Approaching Language Approaching Language changechange1.1. Learn about the history & Learn about the history &

development of the English development of the English language (this informs AO3)language (this informs AO3)

2.2. Analysis of texts (you will not Analysis of texts (you will not be given any texts before 1600)be given any texts before 1600)

3.3. Theories of language change Theories of language change (how & why)(how & why)

4.4. Attitudes to language change Attitudes to language change (also important for Section B)(also important for Section B)

The history of the English The history of the English LanguageLanguage The history of English can be divided into The history of English can be divided into

several periods:several periods: Old English Old English (many influences but mainly (many influences but mainly

Germanic) Germanic) Middle English Middle English (the change begins with (the change begins with

the invasion of the Normans)the invasion of the Normans) Early Modern English Early Modern English (from c. 1476 & can (from c. 1476 & can

be divided into pre-Victorian & Victorian)be divided into pre-Victorian & Victorian) Modern English Modern English (post-Victoria and covers (post-Victoria and covers

2020thth century) century) Contemporary English Contemporary English (this period (this period

obviously changes with every year)obviously changes with every year)

Celts 500BC-43BCCelts 500BC-43BC

Early inhabitants of these islands Early inhabitants of these islands The Celts are the earliest inhabitants The Celts are the earliest inhabitants of the British Isles to leave a mark on of the British Isles to leave a mark on our language.our language.

Celtic words - Celtic words - In fact, very few In fact, very few Celtic words have lived on in the Celtic words have lived on in the English language. But many of our English language. But many of our place names have Celtic origins, place names have Celtic origins, such as such as London, DoverLondon, Dover and  and Kent,Kent, &  & the rivers the rivers ThamesThames &  & Wye.Wye.

Romans 43BC-c.450ADRomans 43BC-c.450AD

Romans invade and rule British Isles for Romans invade and rule British Isles for over 400 years. over 400 years. Only around 200 Latin Only around 200 Latin loanwords are inherited from the Romans - loanwords are inherited from the Romans - although by the 6th century the Church will although by the 6th century the Church will have brought many more.have brought many more.

Roman words - Roman words - Many of the words passed Many of the words passed on from this era are those coined by on from this era are those coined by Roman merchants and soldiers. These Roman merchants and soldiers. These include include winwin (wine),  (wine), candelcandel (candle), (candle),

   beltbelt(belt) and (belt) and weall (weall (wall).wall).

Anglo Saxons 449ADAnglo Saxons 449AD

Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes - Germanic tribes - Angles, Saxons and Jutes - begin to arrive - begin to arrive - Anglo Saxon dialects form the Anglo Saxon dialects form the basis of the language we now call Old English. basis of the language we now call Old English. About 400 Anglo-Saxon texts survive from this era, About 400 Anglo-Saxon texts survive from this era, including many beautiful poems - these tell tales of including many beautiful poems - these tell tales of wild battles and heroic journeys.wild battles and heroic journeys.

Anglo Saxon words - Anglo Saxon words - Approximately one third of Approximately one third of Anglo-Saxon vocabulary survives into modern Anglo-Saxon vocabulary survives into modern English, including many of our most basic, English, including many of our most basic, everyday words: everyday words: earth, house, food, sing, earth, house, food, sing, nightnight and  and sleepsleep. By the 7th century Latin speakers . By the 7th century Latin speakers refer to this country as refer to this country as AngliaAnglia - the land of  - the land of the the AnglesAngles - a name that will later develop into  - a name that will later develop into EnglandEngland..

Vikings 789ADVikings 789AD

The year 789 sees the first Danish invasion of The year 789 sees the first Danish invasion of Britain - Britain - For a hundred years the Vikings control For a hundred years the Vikings control most of Eastern England, before being pushed back most of Eastern England, before being pushed back into the North East of the country by King Alfred the into the North East of the country by King Alfred the Great. They remain in power in the North East until Great. They remain in power in the North East until the late 900s, in an area then known as Danelaw. the late 900s, in an area then known as Danelaw. During this time King Alfred uses the English During this time King Alfred uses the English language to develop a sense of national identity language to develop a sense of national identity amongst the English.amongst the English.

Norse words - Norse words - These raiders and settlers bring These raiders and settlers bring almost 2000 new words into the English vocabulary. almost 2000 new words into the English vocabulary. Words derived from Norse include Words derived from Norse include anger, awkward, anger, awkward, cake, die, egg, freckle, muggy,cake, die, egg, freckle, muggy,  reindeer, silver, reindeer, silver, skirtskirt and  and smilesmile. Many Northern English dialect . Many Northern English dialect words still bear traces of Scandinavian languages, words still bear traces of Scandinavian languages, as do many place names such as Whitby and as do many place names such as Whitby and Grimsby.Grimsby.

What we know from textsWhat we know from texts

The scribes previously used to write in The scribes previously used to write in Latin and Anglo-Saxon or Old English Latin and Anglo-Saxon or Old English proved a problem due to some of its proved a problem due to some of its sounds not existing in Latin. E.g th sounds; sounds not existing in Latin. E.g th sounds; k sounds; different vowel sounds. So they k sounds; different vowel sounds. So they made up lots of rules for when to use made up lots of rules for when to use which symbol in writing. However these which symbol in writing. However these were not widespread and varied from one were not widespread and varied from one monastery to the other monastery to the other

BeowulfBeowulf

Normans 1066Normans 1066

The Normans invade - The Normans invade - The Normans transform The Normans transform England, both culturally and linguistically. For over England, both culturally and linguistically. For over 300 years French is the language spoken by the 300 years French is the language spoken by the most powerful people - royalty, aristocrats and high-most powerful people - royalty, aristocrats and high-powered officials - some of whom can't speak powered officials - some of whom can't speak English at all. French is used in political documents, English at all. French is used in political documents, in administration, and in literature. Latin is still the in administration, and in literature. Latin is still the language of the church and of scholars, but most of language of the church and of scholars, but most of the general population speak English in their the general population speak English in their everyday lives.everyday lives.

French words - French words - Thousands of French words Thousands of French words become embedded in the English vocabulary, most become embedded in the English vocabulary, most of which are words of power, such as of which are words of power, such as crown, castle, crown, castle, court, parliament, army, mansion, gown, beauty, court, parliament, army, mansion, gown, beauty, banquet, art, poet, romance, chess,banquet, art, poet, romance, chess,  colour, duke, colour, duke, servant, peasant, traitor servant, peasant, traitor  and  and governor.governor.

ChaucerChaucer

SpellingSpelling Once all the French words came in the scribes had Once all the French words came in the scribes had

to apply all the rules they had made up to the new to apply all the rules they had made up to the new words. E.g. baggage. words. E.g. baggage.

But the French scribes came along too with their But the French scribes came along too with their own set of rules! own set of rules!

We also start to get new words entering the We also start to get new words entering the language with the same sound as an already language with the same sound as an already existing word, e.g. stake was established in the 14existing word, e.g. stake was established in the 14 thth century, so when the word for the strip of meat came century, so when the word for the strip of meat came in in the 15in in the 15thth century, the scribes had to give it a new century, the scribes had to give it a new spelling to distinguish it form its already existing spelling to distinguish it form its already existing homophone. “We see them experimenting with homophone. “We see them experimenting with different possibilities like steike, steyke, styke, different possibilities like steike, steyke, styke, steake and steke, until eventually steak prevailed”. steake and steke, until eventually steak prevailed”.

Chaos ensued which is why the spelling of English Chaos ensued which is why the spelling of English is notoriously difficult to learn!is notoriously difficult to learn!

Magic EMagic E

Some of the rules made up by scribes went as Some of the rules made up by scribes went as follows:follows:

If a short vowel in a monosyllabic word is followed If a short vowel in a monosyllabic word is followed by a consonant, double it when adding a suffix e.g. by a consonant, double it when adding a suffix e.g. tap – tapping.tap – tapping.

If a long vowel is followed by a single consonant in If a long vowel is followed by a single consonant in a monosyllabic word, add an ‘e’ on the end. E.g. a monosyllabic word, add an ‘e’ on the end. E.g. tape.tape.

The Great Vowel ShiftThe Great Vowel Shift

The The Great Vowel ShiftGreat Vowel Shift was a major change in the pronunciation was a major change in the pronunciation of the English language that took place in England between 1350 of the English language that took place in England between 1350 and 1700. The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto and 1700. The Great Vowel Shift was first studied by Otto Jespersen (1860–1943), a Danish linguist who coined the term.Jespersen (1860–1943), a Danish linguist who coined the term.

The Great Vowel Shift is responsible for many of the peculiarities The Great Vowel Shift is responsible for many of the peculiarities of English spelling.of English spelling.

Many long vowels became shorter.Many long vowels became shorter. Many diphthongs became monophthongs.Many diphthongs became monophthongs. Sometimes this is reflected in changes in spelling and sometimes Sometimes this is reflected in changes in spelling and sometimes

unfortunately it is not.unfortunately it is not. Why is this important?Why is this important? When we get an EME text some words may be orthographically When we get an EME text some words may be orthographically

different in Modern English and we need to be able to describe different in Modern English and we need to be able to describe that difference with reference to spelling rules or events that may that difference with reference to spelling rules or events that may have for some reason altered that spelling. have for some reason altered that spelling.

100 Years War 1337-1450s100 Years War 1337-1450s

100 Years War fought between England and 100 Years War fought between England and France - France - Following the 100 Years War, many Following the 100 Years War, many people regard French as the language of the people regard French as the language of the enemy. The status of English rises. The universities enemy. The status of English rises. The universities of Oxford & Cambridge are established during this of Oxford & Cambridge are established during this period. Literacy increases but books are still copied period. Literacy increases but books are still copied by hand and are therefore extremely expensive.by hand and are therefore extremely expensive.

New Latin words - New Latin words - Many thousands of Latin words Many thousands of Latin words come into the language, most of which are come into the language, most of which are connected to religion, medicine, law or literature. connected to religion, medicine, law or literature. These words include These words include scripture, collect, immortal, scripture, collect, immortal, history, library, solar, recipehistory, library, solar, recipe and  and genius.genius.

Renaissance 1476-1650Renaissance 1476-1650

A time of great cultural and intellectual development A time of great cultural and intellectual development In 1476, In 1476, Caxton introduces the printing press to EnglandCaxton introduces the printing press to England. He . He

prints all kinds of texts: mythic tales, popular stories, poems, prints all kinds of texts: mythic tales, popular stories, poems, phrasebooks, devotional pieces & grammars. In the following 150 phrasebooks, devotional pieces & grammars. In the following 150 years around 20,000 books are printed. Books years around 20,000 books are printed. Books become cheaper and are therefore increasingly popular. Literacy become cheaper and are therefore increasingly popular. Literacy rates rise. rates rise. Printers have to make a choice about which words, Printers have to make a choice about which words, grammar and spellings to usegrammar and spellings to use. . The choices they make help The choices they make help to set and spread a to set and spread a standardstandard language. They base their language. They base their decisions on the dialects of the South East - the most decisions on the dialects of the South East - the most socially and economically influential region.socially and economically influential region. But these rules But these rules are not set in stone, and people continue to speak in different are not set in stone, and people continue to speak in different accents and dialects, and to write with different spellings. Over accents and dialects, and to write with different spellings. Over the next 200 years wonderful discoveries and innovations are the next 200 years wonderful discoveries and innovations are made in the fields of art, theatre and science. There is a fresh made in the fields of art, theatre and science. There is a fresh interest amongst scholars in classical languages, while intrepid interest amongst scholars in classical languages, while intrepid explorers and opportunistic traders travel to the New World.explorers and opportunistic traders travel to the New World.

New words - New words - With these fresh findings come new words from With these fresh findings come new words from across the globe (borrowings), including across the globe (borrowings), including atmosphere, explain, atmosphere, explain, enthusiasm, skeletonenthusiasm, skeleton and  and utopianutopian (from Latin);  (from Latin); bizarre, bizarre, chocolate, explore, moustachechocolate, explore, moustache and  and voguevogue (from  (from French); French); carnival, macaronicarnival, macaroni and  and violinviolin (from Italian)  (from Italian) harem, jar, harem, jar, magazinemagazine and  and sherbetsherbet (from Arabic); and  (from Arabic); and coffee, yoghurtcoffee, yoghurt and  and kioskkiosk (from Turkish);  (from Turkish); tomato, potatotomato, potato and  and tobacco tobacco (from Spanish)(from Spanish)

1700s1700s

An age of dictionaries, grammars and rules and An age of dictionaries, grammars and rules and regulations - regulations - Human knowledge continues to Human knowledge continues to stretch into new areas, with discoveries in the fields stretch into new areas, with discoveries in the fields of medicine, astrology, botany & engineering. Many of medicine, astrology, botany & engineering. Many scholars believe that the English language is scholars believe that the English language is chaotic, and in desperate need of some firm rules. chaotic, and in desperate need of some firm rules. Books teaching 'correct' grammar, pronunciation & Books teaching 'correct' grammar, pronunciation & spelling are increasingly popular. Samuel Johnson spelling are increasingly popular. Samuel Johnson publishes his famous dictionary in 1755.publishes his famous dictionary in 1755.

Derided words - Derided words - Words hated by Johnson, and Words hated by Johnson, and omitted from his dictionary, include omitted from his dictionary, include bang, budge, bang, budge, fuss, gambler, shabby,fuss, gambler, shabby, and and touchy. touchy.

Industrial Revolution 1760-Industrial Revolution 1760-1800s1800s

Transformation of the western worldTransformation of the western worldIn an age of inventions and contraptions, of In an age of inventions and contraptions, of science & industry, of expanding cities & science & industry, of expanding cities & smog-gurgling factories the language must smog-gurgling factories the language must swell to accommodate new ideas.swell to accommodate new ideas.New wordsNew wordsNewly coined words include Newly coined words include biology, biology, taxonomy, caffeine, cityscape, centigrade, taxonomy, caffeine, cityscape, centigrade, watt, bacterium, watt, bacterium, chromosome chromosome  and  and claustrophobia.claustrophobia. In the  In the world of burgeoning capitalism, money can world of burgeoning capitalism, money can suddenly suddenly slump, inflate, boomslump, inflate, boom and  and cause cause depressions. depressions. Victorian writers pen Victorian writers pen over 60,000 novels.over 60,000 novels.

1900s - Present Day1900s - Present Day

English of todayEnglish of today A century of world wars, technological  A century of world wars, technological 

transformation, and globalisation. The language transformation, and globalisation. The language continues to grow, expanding to incorporate new continues to grow, expanding to incorporate new jargons, slangs, technologies, toys, foods and jargons, slangs, technologies, toys, foods and gadgets.gadgets.

Familiar words Familiar words It is in this century that we get It is in this century that we get doodlebugs, doodlebugs,

gasmasks, gobstoppers, mini gasmasks, gobstoppers, mini skirtsskirts and  and modsmodsand and rockers;rockers; we enjoy  we enjoy dim sum, dim sum, cappuccino, chicken tikka masalacappuccino, chicken tikka masala and  and pizzerias;pizzerias; we  we talk of talk of chavs, mingerschavs, mingers and  and weirdosweirdos; and we are ; and we are addicted to addicted to tellies, websites, tellies, websites, cybercafescybercafes and  and compact discs.compact discs.