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CIV 264 - Lecture
Introduction to Environmental Engineering
Kodwo Beedu Keelson Msc Env Eng
MODULE CONTENTS
Microbial Processes
Reactor Hydraulics
Water Quality Parameters
Microbial Processs
CONTENTS
Role of microorganisms
Biological conversions in treatment plants
Bacteria (most important in wastewater treatment)
Algae
Fungi
Protozoa
Types of Microorganisms
The removal of carbonaceous BOD, nitrogen, phosphorous
and the stabilization of organic matter are accomplished
biologically by using a variety of microorganisms, mainly
bacteria
The microorganisms convert the colloidal and dissolved
carbonaceous organic matter into cells, more or less
degraded organic compounds, various minerals and gases
The cells in the suspended sludge can be removed from the
treated liquid by gravity settling, because cells have a
specific gravity greater than that of water.
Role of Microorganisms
Energy and carbon are both required for the
maintenance of the cell and for the synthesis of new
cellular material
Autotrophic organisms use inorganic carbon as carbon
source it is called autotrophic.
Heterotrophic organisms use organic carbon as carbon
source
Energy and Carbon Sources for Microorganisms
Biological growth
Hydrolysis
Decay
Conversions in Biological Treatment Plants
Bacteria are only able to utilize very small and simply
built molecules directly for growth
Acetic acid, ethanol, methanol, propionic acid, glucose
and ammonium, nitrate etc.
Bigger molecules have to be hydrolyzed first
Biological Growth
Conversion of large molecules into small, directlydegradable molecules
The hydrolysis process is a slow process compared tothe biological growth process
Therefore, the hydrolysis will often be the rate-limitingstep in biological wastewater processes
Hydrolysis can be described as a first order process
Hydrolysis
Slowly biodegradable material is released and then
hydrolyzed to soluble substrate
Soluble substrate is used by the viable biomass for
growth, yielding new cell material
Decay of biomass is described as a first order process
with respect to the biomass concentration
Decay
Reactors
MODULE CONTENTS
Reaction Kinetics
Reactor Vessels
Reaction Kinetics
Zero Order Reaction Kinetics
Rate of reaction is independent of proportional to
the concentration of reactant
Occurs in reactions in which a catalyst comes into
plays a part
dC/dt = K
First Order Reaction Kinetics
Rate of reaction is proportional to the concentration
dC/dt = -Kc
k is the first order reaction rate constant (1/T)
c is the concentration (M/L3)
Reactions in water and wastewater treatment plants
are assumed to follow first order reaction kinetics
Second Order Reaction Kinetics
Reactions involving two species A and B
dCA/dt = -KCACB
dCB/dt = -KCACB
k is the second order reaction rate constant (L3/T.M)
Reaction Vessels
What is a reactor vessel?
Any natural water body or artificial tank or enclosure
that receives and discharges water
Biogeochemical transformations occur in reactors
such that the effluent has characteristics different
from the influent
Fully mixed tank
Plug-flow
Types of Reactor
Influent concentration (Cin)
Effluent concentration (C)
Residence time (tR)
Reaction rate constant (k)
Volumetric loading rate (v)
Reactor Variables
Reactor volume (V)
Flow rate (Q)
Reactor liquid depth (D)
Dispersion factor (d)
Surface loading rate (s)
Characteristics of Fully-mixed Tanks
Influent is mixed instantly and completely
Uniform concentration in tank = Concentration in outflow
Treatment Efficiency in Fully-mixed Tanks
Characteristics of Plug-flow Tanks
Long tank of small cross-section
There is little or no longitudinal mixing of the influent
Uniform concentration in tank is different from outflow
Treatment Efficiency in Plug-flow Tanks
Non-ideal Flow in Reactors
Short circuiting - density currents, wind-driven currents
can cause flow to go directly from inlet to outlet, by
passing much of the tank volume
Dead zones Short circuiting - density corners, stagnant
zones, swirling eddies are parts of tank not contributing
much to treatment, shortening effective detention time
Water Quality Parameters
MODULE CONTENTS
Physical Water Quality Parameters
Chemical Water Quality Parameters
Biological Water Quality Parameters
The term water quality relates to all the constituentsof water including both dissolved substances andany other substances carried by the water.
Water pollution may be defined as the presence inwater of impurities in such quantities and of suchnature as to impair the use of the water for a statedpurpose.
The concentration of the pollutant is given by theexpression c = Mass/Volume. usually expressed inmg/L
What is Water Quality?
All receiving waters can assimilate wastes to some extentdepending on the natural selfpurification capacity
Water quality problems or issues arise when the pollutantloads exceed this capacity
Water quality parameters makes it possible to assessextent of water pollution and hence water/wastewatertreatment methods
3 types of water quality parameters physical, chemical,biological
Significance of water quality parameters
Physical Water Quality Parameters
Physical parameters define those
characteristics of water that respond to the
senses of sight, touch, taste, or smell.
Parameters that fall into this category include
suspended solids, colour, taste, odour,
temperature, turbidity
Physical Water Quality Parameters
Categories of solids
Type of Solid Size (m) Specific Gravity
Gross > 6000 0.9 1.2
Grit > 150 2.6
Suspended 0.45 1.4 2.0
Dissolved < 0.45 -
Gross sanitary solids also known as aesthetic, refractory orintractable solids include faecal matter, toilet paper, sanitarypads and condoms.
The particular concern about gross solids these solids istheir aesthetic impact when they are discharged into waterbodies.
Grit which is also called sewer sediment includes sand,gravel and any other solids that have higher specific gravitythan organic biodegradable solids.
The problems associated with grit include partial or totalblockage of pipes which leads to a loss of hydraulic capacity.
Gross solids and Grit
The total suspended solids (TSS) content is the organic andinorganic solid matter which is maintained in suspension, andretained when the sample is filtered (0.45 m pore size)
The retained filter material that can be volatized and burnedoff when ignited at 500C is classified as volatile
Volatile solids, VS, are presumed to be organic matter andfixed solids, FS, is the inert residue
The ratio of VS to FS, typically, 70%, is used to characterizewastewater with respect to the amount of organic matterpresent
Suspended and Dissolved solids
The total suspended solids (TSS) is used
to measure the quality of wastewater
Total suspended solids
Turbidity is a measure of the light-transmittingproperties of water
Turbidity is used to indicate water quality withrespect to colloidal and residual suspendedmatter
Turbid water is aesthetically displeasing
Turbidity measurements are usually made onclean water
Turbidity
Pure water is colourless, but water in nature is often
coloured by foreign substances.
Water whose colour is partly due to suspended matter is
said to have apparent color.
Colour contributed by dissolved solids that remain after
removal of suspended matter is known as true colour
True colour may be measured in potable water analysis
Colour
The terms taste and odour are themselves definitive ofthis parameter.
Substances that produce an odour in water will almostinvariably impart a taste.
However, there are many mineral substances thatproduce a taste but no odour.
Odours produced by organic substances may pose morethan a problem of simple aesthetics, since some of thosesubstances may be carcinogenic.
The taste and odour parameter is associated with potablewater
Taste and Odour
Temperature is not typically used to evaluate directlyeither potable water or wastewater.
It is, however, one of the most important parameters innatural surface-water systems.
The temperature of surface waters governs to a largeextent the biological species present and their rates ofactivity.
Temperature also has a pronounced effect on solubilityof gases.
Wastewater is typically warmer than the local watersupply because of warm wash water and industrialcontributions
Temperature
Chemical Water Quality Parameters
The chemical parameters refer to those parameters
associated with the solvent capabilities of water
Parameters that fall into this category include total
dissolved solids, alkalinity, hardness, organics and
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus)
Chemical Water Quality Parameters
This refers to the material remaining in water after
filtration for suspended solids analysis (0.45 m pore
size)
Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic in nature
Dissolved solids may produce odour, taste and colour in
water
TDS is used in analysis of water and wastewater
Total dissolved solids
Alkalinity is defined as the quantity of ions in water that
will react to neutralise hydrogen ions
Alkalinity is the measure of the ability of water to
neutralise acids
Main constituents of alkalinity include hydroxides (OH-),
carbonates (CO32-), bicarbonates (HCO3
-)
Alkalinity is used in analysis of natural waters to
determine buffering capacity
Alkalinity
Hardness is defined as the concentration of multivalentmetallic cations in solution
Hardness is classified as carbonate hardness andnoncarbonated hardness, depending upon the anionswith which it associates
Carbonate hardness in the hardness that is equivalentto the alkalinity
Noncarbonated hardness refers to any hardness inexcess of the carbonated hardness
Analysis for hardness is made on natural waters and onwaters intended for potable supplies and certainindustrial uses
Hardness
Organic compounds in water are unstable and arereadily oxidized either biologically or chemically
End products include such as carbon dioxide, nitrates,sulphates and water
Decomposition of organic matter in wastewater bymicro-organisms consumes dissolved oxygen (DO)
An indirect indication of the amount of organic materialin wastewater can be derived from the BOD,COD, TOCtests
Organics
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - indicates the amount
of oxygen required by aerobic micro-organisms to
decompose the organic matter in a sample of water in a
defined time period e.g. 5 days
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) measures the oxygen
equivalent of organic matter that can be oxidized by a string
oxidizing agent e.g. potassium dichromate
Total Organic Carbon (TOC) measures the total organic
content of a compound
Tests for Organics
Phosphorus is an aquatic plant nutrient
Phosphorus can contribute to eutrophication and
reduction of dissolved oxygen
Phosphorus can be expressed as total, organic or
inorganic (ortho- and poly-) phosphorus
Most of the phosphorus occurring in wastewater is in
the inorganic form
Phosphorus
Nitrogen is also an aquatic plant nutrient that cancontribute to eutrophication and reduction of dissolvedoxygen
Nitrogen exists in four main forms: organic nitrogen,ammonia nitrogen, nitrite and nitrate
The term total nitrogen is used to refer to the sum of allthese forms in a sample of wastewater
Organic and ammonia nitrogen make up most of thetotal nitrogen in wastewater
Nitrogen
Biological Water Quality Parameters
This refers to those parameters associated with the absenceor presence of aquatic organisms in a given body of water
Aquatic organisms range in size and complexity from thesmallest single-cell microorganism to the largest fish
Based on their known tolerance for a given pollutant, certainorganisms can be used as indicators of the presence ofpollutants
A body of water hosting large numbers of species with wellbalanced numbers of individuals (species-diversity) isconsidered to be a healthy system
Pathogens present in aquatic environments are capable ofinfecting, or transmitting diseases to humans
Biological Water Quality Parameters
Bacteria
Viruses
Protozoa
Helminths (worms)
Types of Pathogens
Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms,usually colorless
Bacteria are the lowest form of life capable ofsynthesizing protoplasm from the surroundingenvironment
Gastrointestinal disorders are commonsymptoms of most diseases transmitted bywater-borne pathogenic bacteria.
Bacteria
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known tocontain all the genetic information necessary for their ownproduction.
Viruses are only visible with aid of electronic microscopes
Viruses are obligate parasites that require a host in whichto live
Waterborne viral infections usually involve disorders ofthe nervous system rather than of the gastrointestinaltract
Viruses
Protozoa are the lowest form of plant life
Protozoa are unicellular organisms more complex intheir functional activity than bacteria or viruses
Protozoa can be free-living or parasitic, pathogenic ornonpathogenic
Protozoal infections are usually characterized bygastrointestinal disorders of a milder form than thoseassociated with bacterial infections
Protozoa
Helminth is a term used to describe parasitic worms
The life cycles of helminths, often involve two ormore animal hosts, one of which can be human
Water contamination may result from human oranimal waste that contains helminths.
Helminths pose hazards primarily to those personswho come into direct contact with untreated water
Helminths
Analysis of water of all the known pathogens would bevery time-consuming and expensive proposition
Tests for specific pathogens are usually made onlywhen there is a reason to suspect that those particularorganisms are present
At other times, the purity of water is checked usingindicator organisms
An indicator organism is one whose presence presumesthat contamination has occurred and suggests thenature and extent of contaminant(s).
Pathogen Indicators
Faecal coliforms (FC) - is an indicator of watercontamination with faecal matter. The common leadindicator is the bacteria Escherichia coli or E. coli.
Total coliforms (TC) this encompasses faecalcoliforms as well as common soil microorganisms, andis a broad indicator of possible water contamination.
Helminth analysis investigates the presence for wormseggs in water.
Microbiological indicator tests