Laser and its applications

Prof. Dr. Taha Zaki Sokker

By

Laser and its applications

Chapter (1): Theory of Lasing (2)

Chapter (2): Characteristics of laser beam ( )

Chapter (3): Types of laser sources ( )

Chapter (4): Laser applications ( )

Contents page

Chapter (1) Theory of Lasing

1.Introduction (Brief history of laser)

The laser is perhaps the most important optical device

to be developed in the past 50 years. Since its arrival in

the 1960s, rather quiet and unheralded outside the

scientific community, it has provided the stimulus to make

optics one of the most rapidly growing fields in science

and technology today.

The laser is essentially an optical amplifier. The word

laser is an acronym that stands for “light amplification

by the stimulated emission of radiation”. The theoretical

background of laser action as the basis for an optical

amplifier was made possible by Albert Einstein, as early

as 1917, when he first predicted the existence of a new

irradiative process called “stimulated emission”. His

theoretical work, however, remained largely unexploited

until 1954, when C.H. Townes and Co-workers developed

a microwave amplifier based on stimulated emission

radiation. It was called a maser.

Following the birth of the ruby and He-Ne lasers, others devices

followed in rapid succession, each with a different laser medium

and a different wavelength emission. For the greater part of the

1960s, the laser was viewed by the world of industry and

technology as scientific curiosity.

In 1960, T.H.Maiman built the first laser device (ruby

laser). Within months of the arrival of Maiman’s ruby laser,

which emitted deep red light at a wavelength of 694.3 nm,

A. Javan and associates developed the first gas laser (He-

Ne laser), which emitted light in both the infrared (at

1.15mm) and visible (at 632.8 nm) spectral regions..

1.Einstein’s quantum theory of radiation

In 1916, according to Einstein, the interaction of

radiation with matter could be explained in terms of

three basic processes: spontaneous emission,

absorption and stimulated emission. The three

processes are illustrated and discussed in the following:

Before After

(i) Stimulated absorption

ii) Spontaneous emission (

)iii (Stimulated emission

)ii) Spontaneous emission

Consider an atom (or molecule) of the material is existed

initially in an excited state 2 No external radiation is

required to initiate the emission. Since 2>1, the atom will

tend to spontaneously decay to the ground state 1, a

photon of energy h =2-1 is released in a random direction

as shown in (Fig. 1-ii). This process is called “spontaneous

emission”

Note that; when the release energy difference (2-1) is

delivered in the form of an e.m wave, the process called

"radiative emission" which is one of the two possible ways

“non-radiative” decay is occurred when the energy

difference (2-1) is delivered in some form other than e.m

radiation (e.g. it may transfer to kinetic energy of the

surrounding)

)iii (Stimulated emission Quite by contrast “stimulated emission” (Fig. 1-iii)

requires the presence of external radiation when an

incident photon of energy h =2-1 passes by an atom

in an excited state 2, it stimulates the atom to drop or

decay to the lower state 1. In this process, the atom

releases a photon of the same energy, direction, phase

and polarization as that of the photon passing by, the

net effect is two identical photons (2h) in the place of

one, or an increase in the intensity of the incident beam.

It is precisely this processes of stimulated emission that

makes possible the amplification of light in lasers.

Growth of Laser Beam

Atoms exist most of the time in one of a number of

certain characteristic energy levels. The energy level or

energy state of an atom is a result of the energy level of

the individual electrons of that particular atom. In any

group of atoms, thermal motion or agitation causes a

constant motion of the atoms between low and high

energy levels. In the absence of any applied

electromagnetic radiation the distribution of the atoms

in their various allowed states is governed by

Boltzman’s law which states that:

The theory of lasing

if an assemblage of atoms is in state of thermal equilibrium at

an absolute temp. , the number of atoms 2 in one energy level

2 is related to the number 1 in another energy level 1 by the

equation.

Where 2>1 clearly 2<1

Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38x10-16 erg / degree

= 1.38x10-23 j/K

the absolute temp. in degrees Kelvin

KT/)1E2E(12 eNN

At absolute zero all atoms will be in the ground

state. There is such a lack of thermal motion among the

electrons that there are no atoms in higher energy

levels. As the temperature increases atoms change

randomly from low to the height energy states and back

again. The atoms are raised to high energy states by

chance electron collision and they return to the low

energy state by their natural tendency to seek the

lowest energy level. When they return to the lower

energy state electromagnetic radiation is emitted. This

is spontaneous emission of radiation and because of its

random nature, it is incoherent

As indicated by the equation, the number of atoms

decreases as the energy level increases. As the temp

increases, more atoms will attain higher energy levels.

However, the lower energy levels will be still more

populated.

Einstein in 1917 first introduced the concept of

stimulated or induced emission of radiation by atomic

systems. He showed that in order to describe completely

the interaction of matter and radiative, it is necessary to

include that process in which an excited atom may be

induced by the presence of radiation emit a photon and

decay to lower energy state.

An atom in level 2 can decay to level1 by emission

of photon. Let us call21 the transition probability per

unit time for spontaneous emission from level 2 to level

1. Then the number of spontaneous decays per second

is 221, i.e. the number of spontaneous decays per

second=221.

In addition to these spontaneous transitions, there

will induced or stimulated transitions. The total rate to

these induced transitions between level 2 and level 1 is

proportional to the density (U) of radiation of frequency

, where

= ( 2-1 )/h , h Planck's const.

Let 21 and 12 denote the proportionality constants

for stimulated emission and absorption. Then number of

stimulated downward transition in stimulated emission

per second = 2 21 U

similarly , the number of stimulated upward transitions

per second = 1 12 U

The proportionality constants and are known as the

Einstein and coefficients. Under equilibrium

conditions we have

by solving for U (density of the radiation) we obtain

U [1 12- 2 21 ] = 21 2

212121

212

BNBN

AN)(U

N2 A21 + N2 B21 U =N1 B12 U

SP ST

A b

1

)(

2

1

21

1221

21

NN

BB

B

AU

KT/hKT/)EE(

1

2 eeN

N 12

1e

B

BB

A)(U

KT/h

21

1221

21

According to Planck’s formula of radiation

1e

1

c

h8)(U KT/h3

3

)2)

)1)

from equations 1 and 2 we have B12=B21 (3)

213

3

21 Bc

h8A

equation 3 and 4 are Einstein’s relations.

Thus for atoms in equilibrium with thermal

radiation.

)4(

21

21

212

212

A

)(UB

AN

)(UBN

emissioneoustanspon

emissionstimulate

from equation 2 and 4

1e

1

c

h8

h8

c

)(Uh8

c

emission.spon

emission.stim

KT/h3

3

3

3

3

3

1e

1

emission.spon

emission.stimKT/h

)5(

Accordingly, the rate of induced emission is extremely

small in the visible region of the spectrum with

ordinary optical sources ( 10 3 K .(

Hence in such sources, most of the radiation is

emitted through spontaneous transitions. Since these

transitions occur in a random manner, ordinary sources

of visible radiation are incoherent.

On the other hand, in a laser the induced transitions

become completely dominant. One result is that the

emitted radiation is highly coherent. Another is that the

spectral intensity at the operating frequency of the laser

is much greater than the spectral intensities of ordinary

light sources.

Amplification in a Medium Consider an optical medium through which radiation is

passing. Suppose that the medium contains atoms in various

energy levels 1, 2, 3,….let us fitt our attention to two levels

1& 2 where 2>1 we have already seen that the rate of

stimulated emission and absorption involving these two levels

are proportional to 221&112 respectively. Since 21=12, the

rate of stimulated downward transitions will exceed that of the

upward transitions when 2>1,.i.e the population of the upper

state is greater than that of the lower state such a condition is

condrary to the thermal equilibrium distribution given by

Boltzmann’s low. It is termed a population inversion. If a

population inversion exist, then a light beam will increase in

intensity i.e. it will be amplified as it passes through the

medium. This is because the gain due to the induced emission

exceeds the loss due to absorption.

gives the rate of growth of the beam intensity in the

direction of propagation, an is the gain constant at

frequency

x,o eII

Quantitative Amplification of light

In order to determine quantitatively the amount of

amplification in a medium we consider a parallel beam of

light that propagate through a medium enjoying

population inversion. For a collimated beam, the spectral

energy density U is related to the intensity in the

frequency interval to + by the formula.

Due to the Doppler effect and other line-broadening

effects not all the atoms in a given energy level are

effective for emission or absorption in a specified

frequency interval. Only a certain number 1 of the 1

atoms at level 1 are available for absorption. Similarly of

the 2 atoms in level 2, the number 2 are available for

emission. Consequently, the rate of upward transitions is

given by:

cIU

v

IU

1L

IU

c

IU

221221 N)c/I(BNUB

and the rate of stimulated or induced downward transitions is given by:

Now each upward transition subtracts a quantum energy h from the beam. Similarly, each downward transition adds the same amount therefore the net time rate of change of the spectral energy density in the interval is given by

U)NBNB(h)U(dt

d112221

where (h B U)= the rate of transition of quantum energy

c

I)NBNB(h)

c

I(

dt

d112221

In time dt the wave travels a distance dx = c dt i.e

dx

c

dt

1 then

IB)

NN(

c

h

dx

dI21

12

I

dx

dI

dxI

dI

x.

,o eII

in which is the gain constant at frequency it is given by:

1212 B)

NN(

c

h

an approximate expression is

1212max B)NN(c

h

being the line width

Doppler width

This is one of the few causes seriously affecting equally

both emission and absorption lines. Let all the atoms emit

light of the same wavelength. The effective wavelength

observed from those moving towards an observer is

diminished and for those atoms moving away it is increased

in accordance with Doppler’s principle.

When we have a moving source sending out waves

continuously it moves. The velocity of the waves is often not

changed but the wavelength and frequency as noted by

stationary observed alter.

Thus consider a source of waves moving towards an

observer with velocity v. Then since the source is moving

the waves which are between the source and the observer

will be crowded into a smaller distance than if the source

had been at rest. If the frequency is o , then in time t the

source emit ot waves. If the frequency had been at rest

these waves would have occupied a length AB. But due to

its motion the source has caused a distance vt, hence

these ot waves are compressed into a length

where \\BA

vtBAAB \\

vttt \

oo thus

o

\ v

o

\ v

)v

1(o

\

Observer

)c

v1(\

)c

v1(

cc

o

where n=c

)c

v1(

cc

o

)c

v1(o

c

v1

o

c

v

o

o

)(c

v oo

Evaluation of Doppler half width :

According to Maxwelliam distribution of velocities, from

the kinetic theory of gasses, the probability that the velocity will be between v and v+v is given by:

dveB 2Bv

So that the fraction of atoms whose their velocities lie between v and v+ v is given by the following equation

veB

N

)(N 2Bv

where B= m = molecular weight, K=gas constant,

T=absolute tempKT2

m

Substituting for v in the last equation from equation (1)

and since the intensity emitted will depend on the

number of atoms having the velocity in the region v and

vv then, i. e. N

)(N)(I

I() = const . 2)o(

2o

2cB

e

=at

I(

=(I

=const

) )= max= const

There for

max

2)o(2

o

2cB

e

2

1e

I

)2/(I 4

2

2o

2cB

max

o

being the half width of the spectral line it is the width at

2

Imax , then

4

cB2ln

2

2o

2

2lnm

kT2

c

2 o

Calculation of Doppler width:

1- Calculate the Doppler’s width for Hg198 . where

=1.38x10-16 erg per degree at temp=300k and =5460Ao

solution

vm

KT2ln2

c

2 o

=

molecular weight m = const. ( atomic mass m\ ) const.=1.668x10-24 gm

\o

m

T

.cont

K2ln2

c

2

\o7

m

T1017.7

wave number o 1

=

=.015 cm-1

2- Calculate the half-maximum line width (Doppler width) for He-Ne

laser transition assuming a discharge temperature of about 400K

and a neon atomic mass of 20 and wavelength of 632.8nm.

(Ans., =1500MHz)