Language Language is a form of communication in

which sounds and symbols are combined according to formal rules▪ Phonemes are the basic speech sounds

(English has 40-50 phonemes)▪ Morphemes are the smallest

meaningful units of language▪ Grammar provides rules for a language▪ Syntax refers to the rules for word order in a sentence▪ Semantics refers to a system of using words to create meanings

Language & ThoughtWhorf’s linguistic relativity

hypothesis theorizes that language determines our perceptions of reality

Researchers suggest that language influences the nature of one’s thought

Language DevelopmentPrelinguistic stage- begins with

reflexive cry, then crying becomes more purposeful

Cooing- producing vowel-like sounds

Babbling- adding consonants to vowels

Linguistic stage- babbling begins to sound more like the language in the child’s home Overextension Telegraphic speech Overgeneralization

Theories of Language Development

Is language capability innate or learned (Skinner v. Chomsky… Behaviorism v. Nativist)?

Language Acquisition Device- an innate mechanism, hypothesized by Chomsky, that enables a child to analyze language and extract the basic rules of grammar

Most researchers believe that language acquisition is a combination of nature and nurture (Interactionist).

Animal Language Animals are capable of limited

communication Language in animals is not

comparable to human language Apes lack appropriate vocal cords for

generation of speech Apes can be trained to use non-vocal sign

language▪ Washoe acquired American Sign

Language Dolphins can be trained to respond to

hand signals and to vocal commands Animal language lacks complexity and

syntax

Language and the BrainThere may be critical periods of

language developmentBroca’s area is involved in

speech and language production

Supramarginal gyrus combines word meaning with the production of words

Thinking

The processing of information to solve problems and make judgments and decisions

The Journey…

Problem SolvingThinking Under Uncertainty

Intelligent Thinking

Problem SolvingPROBLEM: A situation in which there is a goal, but it is

not clear how to reach the goal A well-defined problem is one with

clear specifications of the start state (where you are), goal state (where you want to be) and the processes for reaching the goal state (how to get there)

An ill-defined problem is a problem lacking clear specification of the start state, goal state, or the processes for reaching the goal state

Problem SolvingInvolves two steps...

Trying to solvethe problem

Interpreting the problem

Blocks to Problem Solving

Interpretation blocks Fixation is the

inability to create a new interpretation of a problem

For instance, in the 9-dot problem, the directions do not say one cannot go “outside” the mental square formed by the 9 dots

Blocks to Problem Solving

Interpretation blocks Functional fixedness is the inability

to see that an object can have a function other than its typical one▪ For example, if you need a

screwdriver but don’t have one, a dime could be used to serve the purpose of a screwdriver

▪ Limits our ability to solve problems that require using an object in a novel way

▪ To combat functional fixedness, you should systematically think about the possible novel uses of all the various objects in the problem environment

Blocks to Problem SolvingStrategy blocks

Our past experience with problem solving can lead us to mental set, the tendency to use previously successful solution strategies without considering others that are more appropriate for the current problem

Sometimes when searching for new approaches to a problem, we may experience insight, a new way of interpreting a problem that immediately gives you the solution

Overcoming BlocksTo combat the blocks in

problems solving, ask yourself questions such as: Is my interpretations of the

problem unnecessarily constraining possible solutions?

Can I use any of the objects in the problem in novel ways to solve the problem?

Do I need a new type of solution strategy?

Solution Strategies

Algorithm

Heuristic

AlgorithmA step-by-step procedure

that guarantees a correct answer to a problem

For example, using multiplication correctly guarantees you the correct solution to a multiplication problem

Heuristic

A solution strategy that seems reasonable given your past experiences with solving problems, especially similar problems

May pay off with a quick correct answer, but it may lead to no answer or an incorrect one

Types of Heuristics The anchoring and

adjustment heuristic uses an initial estimate as an anchor and then this anchor is adjusted up or down For instance, when

meeting a new person, your first impression forms an anchor of that person, and you may not process subsequent information about that person as fully as it should be processed

Types of Heuristics The working backward heuristic is attempting to

solve a problem by working from the goal state backward to the start state For instance, consider the following situation: Water

lilies growing in a pond double in area every 24 hours. On the first day of spring, only one lily pad is on the surface of the pond. Sixty days later, the entire pond is covered. On what day is the pond half covered?”

If you work backward with the fact the pond is completely covered on the 60th day, you can solve this question easily…half of the pond must be covered on the 59th day.

Types of Heuristics The means-ends analysis

heuristic is breaking down the problem into subgoals and working toward decreasing the distance to the goal state by achieving these subgoals For example, when trying to

write a major term paper, students should be encouraged (and perhaps shown) how to break down this big task into smaller tasks that, when completed, will result in a final, large term paper

The Tower of Hanoi Problem

Algorithms vs. Heuristics

When going through a new grocery store looking for pickles, you could go up and down every aisle, examining each product until you found the pickles This would be using an algorithm

Or, you could look at the signs above the aisles and look for the word “Condiments” and assume that pickles will be on that aisle This would be using a heuristic

Probability and Uncertainty

The probability of an event is the likelihood that it will happen Probabilities range from 0 (never happen)

to 1 (always happens) An event with 0.5 probability of occurring is

maximally uncertain because it is equally likely to occur and not to occur

In addition to judging the uncertainty of events in our environment, we attempt to reduce our uncertainty about the world by trying to find out how various events are related to each other

Judging Probability

The Represen-tativeness Heuristic

TheAvailabilityHeuristic

Two main heuristics we use to make judgments about probabilities...

The Representativeness Heuristic

A rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object resembles (i.e., is representative of) that category The more representative the object is, the more probable

You hear about a person who likes to write, read, and interpret poetry. Is it more likely that this person is: A hockey fan? OR An English professor who likes hockey?

We tend to use the representativeness heuristic because the mind categorizes information automatically

The Conjunction Fallacy The conjunction rule states that the

likelihood of the overlap of two uncertain events cannot be greater than the likelihood of either of the two events because the overlap is only part of each event

The conjunction fallacy, which can occur when we use the representativeness heuristic, is incorrectly judging the overlap of two uncertain events to be more likely than either of the two events