carolingian Line). Under each name give as many children/spouses as possible. Keep in mind the four kingdoms of Gaul, which were constantly going back and forth between the kings: Neustria, Aquitania, Burgundy, and Austrasia. Try to adorn and stylize the family tree so that it is amendable for presentation. Since the Merovingian family line is extensive, resourcefulness and creativity will accommodate the necessary furnishings. Also, keep in mind that additional research will be necessary. Please inform the student that overall impressiveness of the family tree, the accuracy of the information on the tree, and additional research will all be necessary for success with this assignment. Also, a larger paper than an eight by eleven may be required, but this will depend on the creativity and resourcefulness of the student. The student’s work will of course vary depending upon how much style they want to endow upon their family tree. Obviously, a more impressive presentation will warrant a better grade, since attaining accuracy of information on the tree should not be difficult or laborious. Clovis: ruled from 509 to 511. He inherited his kingdom from a semi-legendary figure “Merovech.”

Soissons Chlothar I, 511–561

Paris Childebert I, 511–558

Chlothar I, 558–561

Orléans Chlodomer, 511–524

Childebert I, 524–558


Reims Theuderic I, 511–534 o Munderic, 533, rival king in

the Auvergne Theudebert I, 534–548

Theudebald, 548–555


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_I

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/511


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childebert_I






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlodomer



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childebert_I






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theuderic_I



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munderic


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theudebert_I



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theudebald






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Chlothar I was sole ruler briefly, after his death his kingdom was split by his sons:

Theuderic III was recognized as king of all the Franks in 679. Clovis IV, 691–695

Childebert III, 695–711

Dagobert III, 711–715

Chilperic II, 715–721 o Chlothar IV, 717–720, rival king in Austrasia

Theuderic IV, 721–737

interregnum 737–743

WEEK 14 Write a journal entry about one day in the life of a peasant or a serf living in Medieval Gaul based on the information from the excerpt from Eileen Power’s Medieval People. Answers will vary. If the student is writing from the point of view of a peasant or serf then they should probably include some of the following: hard and long labor; preparing for royalty; the overall structure of the Manses (farm village); paying taxes; celebrating Sundays or festivals; etc. If they are writing from the point of view of a steward they should include the great stress involved in managing such a large property.

WEEK 15 Write a paper giving a brief overview of the many battles and victories of Charlemagne. Can Charlemagne’s conquests be compared to those of Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great? In what ways does his conquests differ form those of Caesar and Alexander? Of course it is simple enough to show the differences between Charlemagne and the pagan conquerors such as Julius Caesar and Alexander the Great. They conquered lands for national and personal prestige. Charlemagne, on the other hand, fought battles either from necessity (for instance, to defend his borders or if an ally was attacked), in obedience to the Bishop (as when he fought the Lombards and the Romans), or to

Soissons (eventually Neustria) Chilperic I, 561–584

Chlothar II, 584–629

Paris Charibert I, 561–567

Chilperic I, 567–584


Orléans (eventually Burgundy) Guntram, 561–592

o Gundoald, 584–585, rival king in Aquitaine

Childebert II, 592–595

Theuderic II, 595–613

Sigebert II, 613


Reims and Metz (eventually Austrasia)

Sigebert I, 561–575

Childebert II, 575–595

Theudebert II, 595–612

Theuderic II, 612–613

Sigebert II, 613


Neustria and Burgundy Dagobert I, 629–639

Clovis II, 639–658

Chlothar III, 658–673

Theuderic III 673

Childeric II, 673–675

Theuderic III, 675–691

Aquitaine Charibert II, 629–632

Chilperic, 632

Dagobert I, 632–639

Austrasia Dagobert I, 623–634

Sigebert III, 634–656

Childebert the Adopted, 656–661

Chlothar III, 661–662

Childeric II, 662–675

Clovis III, 675–676

Dagobert II, 676–679

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_IV



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childebert_III



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagobert_III



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilperic_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_IV



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theuderic_IV



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interregnum



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilperic_I



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charibert_I



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilperic_I






http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guntram



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gundoald



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childebert_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theuderic_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigebert_II





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigebert_I



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childebert_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theudebert_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theuderic_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigebert_II





http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagobert_I



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_III



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theuderic_III


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childeric_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theuderic_III



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charibert_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilperic_of_Aquitaine








http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigebert_III



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childebert_the_Adopted



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlothar_III



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Childeric_II



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_III



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dagobert_II



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History Grade 11



subdue insurrection (as with the Bavarian expedition). Below are summaries of the various military exploits of Charlemagne.

The Aquitanian War: One of Charles’ first decisive victories was over the long disputed area of Aquitania. Einhard notes that not only does Charles defeat the Duke Hunold and take Aquitania, he also is able to take Gascony, the refuge of the wayward Duke.

The Lombard War: Pope Adrian urged Charles to attack the Lombards, just as Pope Stephen had incited Pepin III to attack the Lombard King Aistulf. The latter quickly and smoothly ended, but Charles’ situation was altogether different. Charles completely reduced the Lombard King Desiderius, and established rule over most of Italy, putting his son Pepin in command there.

The Saxon War: As there was really no boundary between the Franks and the warrior like Saxons, the two groups continually inflicted such crimes against each other that great enmity evolved into long years of hard war. Eventually the Saxons were subdued and forced to accept Christianity and live harmoniously with the Franks. The war with the Saxons lasted about thirty-two years, and Charles was able yet to balance its precarious nature with various other needs of the state.

The Spanish War: Charlemagne marched through the Pyrenees into Spain and subdued many towns and castles. While departing, the rear guard of his army fell victim to ambuscade by the treacherous Gascons. Charlemagne was unable to avenge the deaths of his friends trapped and forced to fight for dear life, because the ambushers had dispersed. Among those slain were his steward Anselm, Count Palatine, and Count Roland.

Duke Tassilo and the Bavarian Expedition: The wife of Duke Tassilo wanted to avenge her father, King Desiderius, and so incited her husband to ally with the Avars and declare war on Charlemagne. Charlemagne’s expedition against Duke Tassilo was short lived. After Tassilo saw the enormity of Charlemagne’s forces he yielded all pretensions to the great King. Legates were sent and the Duke surrendered unconditionally. Although the matter concluded peacefully, the Duke was stripped of his rank.

The Slavic War: The Slavic people were hostile to some of France’s allies and Charlemagne was forced to invade and subdue them.

The Huns and Avars: These two tribes had long since lived in central Europe and were, for years, raiders and plunderers. Charlemagne’s conquest of them was his second greatest after the Saxons. When these tribes were eventually subdued, Einhard records the amount of plunder received by France to be beyond unprecedented.

The Danish War: King Godfred of the Danes claimed all of Germany as his domain and declared war on France. However, before anything could really happen, the tyrant Godfred was assassinated by his own body guard.

WEEK 16 Compare and contrast Alfred the Great of England with Emperor Charlemagne of the Holy Roman Empire. Similarities: They both made enormous improvements in the following social areas: education, home defense and military

Education: Charlemagne was an avid reader, and although he never quite learned how to write, he was fluent in a variety of languages including French, Latin, and Greek; his teacher was the famous thinker Alcuin. Alfred did not quite have the same leisure as Charlemagne, since he was constantly in flight or pursuance of Viking forces, nevertheless he is noted for his extreme love of learning, which he probably discovered while residing in Rome under the tutelage of Popes and scholars.

Home Defense: In this regard, these two leaders are very similar. Charlemagne experienced much

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tension about the enormous borders of France, and made sure to protect them through various means from the pirates of the North as well as the Moorish pirates of the Mediterranean. Alfred, in what sparse time he could afford was able to deter Viking invaders from the Thames by building such obstructions and impediments to make navigation impossible.

Military: Charlemagne’s military prowess nearly unprecedented, nevertheless, Alfred was able to defeat barbarians just as if not more so menacing then those which Charlemagne was up against.

Religion: Charlemagne was a great religious hero. When Pope Adrian called him to defeat the Lombards, he did so without question. Again, he was the only monarch to come to the aid of Pope Leo who was made to suffer great penalties from the Romans, because of his humble origins. Likewise, Alfred seemed to have facilitated constant exchange with Rome. He consistently desired to affirm his actions in light of the thoughts of the Holy See. Both of these men had incredible love for the city of Rome as well as the papal office.

Differences: The overall tone and situation of the reigns of these leaders were quite different. Charlemagne seemed to have enjoyed far more leisure. Therefore, he was able to take many trips as well as build wonderful Churches and estates. Alfred, on the other hand, was in constant danger for his very life. He spent quite some time hiding in forests with small bands of loyal soldiers, and fleeing or pursuing the enemy. He was far more the “underdog” in battles, whereas, Charlemagne always commanded a strong and highly trained regiment.

SECOND SEMESTER WEEK 1

Based on the readings, how would you describe the First Crusade to someone unfamiliar with it? What was it? Why did it happen? Make specific reference to the sources.

Mention the Norman conquest of Sicily, and tell how it was a “crusade before the Crusades” (Encyclopedia Britannica)

Explain how the Schism of 1054 happened, and how it was one of the factors leading up to the First Crusade in two ways: 1. The Byzantines had control of the Holy Places, and they deterred Western attempts to visit them. 2. The Pope hoped that by returning the Holy Places to Byzantium once the Muslims had taken them

over, the Schism would be healed. List the ways that the Muslims provoked the Westerners to go to war, such as the attack on the

German pilgrims Describe how Pope Urban’s speech at Auvergne convinced the Franks to go to war against the

Muslims Tell about the anonymous soldier’s account of the First Crusade, including the valor of the Western army as

well as their misdeeds in massacring the Muslims WEEK 2

Describe relations among Western Christians, Byzantines, and Muslims in the period following the First Crusade. From the readings, how do the cultures view each other? What are the strengths of each culture, and what are the weaknesses?

From the account by Usámah, we see that Muslims consider Christians to be stupid and insensitive, although powerful fighters.

Ibn Jubair has conflicting feeling about the Christians. He sees that they are good rulers and prosperous, but shuns them as infidels nonetheless.

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We mainly see the Christian view of the Muslims from King Louis, who considers them formidable enemies.

The Western Christians, according to the account by Odo of Deuil, view the Eastern ones as untrustworthy and slovenly.

Western Christendom was powerful and beautiful, as shown by Chartres and Mont St. Michel. However, it was torn by the strife of the investiture controversy.

Eastern Christendom had beautiful churches such as the Hagia Sophia. However, it was disorganized, and it continued to defy Western attempts at reconciliation.

The Muslim world was strong in war and pride. However, it was ruled by unjust chiefs who may have driven their people to willingly subject themselves to the Western rule, as suggested by the Ibn Jubair passage.

WEEK 3 Contrast the social-economic ideals of the 11-13th century, as depicted in these readings, with our own. What aspects of feudal society do you find appealing? Could they be integrated into our own system?

The student may restrict his consideration to the Western society described in the Viking Reader and the Kolbe Reader for this week, since this is a feudal society.

In feudal society, religious and secular aspects of life were inextricably linked; for example, the hierarchy described by Russell includes both Church and lay authorities.

Each member of society had a clearly assigned rank, and each role was valued, even that of the dairymaid.

Virtues, manners, and learning were deeply respected. Answers will vary as to what can be integrated into our system. It would be difficult to integrate many

of the aspects, since church and state are now so strictly defined; however, in the earlier days of our country, Christianity was more commonly assumed to be part of what governed society.

WEEK 4 Discuss the varying attitudes of the Western expeditions you read about this week. Which aspects of them were truly Christian, and which were not?

The expedition of Roger de Flor to Constantinople was a noble act of helping to defend the empire against the Turks. The battle with the Genoese was not particularly Christian, but it was not unprovoked.

William of Rubruck’s journey to the Holy Land was a truly Christian mission to convert the Mongols, who had wreaked so much havoc throughout Asia and Europe.

The Teutonic Knights fought a necessary and Christian fight against the pagan Prussians, who were harming Christian lands in Europe. Perhaps it would have been better to try to convert them, but they were so fierce that it might not have been practical.

The Fourth Crusade’s sack of Constantinople was a completely ignoble and un-Christian act. Indeed, the Byzantines were heretical and had massacred many Latins in Constantinople. However, the Crusaders were supposed to be on a mission sanctioned and funded by the Church to fight in the Holy Land. Instead, they deprived a Christian people of their city and ruined the beautiful place during their occupation.

WEEK 5 Describe the ways in which Emperor Frederick II harms the Church. Why do you think that Matthew Paris, himself a monk, does not seem to condemn the emperor, but rather gives him the benefit of the

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doubt in almost every situation? The emperor refuses to join the Church’s effort to fight in the Holy Land, instead choosing to fight the

pope’s allies in Italy. In this situation, Matthew Paris defends him by saying he wanted to fight the heretics.

Matthew Paris describes heresies and blasphemies allegedly committed by the emperor, but adds that these accusations were made by his rivals and that God alone knows whether such things are true.

The emperor seizes Sardinia, a land which was a prized possession of the Church. Matthew Paris relates the emperor’s explanation that originally the land had belonged to the empire.

Matthew Paris describes the emperor’s reaction to his excommunication verdict quite sympathetically, showing how wounded the emperor felt at being denounced by his “father.”

The emperor evicts the monks from Monte Casino. In this case, Matthew Paris does not actually defend the emperor, but he does remark that the pope did not do anything to help them.

Because of the trouble caused by the emperor, the crusade is unable to go on as planned. When a group goes to fight on their own and meets with no success, Matthew Paris shows how sympathetic the emperor was to their cause.

The emperor sets up an anti-pope, Brother Elias, who spreads much evil in the Church. There is no excuse for this, and Matthew Paris does not make one, but neither does he overtly condemn the emperor for it.

One reason that Matthew Paris gives the emperor the benefit of the doubt may be that he has the mind of a historian. He wants to show all sides of the situation. Knowing that the pope committed many wrongs as well, he cannot take the pope’s side against the emperor, even if he is a monk.

WEEK 6 Pretend that you are the chronicler of a debate between Pope Innocent IV and Emperor Frederick II. Invent questions for them and give each of them a chance to defend his actions and argue his position.

Answers will vary, but there are some issues which must be included. The emperor could complain that the pope was immediately biased against him, and the pope could

respond that this was the case because of the difficulties the emperor caused during his election. The emperor could bring up the fact that the pope ran off before they could set up peace terms, and

the pope could give his reasons for not trusting the emperor. The pope could give his reasons for excommunicating the emperor, and the emperor could give his

reasons for defying the excommunication. The emperor could criticize the fact that the pope did not accept his apology, and the pope could tell

why he did not do this. WEEK 7

Describe the character of King Louis IX. Tell his motivations for going to fight in the Holy Land and describe how his virtues shine through his actions. Contrast his personality and actions with those of his brother, Count Robert of Artois.

The king places great importance on the relics of the Passion, spending a great deal of money to procure them and showing them great honor.

He decides to fight in the Holy Land out of thanksgiving for being saved from death by a miracle, not out of desire for power or property.

He is authoritative, but not disrespectful, when people question his decision to go to the Holy Land. He is perhaps a bit naïve in his defense of the emperor, but he stands by him in good faith, knowing it

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would be best for the Church if the emperor could fight in the Holy Land. The king thinks that the terms of peace offered by the sultan seem reasonable, but his brother denies

them, wanting victory at all costs. The king defers to him, perhaps out of brotherly respect. The king is able to withstand the temptation to despair in all situations, trusting in God’s protection

even in the darkest hour. Count Robert’s arrogance and desire for honor lead the army to ruin and cause his own death. While a prisoner, the king holds fast to his dignity but agrees to his captors’ terms when he realizes

they are best for all. Even though his brother caused the ruin of his army, the king still mourns his loss.

WEEK 10 What do we learn about the medieval Church from Salimbene? What influence does the papacy seem to wield? What other influences exercise power in the Church? The medieval Church seemed to be more loosely organized than it is today, and there was much less

uniformity of religious practices. An example of this is Salimbene’s description of the state of the Franciscan order. Members of it dressed and lived their lives how they saw fit.

The popes mainly seem to wield a political influence. An example of this is Pope Martin IV’s protection of Pisa. Salimbene does, however, mention how Innocent III took steps to improve the liturgy.

Much of the actual practice of religion among the people is influenced by individual religious leaders, such as those who led the Great Alleluia and the Flagellants. Popular acclaim would determine which movements were dominant.

WEEK 11 From all you have read about the Byzantine empire, what is your general impression of the Byzantine culture and character? What are some good things about it, and what are some bad things? Answers will vary. The student should look back over the readings from Byzantium and discern some

of the main themes. The artistic culture of the Byzantine Empire was rich and beautiful, including the Hagia Sophia and

much iconic art. In general, the culture of Byzantium was rich and detailed, with a deep connection between church

and state. Unfortunately, the Byzantine Church clung so tightly to its identity that it broke from Rome and was

never able to reconcile with it. It also took so much pride in its appearance of grandeur that it had difficulty humbling itself to ask for

help from others, and was therefore destroyed by the Turks. WEEK 12

Weigh King Edward III’s decision to wage war against France. Did he have a legitimate reason for it? Was it overall a good idea? Edward III did have legitimate claim to the throne of France; he was a closer relative to Charles IV

than Philip VI was. Edward did attempt peaceful negotiations with Philip, but Philip refused to enter into them. Edward did have the necessary allies and resources to wage a successful war. Overall, it seems that the war was just and prudent; however, one wonders if the best way to become

ruler of a country is to attack it. How will you rule well and peacefully if you have pillaged and destroyed the country first?

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History Grade 11



WEEK 13 What advantages do the English have over the French which allow them to be successful in the events we have studied so far in the Hundred Years’ War? In every battle we have read about so far, the French far outnumber the English, but the English win

every time. Perhaps the first advantage the English have is the fact that King Edward’s claim to the French throne

is more legitimate than King Philip’s. The knowledge that they are fighting for a rightful cause may give the English greater resolve in battle.

King Edward himself is a great advantage to the English. He is a more skilled and powerful leader to his army than King Philip is. When he forms a plan, he sticks to it and is able to get his men to do the same.

Because the English are the ones to invade France, the English have the advantage of being on the offensive, whereas the French are on the defensive, trying to guess what the English will do next.

Although the French army is much larger than the English one, it is made up largely of non-French soldiers. Thus, the French army is not so motivated by love of country as the English one is.

WEEK 14 How does the Church become involved in the Hundred Years’ War? How does it compare to Church involvement in wars in the 13th century? How does it compare to Church involvement in wars today? In 1343, cardinals sent by the Pope set a three year truce between the French and English into effect.

During the Campaign of Poitiers, Cardinal de Périgord, on the Pope’s orders, diligently attempted to

prevent the French and English from fighting. He was not able to do so, although he did manage to hold off the battle for one day.

Although some of the Cardinal’s men ended up fighting for the French, this was not the Cardinal’s doing; they had stolen away from the group.

The papal involvement is different from what we saw in the 13th century because the Pope does not take sides in the war, but instead attempts to make peace between the fighting powers.

Papal involvement in wars today generally takes the form of peacemaking as well. Cardinals do not venture onto the battlefield, but the Pope has been known to make statements about conflicts such as the American war in Iraq.

WEEK 15 Discuss the important role negotiations play during the Hundred Years’ War. Why do you think there is so much more negotiating in this war than in the previous ones we have studied? What could have allowed the negotiations to be more successful?

Before the Campaign of Crécy, the Church helped negotiate a temporary truce between the two

countries. Some intense negotiations keep King Edward from killing all the citizens of Calais at the end of the

siege.

The battle of Poitiers was postponed for a day because Cardinal de Périgord conducted unsuccessful

negotiations between the French King and the English Prince.

The negotiations resulting in the Treaty of Brétigny led to a nine years’ peace between the countries.

There was an attempt at peace negotiations after the death of the Black Prince. There was so much negotiating in this war because it was between parties who had respect for each

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History Grade 11



other and for the authority of the Church. Many of the negotiations would have been more successful if the rulers had been less stubborn and

demanding. WEEK 16

According to Valdes’ account of the story of Martin Luther, how did personality clashes and petty concerns allow Luther to gain influence? Discuss how human relations can change the course of history, and explain how disasters such as the Protestant Revolt can be avoided. Luther’s Augustinian envy of the Dominican was part of what prompted him to condemn the

Dominicans’ promises of indulgences. The Duke of Saxony’s dislike for the Archbishop of Mentz caused him to seize the money collected in

his duchy. The Pope did not call a council of the whole Church because he cared more for his own concerns than

for those of the Church as a whole. A clash between Cardinal Cajetan and the Imperial Parliament prevented Luther’s condemnation. The desires of the Imperial Court for freedom from the authority of Rome caused them to disregard the

Emperor’s wishes to condemn Luther. Valdes says “Alas! That human relations are so prone to ill.” He believes that, if those in authority had

been more interested in the good of the Church than in their own personal good, Luther would not have gained the influence he had.

AMDG

Kolbe Academy Home School MIDTERM 1 EXAM History

Grade 11



Name ___________________________________________________________ Date__________________

Part One. Short Answers. Answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Who was the King of Kent, converted by St. Augustine? 2. Who was the Briton King who called for help from Saxon Germany? 3. Which emperor established set ratios between monetary units in Byzantine that lasted for half a

century? 4. What oppressive tax in Byzantine was directed specifically toward “handicrafts and

professions?” 5. What is the name of the codex of laws established by Justinian? 6. Who was assigned to compile these books of law? 7. Initially, who were the two major supporters of Arius’ heresy? 8. What divine gift does Sozomen claim Athanasius to have? 9. What teacher in Nicomedia taught Julian to hate Christianity? 10. Who succeeded Pope Liberius? 11. Of what is St. Sabbas the Goth patron saint? 12. Who was Valens’ chief bishop and instructor? 13. Who is the famous general who served under Justinian? 14. For Justinian, “law is the regulator of ______?” 15. Which Pope decided to send Patrick to Ireland? 16. Of what did Leo have a “lofty conception” and “thorough conviction”? 17. What is the Anglo-Saxon word meaning “town magistrate”? 18. Which Irish saint converted King Oswald of Northumbria? 19. In what year did King Penda die? 20. Who was still bishop of Frisland when Bede wrote his Ecclesiastical history?

Part Two. Short Essays (2-3 sentences). Please answer on a separate sheet of paper. Omit TWO.

21. After Christianity was established in England, what were the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, and 6th questions asked by Augustine to Gregory the Great and what was his reply?

22. List the four types of prayer according to St. Benedict. 23. What did Oswey promise God if he were victorious over King Penda? 24. List and describe the three characteristics of “Early Christendom.” How did Rome and the

Mediterranean change in function during the latter part of Early Christendom? 25. In what century does Belloc say that Europe “awoke?” What three great forces incited this

awakening? 26. How did Gregory view the relationship between Church and State? How did Gregory understand the

role of the emperor? How did Gregory view ecclesiastical involvement in highly secular matters? 27. Explain how Zeno rose to and fell from power. 28. What prayers were granted to St. Patrick?

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29. What was the professed object of the council held in Antioch by Eusebius of Nicomedia and 97 other bishops? What was the real reason?

30. Explain thoroughly how Bede analyzes Gregory’s sorrow and regret for not being able to live out the monastic life.

31. Summarize the life of St. Wilfrid as presented by Bede. 32. Explain how the pagan sons of Sabert drove out the missionary Bishop from East Saxony.

Part Three. Essay. Answer as FULLY and COMPLETELY as possible. (30 Points)

Explain how Christianity preserved antiquity, knowledge, and learning. Also explain using Belloc, how Christianity saved the culture of Europe.

AMDG

Kolbe Academy Home School SEMESTER 1 EXAM History

Grade 11



Name __________________________________________________________Date__________________ Part One. Short Answers. Please answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. The writing of the handbook on military technique entitled Tactica was supervised by which Byzantine Emperor?

2. Who is the patron saint of Paris? 3. What particular sect of Christians welcomed the Islamic invaders? 4. Which bishop baptized Clovis and the rest of the Franks? 5. Which two evil bishops were known to engage in worldly affairs including battles? 6. With which Byzantine generals did Buccelanus fight while campaigning in Italy? 7. Where did Desiderius raid the wedding train of Queen Riguntha? 8. Which illegitimate son of Chlothar claimed a right to the throne and began an insurrection? 9. What word did Chilperic believe to be inappropriate when referring to God? 10. To whom did Virus send Tetradia while making wedding preparations? 11. Which two legates from Gaul were killed while in Carthage? 12. What is the name of the treaty established between Childebert II, Guntram, and Queen

Brunhilda? 13. Which King brought an end to the Arian heresy in Spain? 14. What city was the location for the apostolic see of St. Boniface? 15. What is the other name for Medieval “estates”? 16. What was the official rank/office of Pepin III before his kingship? 17. Which Pope urged Charlemagne to fight the Lombards? 18. Which of Charlemagne’s wars was considered the most difficult? 19. What is the name for the Viking war flag? 20. In what year did Alfred the Great die?

Part Two. Short Essays (2-3 sentences). Please answer on a separate sheet of paper. Omit TWO. 21. Describe in full detail, the greatest military loss of the Byzantine Empire. Where and when did it take place, who was involved and why did the Byzantine army lose? 22. What is the name of the heavy cavalry unit of the Byzantine army? Describe the formation of these units in conjunction with archers. 23. Summarize the conversion story of Clovis. 24. Give a detailed summary of the flight of Merovech from his father Chilperic. 25. Who does Guntram blame for the death of his brother Chilperic? How does St. Gregory respond to this accusation?

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26. Describe the death of Chilperic. 27. What was the purpose of the Synod of Kalends?

28. Explain what happened that caused the “Photian Schism.” 29. Explain why the coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor created such a rift between the Eastern and Western Churches. 30. Explain how Emperor Romanus was able to defeat Prince Igor’s nautical invasion. 31. Explain what generally happened to the Kingdom of England after the death of Alfred the Great? 32. How does William of Malmesbury describe the Normans living in England? What does he say about the Anglo-Saxons? Part Three. Essay. Considering Charlemagne’s desire to restore the center of the Holy Roman Empire to the See of St. Peter, as well as his love of St. Augustine’s City of God, to what extent was Charlemagne’s reign the heyday of Christendom? In what ways did early Medieval Europe not meet the prerequisites of Christendom? How does Charlemagne’s love of learning, the arts (especially architecture), and the liberal arts become a model for Christendom? Use this definition of Christendom from the Catholic Encyclopedia (www.newadvent.org): “In its wider sense this term is used to describe the part of the world which is inhabited by Christians… But there is a narrower sense in which Christendom stands for a polity as well as a religion, for a nation as well as for a people. Christendom in this sense was an ideal which inspired and dignified many centuries of history and which has not yet altogether lost its power over the minds of men.”

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Grade 11



Name __________________________________________________________Date__________________ Part One. Short Answer. Please answer on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Who rescued Pope Gregory VII from Castel Sant Angelo?

2. In what year did the schism between Latin and Byzantine churches occur?

3. What conquest may be called a “crusade before the Crusades”?

4. Who were the “highest influence[s] of the time” who came to live at Mont St. Michel in 966?

5. The dominance of what kind of ruler is expressed by the façade of Chartres?

6. Which city in Italy exercised supremacy in the Lombard League?

7. Who serves as a personal attendant to a lord?

8. What is the name of the passage describing the proper care of books?

9. To which order do the priests in Mangu Chan’s court at the time of William of Rubruck’s visit

belong?

10. Against which pagan people did the Teutonic Knights do battle?

11. Which emperor restored Constantinople to the Byzantines?

12. What kind of mercenaries did Emperor Frederick II employ in his armies?

13. The taking of which land inspired Gregory IX’s excommunication of Frederick II?

14. What was the name of the anti-pope set up by Frederick II?

15. How long did Pope Celestine III sit on the throne?

16. Whom does Pope Innocent IV set up as emperor?

17. To whom does Matthew Paris bring a message from King Louis IX?

18. What is the name of the most noted English noble involved in the Seventh Crusade?

19. Which city do the Crusaders in the Seventh Crusade first take over?

20. Which order does Emperor Frederick II join before his death?

Part Two. Short Essays (2-3 sentences). OMIT TWO. Please answer on a separate sheet of paper.

21. How did the Great Schism between the Eastern and Western churches happen?

22. What aspects of the Middle Ages do the architecture of Mont St. Michel and Chartres display?

23. What image of Muslim life under Frankish rule does Ibn Jabair give?

24. What was the investiture controversy?

25. Describe the education and lifestyle of a merchant.

26. What was the background of the sack of Constantinople in 1204?

27. How did Emperor Frederick II attempt to subdue the Lombard League?

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Grade 11



28. What did Frederick II do to attempt to influence two papal elections?

29. What events led up to the Council of Lyons?

30. What were the circumstances of the miracle leading to King Louis IX’s vow to make a crusade?

31. Why do King Louis IX’s mother and bishop oppose his going on a crusade, and how does he

handle their opposition?

32. How does Count Robert of Artois cause the defeat of the Crusaders?

Part Three. Essay. Answer as FULLY and COMPLETELY as possible. Discuss the moral issues of the Crusades. How would you defend them to someone who says it is never acceptable to go to war in the name of God? Be sure to make concessions for some of the immoral aspects of the Crusades, but explain the noble aspects and good outcomes of some of them.

AMDG


Grade 11



Name __________________________________________________________Date__________________ Part One. Short Answers.

1. What did the Emperor Frederick name the city he built outside of Parma? 2. What was the name of the group which advocated self-scourging? 3. Who was Giotto’s teacher? 4. Where did the Black Death originate? 5. In what year was the sack of Constantinople? 6. Which ruler defeated Constantinople? 7. Which group of Italians aided the French in the Battle of Sluys? 8. Which fertile, undefended region did the English first attack?

9. During the battle of Crécy, which English division remained in reserve?

10. Which noble ran off while falconing to escape marriage with Princess Isabella? 11. Who finally convinced King Edward not to kill the six noblemen of Calais? 12. Which people did the French besiege in Breteuil? 13. What was the name of the cardinal who led negotiations before the battle of Poitiers? 14. What was the name of the explorer who first rounded Cape Bojador? 15. Which city was freed from the English by the wiles of its mayor? 16. In what year did King Edward III die? 17. Which pope did France support during the Great Schism? 18. To which order did Martin Luther belong? 19. What was the name of Cellini’s rival goldsmith? 20. What was the nickname (in Italian) of the two pirates who ruled the Mediterranean?


21. What obstacles to the religious life did Salimbene face, and how did he overcome them?

22. Who were the Guelfs and the Ghibellines?

23. What were some of the social and economic effects of the Black Death?

24. What happened at the Council of Ferrara-Florence?

25. How did Philip VI gain the French throne, and why did Edward III make claim to it?

26. Tell the story of the English army’s escape across the Somme.

27. Why did the French have a poor start to the battle of Crécy?

28. What were Henry the Navigator’s reasons for exploring the coast of Africa?

29. Which tactic of the French turned the tide of the war in their favor?

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Grade 11



30. Describe Froissart’s account of the Cardinal of St. Peter’s papacy.

31. Why was the Church on a campaign to collect donations in Luther’s time, and why did Luther

protest the campaign?

32. How was Cellini involved in the Sack of Rome?

Part Three. Essay.

Discuss the divisions within Christendom which began after the Crusades. How did these wear down

the unity of Europe, culminating in the Protestant Revolt of the 16th century?

AMDG

Kolbe Academy Home School MIDTERM 1 ANSWER KEY History

Grade 11



Part One. Short Answers.1. King Ethelbert 2. King Vertigern 3. Anastasius 4. The Chrysargyron Tax 5. “Corpus juris civilis” 6. Tribonian 7. Eusebius of Nicomedia and Theognis 8. The gift of foresight 9. Maximus, an Ephesian philosopher 10. Damasus

11. Lectors and torture victims 12. The Arian Eudoxius 13. Belisarius 14. Society 15. Pope St. Celestine 16. The papacy 17. Reeve 18. Bishop Aidan 19. 655 20. Wilbrord (Clement)


21. After Christianity was established in England, what were the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, and 6th questions asked by Augustine to Gregory the Great and what was his reply? 2nd Question: Is it okay to practice different customs in the mass depending on where the mass is being held. Answer: Yes, insofar as the customs are “pious, religious, and right” however Gregory reminds Augustine that “things are not to be loved for the sake of places, but places for the sake of good things” 3rd Question: “What punishment must be inflicted on anyone who steals from a Church?” Answer: Judge each case separately depending on the thief’s motivation. Those who steal through want should be punished mildly. Gregory reminds Augustine that all punishments should be enacted with charity and for the ultimate benefit of the culprit. 5th Question: “To what degree may the faithful marry with their kindred?” Is it lawful to marry with a stepmother or a brother’s wife? Answer: Gregory notes that common law in Rome allows marriage between cousins, but he prohibits Christians from marring cousins unless they are third or fourth cousins. Gregory says that marriage with one’s stepmother is a “heinous crime” and marriage with a sister-in-law is illicit because her former union would make them siblings. Gregory mentions that preaching against the latter atrocity caused John the Baptist’s holy martyrdom. 6th Question: “Whether a bishop may be consecrated without other bishops being present, if there be so great a distance between them, that they cannot easily come together?” Answer: St. Gregory answers that Augustine should ordain a Bishop regardless if others cannot possibly come. However, his newly ordained bishops should come to the ordination of those who would come after them.

22. List the four types of prayer according to St. Benedict. “(a) Benedict assigns the Psalms and Canticles, with readings from the Scriptures and Fathers… (b) The form of prayer which thus covers the whole of our waking hours, St. Benedict calls the first degree of humility. It consists in realizing the presence of God (c) Secondly, there is public prayer. This is short and is to be said at intervals, at night and at seven distinct hours during the day… he established it as the centre of the common life to which he bound his monks… (d) Lastly, there is private… "Our prayer ought to be short and with purity of heart, except it be perchance prolonged by the inspiration of divine grace”

23. What did Oswey promise God if he were victorious over King Penda? Give land to the Church to build twelve monasteries and make his daughter become a nun

24. List and describe the three characteristics of “Early Christendom.” How did Rome and the Mediterranean change in function during the latter part of Early Christendom.? Belloc characterizes the Early Middle

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Grade 11



Ages by its warlike nature (the great threats to Christianity from every frontier), the development of the Feudal system, and, “The third characteristic of [this era] was the curious fixity of morals, of traditions, of the forms of religion, and of all that makes up social life.” “the Mediterranean was no longer a vehicle of Western civilization, but the frontier of it. Rome itself might now be regarded as a frontier town…Gaul was to preserve all that could be preserved of the material side of Europe, and also of the European spirit. And therefore the New World, when it arose, with its Gothic Architecture, its Parliaments, its Universities, and, in general, its spring of the Middle Ages, was to be a Gallic thing…”

25. In what century does Belloc say that Europe “awoke?” What three great forces incited this awakening? Europe awoke in The Eleventh Century (1000s) through the intercession of “Three great forces—the personality of St. Gregory VII, the appearance (by a happy accident of slight cross breeding: a touch of Scandinavian blood added to the French race) of the Norman race, finally the Crusades—drew out of the darkness the enormous vigor of the early Middle Ages.”

26. How did Gregory view the relationship between Church and State? How did Gregory understand the role of the emperor? How did Gregory view ecclesiastical involvement in highly secular matters? “Gregory seems to have looked upon Church and State as co-operating to form a united whole, which acted in two distinct spheres, ecclesiastical and secular. Over this commonwealth were the pope and the emperor, each supreme in his own department, care being taken to keep these as far as possible distinct and independent….the emperor, whom he regarded as the representative of God in all things secular, and must still be treated with all possible respect… Gregory objected strongly to the interference of ecclesiastical authorities in matters secular.”

27. Explain how Zeno rose to and fell from power. Emperor Zeno became sole ruler in 476 when “the German (Herul) leader Odovacar deposed the Western emperor, the young Romulus Augustulus.” Zeno thanked this general by making him magister militum, a highly esteemed rank. However, Odovacar desired more power and it was necessary for Zeno to oust him through the army of Theodoric the Ostrogoth. Thus, the Ostrogoth Kingdom of Italy was established in 493.

28. What prayers were granted to St. Patrick? Many souls would be free from the pains of purgatory through his intercession; whoever in the spirit of penance would recite his hymn before death would attain the heavenly reward; barbarian hordes would never obtain sway in his Church; seven years before the Judgment Day, the sea would spread over Ireland to save its people from the temptations and terrors of the Antichrist; and greatest blessing of all, Patrick himself should be deputed to judge the whole Irish race on the last day.

29. What was the professed object of the council held in Antioch by Eusebius of Nicomedia and 97 other bishops? What was the real reason? The artificial reason was to consecrate the new Church. However, the real reason was to renounce the Council of Nicea as well as the reinstated bishops, especially Athanasius.

30. Explain thoroughly how Bede analyzes Gregory’s sorrow and regret for not being able to live out the monastic life. Bede says the following: “…it behooves us to believe that he lost nothing of his monastic perfection by reason of his pastoral charge, but rather that he gained greater profit through the labor of converting many, than by the former calm of his private life, and chiefly because, whilst holding the pontifical office, he set about organizing his house like a monastery.”

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31. Summarize the life of St. Wilfrid as presented by Bede. Wilfrid became a monk at the age of 14 and studied at Lindisfarne. Desirous to learn more about the faith and teachings of the Church, he traveled to Rome where he studied under the tutelage of Boniface and then Dalfinus. He then returned to England where he befriended King Alchfrid who gave him much land in Northumbria. Because of his great learning, experience, and piety, King Oswy had Wilfrid sent to Gaul to be consecrated Bishop for Northumbria. Later on in his career he was banished under false charges by King Egfrid, and so departed for Rome to take up the matter there. On route his ship was misdirected by winds and ended up in Frisland, where Wilfrid spent time earnestly converting the King and his people . After arriving in Rome, Wilfrid was reinstated Bishop of Northumbria by Pope St. Agatho, and also took place at a synod. When Wilfrid returned he was deposed again after being Bishop for forty years. Having lastly secured his right to, he spent his final four peaceful years of life in Northumbria as Bishop.

32. Explain how the pagan sons of Sabert drove out the missionary Bishop from East Saxony. The pagan sons of King Sabert had ascended to their father’s throne and demanded to receive Holy Communion from Bishop Miletus. This good bishop knowing their unholy intents refused to give them Eucharist unless they were baptized first. They then asked for Baptism but with such mockery and disdain for the faith, that Miletus refused to Baptize them, for the faith was rejected in their hearts. After these refusals they forced Miletus to quit East Saxony.

Part Three. Essay. (30 Points)

Explain how Christianity preserved antiquity, knowledge, and learning. Also explain using Belloc, how Christianity saved the culture of Europe.

The survival of antiquity and knowledge which could be used by future thinkers as a spring board for their own innovations is a testimony to the time’s crucial ability to preserve, prepare, and cultivate the best for the benefit of the human race. Death and war resulting from the Church’s struggle to survive stronger factions would eventually yield much fruit just as the dead “leafsoil” in a forest is used as the catalyst for all new life in its proper season.

Belloc defines feudalism as, “the passing of actual government from the hands of the old Roman provincial centres of administration into the hands of each small local society and its lord. On such a basis there was a reconstruction of society from below: these local lords associating themselves under greater men, and these again holding together in great national groups under a national overlord.

“There was one unending series of attacks, Pagan and Mohammedan, from the North, from the East and from the South; attacks not comparable to the older raids of external hordes, eager only to enjoy civilization within the Empire, small in number and yet ready to accept the faith and customs of Europe. The barbarian incursions of the fifth and sixth centuries—at the end of the United Roman Empire—had been of this lesser kind. The mighty struggles of the eighth, ninth and especially the tenth centuries…were a very different matter. Had the military institutions of Europe failed in that struggle, our civilization would have been wiped out; and indeed at one or two critical points, as in the middle of the eighth against the Mohammedan, and at the end of the ninth century against the northern pirates, all human judgment would have decided that Europe was doomed. In point of fact, as we shall see in a moment, Europe was just barely saved. It was saved by the sword and by the intense Christian ideal which nerved the sword arm. But it was only just barely saved. The first assault came from Islam.”

AMDG

Kolbe Academy Home School SEMESTER 1 ANSWER KEY History

Grade 11



Part One. Short Answers. 1. Leo VI 2. St. Genevieve 3. The Coptic Christians of the Monophysite

heresy 4. St. Remi 5. Sagittarius and Salunius 6. Belisarius and Narses 7. Toulouse 8. Gundovald 9. “person” 10. Duke Desiderius

11. Bodigisel and Evantius 12. The Treaty of Andelot 13. King Recared 14. Mainz 15. “fiscs” 16. “Mayor of the Palace” 17. Pope Adrian 18. The war with the Saxons 19. “The Raven” 20. 901 AD

Part Two. Short Essays 21. The battle of Manzikert was fought in 1071. The Byzantines lost this crucial battle in Armenia to the Seljuk Turks. This loss left Asia Minor and Greece, Byzantine’s most important assets, highly vulnerable. The loss is attributed to the following: The General Romanus Diogenes skirted pass many of the brilliant rules of Leo VI’s Tactica; many Turkish mercenaries fled to their foe’s more familiar camp; and, a Greek general was disobedient to commands. The overarching cause of failure to defeat the Turks involves the years of neglect toward military affairs from the Byzantine state. 22. The Cataphractai is the name for the dreaded Byzantine cavalry. Ideally a battalion consists of 504 cavalry soldiers surrounding like a wedged triangle 150 archers. If this size is not reasonable, then it should consist of 384 cavalry soldiers surrounding 80 archers. The archers were situated behind the fifth row of cavalry and so were well protected. The wedged triangular shape of the cataphract formation was used like a battering ram into the lines of the foe. 23. After subduing the Thuringi people and claiming their land for the Franks, Clovis married Clotilda, whose uncles, Gundobad and Godegisel were for the throne of Burgundy. Clotilda was a devout Catholic and insisted on having her sons baptized and brought up in the faith. Clovis largely ignored Clotilda’s religious lectures, and seemed unmoved by her sentiments. However, during a desperate battle with the Alamanni, Clovis realized that he would lose regardless of the earnestness with which he prayed to his heathen gods. In utter despair he raised his voice to Heaven to ask Christ to grant him victory, and in return he would be baptized and urge the baptism of his people. In an instant the battle turned in his favor and the Franks were victorious. Thus, Clovis and his people were baptized by St. Remi of Rheims. 24. Merovech married Brunhilda, his uncle’s widow, which enraged Chilperic, who took him away from Brunhilda, gave him the tonsure, and sent him to a monastery. However, on his way to the monastery, his servant Galen saved him and brought him to the chapel of St. Martin’s where he took sanctuary for two months. After dodging Queen Fredegunda’s assassination attempts, he was forced to quit the Church, when his father Chilperic came to Tours and raided both the Church and the countryside. He fled to Brunhilda but was not welcomed by the Austrasians. Thus, he told his servant Galen, “Up to the present we have had one mind and purpose. I ask you not to allow me to fall into the hands of my enemies, but to take your sword and rush upon

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me.” After this was accomplished, the servants of Merovech who had aided him in his escapes, were all tortured brutally and killed. 25. Guntram says: "I know he ordered my brother Chilperic to be killed and that it was these people who carried out his plan. In fact I ought not to be called a man if I cannot avenge his death this year." In response, St. Gregory says, “And what killed Chilperic, unless it was his own wickedness and your prayers? For he laid many plots for you contrary to justice and they brought death to him.” 26. “While they continued on their way with this plunder, Chilperic, the Nero and Herod of our time, went to his villa of Chelles, about one hundred stades distant from Paris and there hunted. One day, returning from the hunt in the dusk, when he was dismounting from his horse and had one hand on a slave's shoulder a certain one came and stabbed him with a dagger under the armpit and repeating the blow pierced his belly. A flood of blood issued at once from his mouth and the open wounds and put his wicked soul to flight.” 27. King Guntram explained the purpose of the Synod thus: "There is much to be looked into that has gone wrong, both acts of incest and matters which are in discussion between us. But the most important case of all is that of God, since you must investigate why bishop Praetextatus was slain by the sword in his church. Moreover there ought to be an examination of those who are accused of wantonness so that if found guilty they can be corrected by the bishops' sentence, or if they prove innocent that the falsity of the charge can be publicly recognized." 28. The ascendancy of Photius to the Patriarchate of Byzantium in the mid-ninth century incurred a decisive break between the Eastern and Western Churches. The former bishop was Ignatius, who was removed from office, “by no rule or ecclesiastical order.” Thus, Pope Nicholas I wrote to Byzantine Emperor Michael III reaffirming the primacy of the Bishop of Rome as the heir to the See of St. Peter and head of God’s Church on earth, and so ordered the reinstatement of Ignatius, who “had resigned under great political pressure.” In response to these actions taken by Nicholas, Photius summoned a council of the Eastern Bishops held in Constantinople, the object of which was to depose the Pope. At this council three complaints were issued against the Western Church including the Western use of “filioque” (and the Son) to express the belief that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son (not just the Father). This schism is known as the “Photian Schism” and was the first real crack on the bridge between the East and the West. 29. From the Byzantium reader: “To the Byzantines such claims appeared ridiculous, directly conflicting with the fundamental Byzantine belief in the inalienable unity of the Roman Empire. Indeed, the actions of the pope and Charlemagne appeared as the insubordination of “barbarians” toward the legitimate Roman sovereign, the Byzantine emperor in Constantinople.” 30. After devastating great areas of coastal country, all of Byzantium worried that the Russians would eventually enter within the city itself. Emperor Romanus aggrieved at the great injuries incurred, ordered shipwrights to immediately make ready some retired galleons, arm them with Greek Fire on both sides, and dispatch their best sailors aboard these ships. These things having been done, the Galleons were prepared for battle. Fortunately, there was no wind, otherwise the Greek ships would have had difficulty issuing its devouring fire upon the enemy ships. Thus, the Russians were routed and their fleet was ruined.

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31. After Alfred’s death the “House of Wessex” would be a permanent rival to the rest of England which at the time was under Viking control. The tension between these two would not cease until the Norman invasion under William the Conqueror and the decisive Battle of Hastings in 1066 in which Edward the Confessor was killed. 32. William of Malmsebury discusses at length the differences in manner between the Anglo-Saxons and their conquerors the Normans. First he briefly summarizes the past history of England and its many changes and perturbations from the early barbaric Kings to the Christian Kings. The English people were at the time when William wrote a slovenly, unkempt nation of drunkenness and little religious observance, although he notes there were plenty of good virtuous men left. The Normans he gives a far more favorable account. He lauds their dress, manners, and religious fervors; however, he also recognizes a terrible greed: “They weigh treachery by its chance of success, and change their sentiments with money.” Nevertheless, he calls them “the kindest of nations,” and most importantly says, “They revived, by their arrival, the observances of religion, which were everywhere grown lifeless in England.” Part Three. Essay. (30 Points) Answers will vary. The student should use this definition of Christendom to help answer the essay question: “In its wider sense this term is used to describe the part of the world which is inhabited by Christians… But there is a narrower sense in which Christendom stands for a polity as well as a religion, for a nation as well as for a people. Christendom in this sense was an ideal which inspired and dignified many centuries of history and which has not yet altogether lost its power over the minds of men.” Charlemagne’s great love of learning and the arts is certainly indicative of Christian culture which fosters the use of reason and beauty as instruments by which men come to know and love God, so as to better serve Him. Certainly, Charlemagne’s architectural feats provided proof of his desire to create beautiful places of worship to lift man’s soul to that which he worships. Also, Charlemagne’s magnanimous generosity to the poor and his unwavering loyalty to all of the Popes who lived during his time, especially Pope Adrian (who called on him to attack the Lombards) and Pope Leo III, whose life he saved. Additionally, it would seem that Charlemagne had in fact a strong notion of Christendom, the “Christian society.” He would have St. Augustine’s City of God read to his family during supper. He also had a great love of Rome itself, and expressed the desire to see the Holy Roman Empire one day situated back in Rome. Of course, it is also important to note that Charlemagne himself was far from perfect. He refused to allow his daughters to leave his court, he had numerous wives and concubines, etc…

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Part One. Short Answers. 1. Robert Guiscard 11. Michael VIII Palaeologus

2. 1054 12. Saracens

3. The Norman conquest of Sicily 13. Sardinia

4. The Benedictines of Monte Cassino 14. Brother Elias

5. That of women 15. Sixteen days

6. Milan 16. The landgrave of Thuringia

7. A chamberlain 17. The king of Norway

8. Philobiblon 18. William Longuespee

9. The Nestorians 19. Damietta

10. The Prussians 20. The Cistercians

Part Two. Short Essays (2-3 sentences). Answer briefly, but comprehensively. Omit two.

21. Michael Cerularius was a power-hungry patriarch of the Eastern Church. He sought to elevate himself

above the emperor, and therefore opposed the emperor’s wish to reconcile with the Latin Church. When

a delegation came from Rome to Constantinople, Cerularius treated them so badly that they

excommunicated him and his followers, and the excommunication came to be seen as applying to the

entire Eastern Church.

22. The architecture of Mont St. Michel came from a period of strength and displays the power of the age. It

also shows the unity between religion and ordinary life. Chartres shows a later, refined period when

women had great power.

23. Ibn Jabair describes the Muslim people living in great comfort under just Frankish rulers. He describes a

beautiful, opulent wedding procession celebrated by the Franks. To him, all this is bad, because he does

not want Muslims to be tempted to give themselves up to the Franks.

24. The investiture controversy was when emperors were making their own relatives and friends into bishops

so that they could have the land belonging to the bishopric. The popes would attempt to stop this by

excommunicating some of the emperors, but some of them, like Frederick Barbarossa, would rebel.

Heinrich IV repented after being reprimanded by the pope. After this, the Concordat of Worms was

written, providing concessions to the emperor.

25. Merchants would begin their work around their own village, selling wares to the people there. They

would then begin to travel around the world to acquire and sell goods. Their work consisted mainly of

getting to know the people in various towns, so they had a relaxed lifestyle of attending mass and

strolling about towns.

26. In the late 12th century, the Byzantines grew resentful of the Latins in Constantinople and slaughtered all

of them. Thus, when the pope gathered an army to fight in the Holy Land, a group of people, mainly the

Venetians, convinced the army to attack Constantinople instead. The clergy in the army justified this by

saying that it was an acceptable cause to fight heretics.

27. He first attempts to get the pope to assist him, saying that they must fight the heretical Italians, but the

pope only thwarts him whenever possible. He fights Milan and puts it under a siege, which subdues

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them greatly. He then gets Bologna on his side, and together with the Milanese and the Bolognese,

manages to subdue much of the countryside.

28. After the death of Gregory IX, the emperor holds two of the cardinals captive until they promise to vote

for someone acceptable to himself. While the cardinals are deliberating, he basically holds them siege

with his army. Then, when that pope dies, the emperor forces the cardinals to gather to elect a new one

by sending his army to plunder their properties.

29. The pope and the emperor attempt to make peace, but the pope finds out that the emperor is not

planning on keeping his promise. He therefore escapes in the dead of night to stay with his relatives.

From there, he calls the council in order to discuss the problem of the emperor, among other things.

30. The king had bought the True Cross and the Crown of Thorns from Constantinople when the Byzantine

Empire was in need of money. Later, the king suffers from an illness which puts him into a deathlike

trance. When he appears dead, his mother places the Cross and the Crown of Thorns on him and he

recovers.

31. The king’s mother and bishop do not approve of him going on a crusade because they believe France is

in trouble and will suffer if the king is gone. They tell him that his vow is not valid because he made it

when he was ill and not right in his mind. Therefore, the king puts down the cross of the crusade and

then takes it up again, saying that now he is surely making the vow in his right mind.

32. Count Robert of Artois, the honor-seeking and arrogant brother of King Louis IX, breaks off from the

army of Crusaders when they are marching to Cairo. He slays a few Saracens, but this encourages the

whole army to surround his little group and slaughter them. After this, the Christian army is not able to

recover, and they lose the war.

Part Three. Essay.

The Crusades were acceptable when they were fought according to the true intentions stated by the

Church, which were to save holy sites from Muslim desecration and to protect the Christians in the Holy

Land, who often suffered at the hands of Muslim oppressors. One must evaluate each Crusade by whether it

sought to accomplish these goals.

The First Crusade was successful in taking Jerusalem from the Muslims. It did, however, include some

immoral slaughter of Muslims once the city was taken, an act which was not approved by the Church and

which the leaders of the army attempted to curtail. The Second Crusade had noble intentions of uniting the

Eastern and Western churches to fight in the Holy Land, but tensions between the two groups prevented any

of this from happening. The Third Crusade might perhaps be most acceptable to those who do not approve

of Westerners fighting to take lands away from the Muslims, because it succeeded in allowing Christian

access to Jerusalem while the city remained in Muslim control. The Fourth Crusade was the most ignoble of

all the crusades. The official Church motivation for going to war was to gain Christian access to the Holy

Land, but the army actually killed fellow Christians to take over Constantinople. [We do not study the Fifth

and Sixth Crusades in this course.] The Seventh Crusade was fought nobly by King Louis IX, but met with

little success. It managed to avoid any unnecessary killing and used non-violent methods of negotiation

whenever possible.

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Part One. Short Answers. 1. Victoria 11. Queen Philippa

2. The Flagellants 12. The Navarrese

3. Cimabue 13. Cardinal de Périgord

4. India 14. Gil Eannes

5. 1453 15. La Rochelle

6. Mehmed, sultan of the Turks 16. 1377

7. Genoese 17. Clement

8. Normandy 18. The Augustinians

9. The King’s 19. Lucagnolo

10. The Count of Flanders 20. The Barbarossa

Part Two. Short Essays (2-3 sentences). Omit TWO. 21. Salimbene’s father was opposed to his entrance into the Franciscan order and got the Emperor Frederick

himself to write a letter requesting that Salimbene be released from the order. Brother Elias, Minister-General of the Franciscans, supported Salimbene’s desire to enter the religious life, as did his pious mother.

22. The Guelfs and the Ghibellines were the two groups of Italian nobles who participated in the struggles between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor. The Ghibellines supported the Emperor, and the Guelfs supported the Pope.

23. The Black Death had an enormous effect on Europe because it wiped out 30-60% of Europe’s population. Because of the scarcity of demand for goods, prices on them dropped, while prices on labor skyrocketed with so many laborers dying. The plague also caused a scarcity of priests until widowers began flocking to the priesthood.

24. The Council of Ferrara-Florence was a meeting of the hierarchy of the Eastern and Western Churches in 1438-39. The council attempted to reconcile the differences between the Churches but was unsuccessful. One of the biggest doctrinal obstacles to reconciliation was the disagreement over filioque, the Western doctrine that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Son and not directly from the Father.

25. Philip VI took the French throne after the death of Charles IV, which marked the end of the Capetian dynasty. Edward III of England was Charles’ closest relative (his nephew), but the French did not want to be ruled by the English king. Therefore, they chose Charles’ cousin, Philip of Valois, as their king.

26. The French army planned to go to battle with the English for the first time by trapping them against the Somme River, so they destroyed or guarded all bridges across the river. King Edward found out from one of his French prisoners about a ford called La Blanchetaque, where the bottom was covered with white pebbles and the water level went down at low tide. The English army crossed the ford at low tide, scattering the soldiers on the other side and leaving the French army behind once the tide rose.

27. The English army had camped at the battle site all night and was well rested, while the French had been marching for a long time. The French commanders wanted to stop and rest before fighting, but were unable to keep the army from marching toward the English. For this reason, the soldiers were all tired and disorganized at the beginning of the battle.

28. Henry felt that if he did not send travelers to the unexplored lands, fearful sailors would never make the trip. He also wanted to bring Christianity and European goods to people who had never been exposed

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to Western culture. Finally, he hoped to see how far the Moors’ territory stretched and find new allies in the fight against them.

29. Instead of fighting the English in pitched battle, the French decided to shadow their movements with detachments of soldiers with lances. This frustrated the English and prevented them from easily gathering supplies. After a whole winter of this, the English army was considerably worn down.

30. To satisfy the demands of the Roman crowd, the cardinals elected a beloved cleric named the Cardinal of St. Peter. The Romans were elated, so they carried the hundred-year-old man all over the city in celebration, causing his death within three days of his election.

31. To support Julius II’s efforts to build St. Peter’s basilica, preachers traveled around Europe collecting donations and promising indulgences to those who gave them. Luther disliked the Dominican who was collecting money in Wittenburg and accused him of promising indulgences that were too extensive.

32. Cellini was able to enter the Castel Sant’Angelo because of his acquaintance with the Pope. From there, he manned the artillery and did much harm to the Ghibelline invaders. He also helped the Pope to keep his jewels safe by sewing them into the Pope’s garments.

Part Three. Essay. Answer as FULLY and COMPLETELY as possible. After the Crusades were over, Christians lacked the unifying enemy of the Muslims and turned to fighting among themselves. Of course, there had been some of this even while the Crusades were going on, but the fighting was exacerbated after they were over. It became doctrinal instead of merely political, and it led to the Protestant Revolt.

Some of the fighting which began during the Crusades and continued long after was the struggle between papal and imperial powers in Italy. The Italian nobles were split into the Ghibellines, who supported the Emperor, and the Guelfs, who supported the Pope. Both Salimbene and Cellini describe the fighting which pitted Italian cities against each other and caused much destruction and division.

Another division which began to form in the 11th century and became complete in the 15th century was that between the Eastern and Western Churches. Their disputes were cultural as well as doctrinal. Because the Churches could not reconcile their differences, the West did not aid Constantinople in its stand against the Turks, and it was destroyed in 1453.

The first full-scale war between European countries was the Hundred Years’ War between England and France. The dispute over French territory caused fighting for almost an entire century and destroyed countless lives. Perhaps it was England’s involvement in this war which caused it to be set apart from countries like the deeply Catholic France and led to its embrace of Protestantism.

The Great Schism was a division within the Church which pitted European countries against each other in the late 14th century. The cardinals were dissatisfied with Pope Urban VI and chose another pope named Clement. Some countries or factions of the Church followed Urban, and others followed Clement. Finally, the divisions became so deep that the Church in Europe became split into Protestants and Catholics. Germany, seat of the Holy Roman Empire, was tired of submitting to papal authority, and therefore easily fell under the influence of Martin Luther’s protests against the Church. England also wished to be free from papal authority and joined Germany in Protestantism. Without the unity of obedience to the pope, Christendom ceased to exist.

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