Lecture 1Lecture 1

Entering  into speciality. Entering  into speciality. Origin of medicine and Origin of medicine and

pharmacy. pharmacy. Medicine of primitive line-upMedicine of primitive line-up

Why do we begin to study from Why do we begin to study from history? history? • History of our profession is part of human practice, History of our profession is part of human practice,

experience and supervisions, which is named a experience and supervisions, which is named a culture. Medicine and pharmacy are old sciences. culture. Medicine and pharmacy are old sciences.

• History of medicine and pharmacy is history of History of medicine and pharmacy is history of accumulation of experience for prophylaxis and accumulation of experience for prophylaxis and treatment of illnesses of humanity and animals, which treatment of illnesses of humanity and animals, which is directed on a search and perfection of medications is directed on a search and perfection of medications for a fight against illnesses, history of forming, for a fight against illnesses, history of forming, becoming, development and functioning of pharmacy becoming, development and functioning of pharmacy business.business.

History of medicine and pharmacy is one of History of medicine and pharmacy is one of sections of culture of humanity.sections of culture of humanity.

It examines the complex It examines the complex of knowledge’s about of knowledge’s about creation of medications, creation of medications, by development of by development of enterprises of enterprises of pharmacies. History pharmacies. History helps correctly to helps correctly to understand the modern understand the modern level of pharmacy and level of pharmacy and foresee the prospects of foresee the prospects of its development.its development.

The sources of a history of medicine.The sources of a history of medicine.

1. Written sources1. Written sources - the contents, which are transmitted with the - the contents, which are transmitted with the plot of signs (manuscripts, printed sources, papyrus, ceramics plot of signs (manuscripts, printed sources, papyrus, ceramics and other).and other).

2. Ware sources - most miscellaneous under the shape 2. Ware sources - most miscellaneous under the shape (instruments of a transactions, monuments, oddments of the (instruments of a transactions, monuments, oddments of the people, medals, coins).people, medals, coins).

3. The ethnographic sources - phenomena of cultural life, are 3. The ethnographic sources - phenomena of cultural life, are transmitted from breed for breed (solemnities, custom, songs, transmitted from breed for breed (solemnities, custom, songs, retellings).retellings).

4. A way of life modern tribes, which lived in the past epoch.4. A way of life modern tribes, which lived in the past epoch.5. Photo and films - static and dynamic documents.5. Photo and films - static and dynamic documents.6. The phonodocuments- image the acoustical side of historical 6. The phonodocuments- image the acoustical side of historical

events.events.

The origin of the word "pharmacy" is generally ascribed The origin of the word "pharmacy" is generally ascribed to the Greek pharmakon ("remedy").to the Greek pharmakon ("remedy").

• It has been suggested that there is a connection with the It has been suggested that there is a connection with the egyptian term ph-ar-maki ("bestower of security"), which the egyptian term ph-ar-maki ("bestower of security"), which the god Thoth, patron of physicians, conferred as approbation on a god Thoth, patron of physicians, conferred as approbation on a ferryman who had managed a safe crossing. ferryman who had managed a safe crossing.

• The notion of an Egyptian origin has a certain romantic The notion of an Egyptian origin has a certain romantic appeal, but in all likelihood the word "pharmacy" and its many appeal, but in all likelihood the word "pharmacy" and its many cognates derive, like so many other scientific terms, from the cognates derive, like so many other scientific terms, from the Greek:Greek:

- the art of preparing and dispensing drugs. - the art of preparing and dispensing drugs. - a place where drugs are sold; a drugstore. In this sense, also - a place where drugs are sold; a drugstore. In this sense, also

called apothecary. called apothecary.

ApothecaryApothecary is an historical name for a medical is an historical name for a medical practitioner who formulates and dispenses materia practitioner who formulates and dispenses materia medica to physicians, surgeons and patients — a role medica to physicians, surgeons and patients — a role now served by a now served by a pharmacistpharmacist..

• In addition to pharmacy the In addition to pharmacy the apothecary also offered general apothecary also offered general medical advice and a range of medical advice and a range of services that are now performed services that are now performed solely by other specialist solely by other specialist practitioners, such as surgery practitioners, such as surgery and and midwifery. Apothecaries . Apothecaries often operated through a retail often operated through a retail shop, which in addition to shop, which in addition to ingredients for medicines, ingredients for medicines, would also sell would also sell tobacco and and patent medicines..

From the 15th century the apothecary gained the status of a skilled practitioner, but by the end of the 19th century the medical professions had taken on their current institutional form, with defined roles for physicians and surgeons, and the role of the

apothecary was more narrowly conceived as that of dispensing pharmacist.

In England, the apothecaries merited their own livery company, the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries, founded in 1617. Elizabeth Garrett Anderson became the first woman to gain a medical qualification in Britain when she passed the Society's examination in 1865.

Apothecaries used the now obsolete apothecaries' measure to provide precise weighing of small quantities.

Emblem of medicine and pharmacy

The two symbols most commonly associated with pharmacy are the mortar and pestle and the (℞ recipe) character,

which is often written as "rx" in typed text.

Mortar and pestle Recipe symbol

Emblem of medicine and Emblem of medicine and pharmacypharmacy• Pharmacy organizations often use other symbols, such as the Pharmacy organizations often use other symbols, such as the

Bowl of Hygieia. . • Representing a snake in different combinations has old history. In Representing a snake in different combinations has old history. In

primitive society, on his first stage of development, group of primitive society, on his first stage of development, group of people represented animals – bears, wolves, birds and snakes as a people represented animals – bears, wolves, birds and snakes as a

totem. totem. • In Babylon thought that a snake is a “child of goddess of Earth”, in In Babylon thought that a snake is a “child of goddess of Earth”, in

Egypt named the snake of “life of earth”, about a snake other Egypt named the snake of “life of earth”, about a snake other people had similar imagination. From old times a snake people had similar imagination. From old times a snake

symbolized good, wisdom and knowledge.symbolized good, wisdom and knowledge.

Emblem of medicine and Emblem of medicine and pharmacypharmacy

• Other symbols are common in different countries: Other symbols are common in different countries: the green the green Greek cross in in France and the and the United Kingdom, the increasingly-rare , the increasingly-rare Gaper in in The Netherlands, and a red stylized letter A in , and a red stylized letter A in Germany and Austria (from Germany and Austria (from ApothekeApotheke, the German , the German word for pharmacy, from the same Greek root as word for pharmacy, from the same Greek root as the English word 'apothecary').the English word 'apothecary').

PharmacopoeiaPharmacopoeia

• is a book containing is a book containing directions for the directions for the identification of samples identification of samples and the preparation of and the preparation of compound medicines, compound medicines, and published by the and published by the authority of a authority of a government or a medical government or a medical or pharmaceutical or pharmaceutical society.society.

The earliest pharmacopoeia books were written by Muslim The earliest pharmacopoeia books were written by Muslim physicians. These included Abu-Rayhan Biruni in the 11th physicians. These included Abu-Rayhan Biruni in the 11th century, Ibn Baytar in the 14th century,and Ibn Zuhr in 1491.century, Ibn Baytar in the 14th century,and Ibn Zuhr in 1491.

The first work of the kind published under government The first work of the kind published under government authority appears to have been that of Nuremberg in 1542; a authority appears to have been that of Nuremberg in 1542; a passing student named Valerius Cordus showed a collection of passing student named Valerius Cordus showed a collection of medical receipts, which he had selected from the writings of medical receipts, which he had selected from the writings of the most eminent medical authorities, to the physicians of the the most eminent medical authorities, to the physicians of the town, who urged him to print it for the benefit of the town, who urged him to print it for the benefit of the apothecaries, and obtained for his work the sanction of the apothecaries, and obtained for his work the sanction of the senatus.senatus.

An earlier work, known as the An earlier work, known as the Antidotarium FlorentinumAntidotarium Florentinum, had , had been published under the authority of the college of medicine been published under the authority of the college of medicine of Florence.of Florence.

The term The term pharmacopoeiapharmacopoeia first appears as a distinct title in a first appears as a distinct title in a work published at Basel in 1561 by Dr A. Foes, but does not work published at Basel in 1561 by Dr A. Foes, but does not appear to have come into general use until the beginning of the appear to have come into general use until the beginning of the 17th century.17th century.

Medicine of the primitive communion Medicine of the primitive communion system order.system order.• Medicine is to historical timesMedicine is to historical times hugs a hugs a

period from the Paleozoic era (600 million period from the Paleozoic era (600 million years BC) to opening of calendar and letter years BC) to opening of calendar and letter (4000 BC). (4000 BC).

• In development of man marks two critical In development of man marks two critical moments. moments.

• First is beginning of labour activity, second First is beginning of labour activity, second transformation of ancient man on the man transformation of ancient man on the man of modern type (40000-45000 BC). of modern type (40000-45000 BC).

The heavy terms of existence The heavy terms of existence and getting of meal were and getting of meal were instrumental in the origin of instrumental in the origin of diseases.diseases.

• Pharmacy, as well as all medicine, arose Pharmacy, as well as all medicine, arose out of desire sick to save the life and out of desire sick to save the life and facilitate sufferings, loosen pain by the facilitate sufferings, loosen pain by the use of matters which surround him. use of matters which surround him.

• Using different herbages, a man marked Using different herbages, a man marked their medical or poisonous properties.their medical or poisonous properties.

People of the Paleolithic period were People of the Paleolithic period were interested in the flora around them to interested in the flora around them to engrave a variety of plants, bones and deer engrave a variety of plants, bones and deer antlers. antlers. • The use of herbs as healing agents predates recorded history. The use of herbs as healing agents predates recorded history.

Investigation of a 60,000 year old Palaeolithic grave site in Investigation of a 60,000 year old Palaeolithic grave site in Shanidar, Northern Iraq, yielded pollen samples of no less than Shanidar, Northern Iraq, yielded pollen samples of no less than eight different genera of flowering plants. Many of the species eight different genera of flowering plants. Many of the species were still official in various pharmacopeias until the mid were still official in various pharmacopeias until the mid 1930's. Therefore to say that 'herbs are the mother of all 1930's. Therefore to say that 'herbs are the mother of all medicine', would not be unreasonable. Herbal therapeutics is a medicine', would not be unreasonable. Herbal therapeutics is a broad term that covers all those systems of medicine in which broad term that covers all those systems of medicine in which herbs or their derivatives form an essential part of the therapy, herbs or their derivatives form an essential part of the therapy, e.g.e.g.

• With development hunt appeared remedies of animal origin fat, With development hunt appeared remedies of animal origin fat, blood, marrow. The matters of medical origin appear also and blood, marrow. The matters of medical origin appear also and above all things as mineral waters.above all things as mineral waters.

• Prehistoric skulls found in Europe Prehistoric skulls found in Europe and South America indicate that and South America indicate that Neolithic man was already able to Neolithic man was already able to trephine, or remove disks of bone trephine, or remove disks of bone from, the skull successfully, but from, the skull successfully, but whether this delicate operation whether this delicate operation was performed to release evil was performed to release evil spirits or as a surgical procedure spirits or as a surgical procedure is not known. Empirical medicine is not known. Empirical medicine developed in ancient Egypt, and developed in ancient Egypt, and involved the use of many potent involved the use of many potent drugs still in use today, such as drugs still in use today, such as castor oil, senna, opium, castor oil, senna, opium, colchicine, and mercury. In spite colchicine, and mercury. In spite of their skill in embalming, of their skill in embalming, however, the Egyptians had little however, the Egyptians had little knowledge of anatomy.knowledge of anatomy.

Treatment of diseases is the most Treatment of diseases is the most ancient human need. ancient human need.

Appearance of medicine belongs Appearance of medicine belongs to the era of matriarchyits, to the era of matriarchyits, evidence is the materials of evidence is the materials of archeology and ethnography.archeology and ethnography.

For millennia people were studying the For millennia people were studying the properties of plants recognizingproperties of plants recognizing

nutritional, poisonous and medicinal nutritional, poisonous and medicinal properties of plants. The first herbsproperties of plants. The first herbs

were pain, killing irritating the were pain, killing irritating the digestive tract, stimulating (bush digestive tract, stimulating (bush «coke»),«coke»),

narcotic (poppy, tobacco. marihuana).narcotic (poppy, tobacco. marihuana).

The new practice of treating The new practice of treating diseasesdiseases

developed since people developed since people discovered the healing discovered the healing properties of some animal or-properties of some animal or-

gans ( with the transition to gans ( with the transition to hunting )hunting )

Every member of the tribe had the Every member of the tribe had the individual animal-protector. An individual animal-protector. An animal was called «manito» animal was called «manito» (medicine) in theNorth American (medicine) in theNorth American Indians. It must protect a man from Indians. It must protect a man from diseases help and cure.diseases help and cure.

The man had his «manito» inside, The man had his «manito» inside, drinking blood, eating organs and ash drinking blood, eating organs and ash of this animal.of this animal.

Fat was applied externally rubbing into Fat was applied externally rubbing into the body.the body.

Another form of animal — Manito Another form of animal — Manito application was an amulet. A man application was an amulet. A man made the image of his animal from made the image of his animal from the wood, bone, stone and always the wood, bone, stone and always wore on himselfwore on himself..

Together with the new medications of theTogether with the new medications of the

animal origin the ancient herbal animal origin the ancient herbal treatment was also used.treatment was also used.

A new stage of the human history was A new stage of the human history was the transition from hunting to cattle-the transition from hunting to cattle-breeding, that was the stimulus of breeding, that was the stimulus of the further development of medicine.the further development of medicine.

Observation for domesticated animals Observation for domesticated animals helped to notice the action of the helped to notice the action of the plants and transfer this knowledge plants and transfer this knowledge for treating people.for treating people.

Reposition of dislocations, Reposition of dislocations, treatment of fractures, treatment of fractures, castration, caesarian section castration, caesarian section were novel in medical practice, were novel in medical practice, resulting from the prolonged and resulting from the prolonged and close contact with domestic close contact with domestic animals.animals.

Matriarchy gave way to patriarchy and a Matriarchy gave way to patriarchy and a male ancestor was the patron and male ancestor was the patron and protector of his children, their physical protector of his children, their physical well-being, their health.well-being, their health. If a If a descendant-was disrespectful toward descendant-was disrespectful toward his ancestor, the last «dwell» in him, his ancestor, the last «dwell» in him, began to torture and made him sick. began to torture and made him sick.

Disease was a punishment for disrespect-Disease was a punishment for disrespect-ful attitude to the memory of the ful attitude to the memory of the

ancestor.ancestor.

If the ancestor is persisted and If the ancestor is persisted and continued to torture the sick continued to torture the sick person,he was driven out using person,he was driven out using various methods of intimidation. various methods of intimidation.

The whole system of “frightened The whole system of “frightened healing” was created, it prevailed in healing” was created, it prevailed in America, China, Turkmenistan, America, China, Turkmenistan, Siberia, Africa and Australia.Siberia, Africa and Australia.

At the end of the Patriarchate primitive At the end of the Patriarchate primitive people divided the world into the natural people divided the world into the natural world (material) and weird inhabited by world (material) and weird inhabited by spirits. spirits.

Evil spirits — demons were declared the Evil spirits — demons were declared the cause of diseases. Demons of blindness, cause of diseases. Demons of blindness, deafness, seizures, paralysis, toothache, deafness, seizures, paralysis, toothache, headache (a specific demon corresponded headache (a specific demon corresponded to each disease) penetrated into the body to each disease) penetrated into the body and caused a disease.and caused a disease.

The principle of treatment is The principle of treatment is simple: to propitiate the gods simple: to propitiate the gods with prayerswith prayers

and or to expel out the demon and or to expel out the demon from the patient's body.from the patient's body.

Thus, the era of the primitive people Thus, the era of the primitive people community acquired medical knowledge community acquired medical knowledge based on direct acquaintance with the based on direct acquaintance with the objects of nature surrounding them. objects of nature surrounding them.

The knowledge was empirical based on the The knowledge was empirical based on the own experience.own experience.

A great number of drugs, mainly herbal, A great number of drugs, mainly herbal, was discovered some surgical skills was discovered some surgical skills included in further medical practice were included in further medical practice were developed.developed.

Medicine and pharmacy in the Medicine and pharmacy in the slaveholding states of the Ancient slaveholding states of the Ancient EastEast

In the transition from the primitive In the transition from the primitive society to the slave-owing society society to the slave-owing society the temple medicine was formed. the temple medicine was formed.

But folk medicine remained the main But folk medicine remained the main formform

of medicine in the slave-holding states of medicine in the slave-holding states of the Ancient Orient.of the Ancient Orient.

New profession of New profession of

a doctora doctor

occupied a prominent place in occupied a prominent place in societysociety

and was recognized by the state.and was recognized by the state.

A doctor was responsible for his actions in A doctor was responsible for his actions in relation to the law. relation to the law.

Training physicians took place in the Training physicians took place in the family. family.

The head of the family had his own secret The head of the family had his own secret medicines and medical skills, shared his medicines and medical skills, shared his experience only with the members of the experience only with the members of the family fromgeneration to generation.family fromgeneration to generation.

The material was accumulated, the The material was accumulated, the first record — «medical manual», thefirst record — «medical manual», the

first medical literature appeared. first medical literature appeared.

The main texts of the medical The main texts of the medical literature of that time the Egyptian literature of that time the Egyptian medical papyrusmedical papyrus

Slave-owning states of the Ancient East had a Slave-owning states of the Ancient East had a different coverage of the problem of etiology different coverage of the problem of etiology in folk medicine. in folk medicine.

At the first place it was the problem of At the first place it was the problem of nutrition: overeating or lack of food, gross, nutrition: overeating or lack of food, gross, contaminated food, contaminated food,

another problem was climate: the change of another problem was climate: the change of seasons, the winds — hot, cold, wet, dry;seasons, the winds — hot, cold, wet, dry;

the next problem was the lack of personal the next problem was the lack of personal hygiene, nonhygienic state of dwellings. hygiene, nonhygienic state of dwellings.

The cause of some diseases was considered to The cause of some diseases was considered to be excessive or in sufficient physical be excessive or in sufficient physical movements. movements.

Diseases, that were not subjected to the causal Diseases, that were not subjected to the causal explanation were attributed to the rage of the explanation were attributed to the rage of the gods. gods.

In the therapy of internal diseases the In the therapy of internal diseases the “emptying” methods of treatment with “emptying” methods of treatment with application of laxatives and emetics application of laxatives and emetics prevailed. prevailed.

The treatment with a diet was practiced, The treatment with a diet was practiced, so there was a great number of dietary so there was a great number of dietary prescriptions in medical books. prescriptions in medical books.

Ophthalmology developed: eye ointments Ophthalmology developed: eye ointments appeared and removal of cataract with appeared and removal of cataract with the help of surgery was performed.the help of surgery was performed.

Together with professional Together with professional medicine the temple medicine, medicine the temple medicine, which was thewhich was the

work of priests, existed. work of priests, existed.

They used the experience and They used the experience and methods of traditional medicines, methods of traditional medicines, but in particular, distinctive form.but in particular, distinctive form.

The temple medicine taught that the The temple medicine taught that the most important of all emanations was most important of all emanations was the emanation of the Sun. the emanation of the Sun.

The God of the Sun ruled it and due to hisThe God of the Sun ruled it and due to hiswill the radiation of the sun penetrated will the radiation of the sun penetrated

to the blood of man, giving him to the blood of man, giving him movement and heat, i.e. blood was the movement and heat, i.e. blood was the source and cause of all the vital source and cause of all the vital characteristics of an organism.characteristics of an organism.

Medicine in the ancient Medicine in the ancient

Egypt EgyptThanks to preparation of mummies the Thanks to preparation of mummies the

Egyptians studied well the structure of Egyptians studied well the structure of the human body. They associated causes the human body. They associated causes of diseases both with natural phenomena of diseases both with natural phenomena (junk food, intestinal parasites, weather (junk food, intestinal parasites, weather changes) and with supernatural ideas changes) and with supernatural ideas (occupancy of the spirit of the deceased (occupancy of the spirit of the deceased person patient's of the body, attempts to person patient's of the body, attempts to expel it the the unpleasant-tasting expel it the the unpleasant-tasting medicines, charms, spells, ect.).medicines, charms, spells, ect.).

In Egyptian medicine it was very popular In Egyptian medicine it was very popular to treat with herbs, spices,herbal to treat with herbs, spices,herbal ointments. ointments.

The Ancient Greeks believed Egypt to be The Ancient Greeks believed Egypt to be the treasury of pharmaceutical the treasury of pharmaceutical knowledge.knowledge.

The Egyptian pharmacy is one of the The Egyptian pharmacy is one of the most ancient. The source of information most ancient. The source of information about it are “The Hermetic Books”about it are “The Hermetic Books”

In the Ebers Papyrus the In the Ebers Papyrus the importance of the heart in importance of the heart in the human life was the human life was emphasized. The diagnosis emphasized. The diagnosis of diseases by pulse were of diseases by pulse were known by the ancient known by the ancient Egyptians more than four Egyptians more than four millennia ago.millennia ago.

An ibis beak on the head of the An ibis beak on the head of the god Thoth was the prototype god Thoth was the prototype of of

enemaenema,,

which Egyptians considered as which Egyptians considered as their greatest invention in the their greatest invention in the field of medicine.field of medicine.

In the 4—6-th millennia BC in the ancient In the 4—6-th millennia BC in the ancient Egyptians only priests of the highest caste Egyptians only priests of the highest caste had the right to prepare medicines. It was had the right to prepare medicines. It was believed that medicine was under the believed that medicine was under the patronage of the god Thoth, «lifesaver», patronage of the god Thoth, «lifesaver», «defender», «defender», ««healhealerer»». .

The Egyptians called him «The Egyptians called him «pharmacypharmacy».».

Hence the words with the root of «pharma» Hence the words with the root of «pharma» such as pharmacology, pharmacognosy, such as pharmacology, pharmacognosy, Pharmacopoeia,pharmacy appeared.Pharmacopoeia,pharmacy appeared.

Preparation of medicines was at rather Preparation of medicines was at rather high level. The Egyptians were able to high level. The Egyptians were able to prepare tablets, infusions, decoctions, prepare tablets, infusions, decoctions, squeeze juice from plants, prepare squeeze juice from plants, prepare ointments, adhesive bandages, ointments, adhesive bandages, smoking materials. Preparation of smoking materials. Preparation of epicutaneous and cosmetic products epicutaneous and cosmetic products was of particular success. was of particular success.

Therefore, Egypt is considered to be a Therefore, Egypt is considered to be a home of dermatology.home of dermatology.

Raw garlic was often used. Raw garlic was often used.

Still popular remedy for cold — Still popular remedy for cold — garlic with honey — was garlic with honey — was invented in the ancient Egypt. invented in the ancient Egypt.

It was believed that the «demon of It was believed that the «demon of cold» was afraid of garlic and ran cold» was afraid of garlic and ran away when he appeared.away when he appeared.

The pharmaceutical technology of primary The pharmaceutical technology of primary processing of substances — squeezing, processing of substances — squeezing, boiling, straining, grinding, sieving — boiling, straining, grinding, sieving — was known. was known.

There were precise rules for the There were precise rules for the preparation of medicines, signatures preparation of medicines, signatures how to use medicineshow to use medicines

(in the morning or in the evening) (in the morning or in the evening) appeared. There was an obligatory ritual appeared. There was an obligatory ritual — to say prays before taking a — to say prays before taking a medication.medication.