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Academic year 2011-2012
LOCAL KNOWLEDGE AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUES OF PICRALIMA NITIDA ((STAPF) TH. & H.
DURAND) IN THE HUMID FOREST ZONE OF CAMEROON
Yakeu Djiam, Serge Eric
Promoter: Prof. dr. ir. Patrick Van Damme Co-promoter: dr. ir. Zac Tchoundjeu
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the joint academic degree of International Master of Science in Rural Development from Ghent University
(Belgium), Agrocampus Ouest (France), Humboldt University of Berlin (Germany), Slovak University of Agriculture in Nitra (Slovakia) and University of Pisa (Italy) in collaboration with Wageningen University (The
Netherlands)
This thesis was elaborated and defended at Ghent University, Department of Agricultural Economics within the framework of the European Erasmus Mundus Programme “Erasmus Mundus International Master of Science in
Rural Development" (Course N° 2010-0114 – R 04-018/001)
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Certification
This is an unpublished M.Sc. thesis and is not prepared for further distribution. The author and
the promoters give the permission to use this thesis for consultation and to copy parts of it for
personal use. Any other use is subject to the copyright laws, more specifically the source must be
extensively specified when using results from this thesis.
The Promoter: The Author Prof. dr. ir. Patrick Van Damme ir. Serge Eric Yakeu Djiam The Co-promoter: dr. ir. Zac Tchoundjeu
Thesis online access release I hereby authorize the IMRD secretariat to make this thesis available online on the IMRD
website
The Author
ir. Serge Eric Yakeu Djiam
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Abstract
The present study was conducted in the villages of Nguila and Mbangassina of the humid forest
zone of Cameroon with the aim of assessing local knowledge on and socio-economic values of
Picralima nitida. It was carried out using a households’ questionnaire survey during which 65
respondents were interviewed using purposeful and snowball sampling methods. Secondary data
have been collected from reports, publications and other official documents. Data have been
analysed using SPSS 16.0 and Microsoft Excel. Results reveal that the species is growing
naturally in forest (52 %) and on farms (30 %). Ninety-five percent of the respondents have free
access in gathering the product with no exclusive control over the resource. P. nitida is mostly
used to treat malaria, yellow fever, and typhoid fever, but often in combination with modern
medicine. Half of the respondents (49%) mix the berries’ flesh of P. nitida with other products
such as leaves of guava and Aloe vera, papaya stems, and citrus juice. They found P. nitida to be
more effective than modern medicine in curing typhoid. Only one group of women healers was
found in Mbangassina that makes traditional medicine from P. nitida. Ninety-five percent of the
respondents affirm that their health has been greatly improved and the cost of health care for the
identified diseases has been reduced by about 20 %. All household members are fully
participating in the activity. On average, 12 % of household’s income was derived from sales of
P. nitida. The product fully contributes to the need for the majority of respondents (58 %) in
terms of saving in expense with regard to household cost for health care. The importance people
attach to P. nitida is significantly related to their evaluation of its socio-economic values
((r=0.348), P-value (0.0025)). Males gave a significant higher mean value compared to females,
thus they found the product more important than females (P-value (0.037)). There is no
difference in product importance and the evaluation of its socio-economic values between age
groups. The change in household welfare can be increased with increase in knowledge about
medicine, places and forms of sales. Forest and environmental services should develop more
educational activities to sensitize the population on sustainable resources management. Farmers
should form in groups to improve their production and marketing capacities. Universities and
research institutions should develop: (1) Ethnobothanical survey on P. nitida with a larger
sample size in the main production sites of Cameroon; (2) Marketing research to identify the key
challenges in the value-chain of the product; (3) Investigation on the domestication of the species
using cost-effective production techniques for farmers; (4) Laboratory test analysis on the
species to find probable side effects of the product; and (5) Organize an awareness seminar on P.
nitida to give the opportunity to other actors to discover the species.
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Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the Lord Almighty for having been my pillar and strength throughout this
research and my studies. I express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to:
- My promoter, Prof. dr. ir. Patrick Van Damme, Director of the Laboratory for Tropical
and Subtropical Agriculture and Ethnobotany of Ghent University, and my co-promoter,
dr. ir. Zac Tchoundjeu, Regional Coordinator of the World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF
West and Central Africa) in Cameroon, for their positive support, supervision, guidance
and advice during the preparation of the manuscript and development of this research.
Special thanks to the co-promoter for his belief in my capacity to undertake such a
challenge.
- The staff of the Faculty of Bioscience Engineering of UGent, Pisa University and
Wageningen University involved in the IMRD programme for the lectures as well as the
Secretariat of IMRD in Ghent for their support and encouragements especially in the
administration of this wonderful training programme.
- The Development Cooperation Unit of Ghent University for the two years’ scholarship
offer to support my training within the Erasmus Mundus consortium group. Especially, I
am so grateful to Mrs Liesbeth Vandepitte for her constant assistance in the management
of this grant.
- The Scientific Research Committee of the Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, UGent, for
the travel allowance provided to support my travel to Cameroon for the field work.
- The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) managed by dr. ir. Ann
Degrande, Senior Scientist at ICRAF for the grant support offer to cover the cost of data
collection. Special thanks to her for comments and useful suggestions she provided.
- Scientific and administrative staff of ICRAF for comments and permanent assistance
provided during my stay in Cameroon.
- dr. ir. Celine Termote for her scientific support provided in the development of the
proposal and during thesis implementation. My stay in Ghent has been improved with her
collaboration.
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- My IMRD fellow friends, especially Bojan Rantasa, Dragan Brkovic, Basavaraj Biradar,
Lavlu Mozumdar, Claudia Piacenza and Gabriel Specht with whom I spent and shared
my last year of study at Wageningen University. These moments are unforgettable and
we built a family for which I wish long life for future collaboration.
- My friends Christopher Amuoh, Patrick Sakyi, and Marcel Lakinyu, for the friendship we
built in Ghent during our stay for this training.
- Paulin Moudjo and Pierre Ngourrae who served as guides respectively in Nguilla (Ntui)
and in Mbangassina, for their local support during my field work and data collection. I
am also grateful to Alfred Bello from the Department of Forest and Wildlife of Ntui for
his introduction support during this investigation.
- Finally, my friends and family members for the permanent assistance offered to my
spouse and daughters during my absence. May God bless you more than you can hope!
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Dedication
To Emily Linda, Nathanael Shana, and Japheth Johane for their magnificent
patience, support and encouragement during my two years of absence from the
family. I am so grateful to you, my loves!
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Table of Content
Certification .................................................................................................................................... i Abstract .......................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... iii Dedication ...................................................................................................................................... v Table of Content ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... viii List of Figures ............................................................................................................................... ix List of Pictures ............................................................................................................................... x List of Annexes .............................................................................................................................. x Abbreviations and acronyms ....................................................................................................... xi Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Background .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2. Problem statement ................................................................................................................ 2 1.3. Research objectives .............................................................................................................. 3 1.4. Significance of the research ................................................................................................. 4 1.5. Limitations of the study ........................................................................................................ 4
Chapter 2: Conceptual framework .............................................................................................. 5
2.1. Conceptual analysis and understanding indigenous knowledge .......................................... 5 2.1.1. Conceptual analysis ...................................................................................................... 5 2.1.2. Understanding indigenous knowledge .......................................................................... 7
2.2. Interaction between knowledge and values in sustainable resources management ............. 7 2.3. Local knowledge and its applications .................................................................................. 8 2.4. Indigenous knowledge and medical pluralism ..................................................................... 9 2.5. Research Hypotheses .......................................................................................................... 10
Chapter 3: Definition of concepts and literature review ......................................................... 11
3.1. Overview, concepts and definition ..................................................................................... 11 3.1.1. Medicinal plants .......................................................................................................... 11 3.1.2. Local knowledge .......................................................................................................... 11 3.1.3. Social value ................................................................................................................. 12 3.1.4. Economic value ........................................................................................................... 13
3.2. Desrciption of Picralima nitida .......................................................................................... 14 3.2.1. Geographical distribution and physical description ................................................... 14 3.2.2. Overview of medicinal composition of P. nitida ......................................................... 16
3.3. Impact of tropical diseases and historical treatment methods ............................................ 17 3.4. Role of indigenous knowledge in the conservation of forest resources ............................. 18
3.4.1. General overview ........................................................................................................ 18 3.4.2. Some features of indigenous knowledge systems ........................................................ 19 3.4.3. Local practices of indigenous knowledge ................................................................... 20
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3.5. Local knowledge and biological diversity conservation .................................................... 22 3.6. Brief views of the contributions of NTFPs ........................................................................ 23
3.6.1. Dimensions of the contributions of NTFPs ................................................................. 23 3.6.2. Socio-economic contributions of NTFPs to household livelihoods ............................ 24
3.7. Some limitations of indigenous knowledge systems .......................................................... 25 Chapter 4: Materials and methods ............................................................................................ 27
4.1. Selection, geographical and demographical description of the sites .................................. 27 4.1.1. Selection of the studied sites ........................................................................................ 27 4.1.2. Geographical and demographical description of the sites ......................................... 27
4.2. Data collection .................................................................................................................... 29 4.2.1. Secondary Data Sources ............................................................................................. 30 4.2.2. Primary Data Collection ............................................................................................. 30
4.3. Data Analysis techniques ................................................................................................... 33 4.4. Definition of variables and measurement ........................................................................... 33
4.4.1. Independent variables ................................................................................................. 33 4.4.2. Definition of dependent variable ................................................................................. 36 4.4.3. Other variables ............................................................................................................ 37
Chapter 5: Results and Discussion ............................................................................................ 38
5.1. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents ............................................................ 38 5.2. Local knowledge assessment ............................................................................................. 42
5.2.1. Knowledge about growth ............................................................................................ 42 5.2.2. Knowledge about harvesting techniques and regeneration ........................................ 44 5.2.3. Knowledge about medicine ......................................................................................... 44
5.3. Socio-economic contributions of the product .................................................................... 48 5.3.1. Social contribution ...................................................................................................... 48 5.3.2. Economic contribution ................................................................................................ 50
5.4. Relation between males and females with respect to the importance of P. nitida ............. 54 5.5. Relationship between importance of P. nitida and the evaluation its socio-economic values ....................................................................................................... 55 5.6. Product importance and the evaluation of its socio-economic values between groups of age ....................................................................................................................... 55 5.7. Influence of local knowledge characteristics on the contributions of P. nitida to households’ welfare .......................................................................................... 55 5.8. Experience in exploitation of NTFP ................................................................................... 56 5.9. Access to resources and services ........................................................................................ 57 5.10. Constraints in exploiting the species ................................................................................ 59
Chapter 6: Conclusion and recommendations ......................................................................... 61 6.1. Conclusion .......................................................................................................................... 61 6.2. Recommendations .............................................................................................................. 62
References .................................................................................................................................... 64 Annexes ........................................................................................................................................ 74
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List of Tables
Table 1: Distribution of respondents in the study sites ................................................................ 31
Table 2: Dimensions of knowledge and their measurement ........................................................ 36
Table 3: Socio-economic characteristics of respondents ............................................................. 39
Table 4: Knowledge about growth of P. nitida ............................................................................ 43
Table 5: Harvesting techniques used in the collection of P. nitida .............................................. 44
Table 6: Place of having health care in the study sites ................................................................. 45
Table 7: Involvement in social group and improvement in health care ....................................... 49
Table 8: Access to resources and services .................................................................................... 58
Table 9: Awareness of respondents on the sustainability of forest resources .............................. 59
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Conceptual framework (Source: Author, 2012) ............................................................. 6
Figure 2: Knowledge development model (Adapted from Lawas, 1997) ...................................... 6
Figure 3: Some alkaloids found in P. nitida (Meyer et al., 2006) ................................................ 16
Figure 4: Map of the sites of study (By Ngaunkam., ICRAF Cameroon) ................................... 29
Figure 5: Distribution of respondents according to age ............................................................... 40
Figure 6: Average household’s monthly income ......................................................................... 41
Figure 7: Distribution of household members ............................................................................. 41
Figure 8: Parts of P. nitida used ................................................................................................... 46
Figure 9: Modes of preparation of medicine ................................................................................ 46
Figure 10: Average duration of treatment .................................................................................... 47
Figure 11: Dependency on medicinal plants ................................................................................ 48
Figure 12: Participation of household’s members in the activities .............................................. 50
Figure 13: percentage of household’s income from P. nitida sales ............................................. 51
Figure 14: Places of sales of P. nitida .......................................................................................... 52
Figure 15: Types of customers ..................................................................................................... 52
Figure 16: Forms of sale of the product ....................................................................................... 53
Figure 17: Price per unit of sale ................................................................................................... 53
Figure 18: Contribution of P. nitida to households’ saving in expense with regard to
household cost for health care ..................................................................................... 54
Figure 19: Duration in consuming NTFP in general .................................................................... 56
Figure 20: Duration in consuming medicinal plants and P. nitida particularly ........................... 57
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List of Pictures
Pictures 1 & 2: Berries and local juices of Picralima nitida at the markets of
respectively Kekem and Yaounde (Cameroon) ............................................................. 3
Picture 3: A view of a leaf of P. nitida (Author, 2012) ............................................................... 15
Picture 4: A view of the stem of P. nitida (Author, 2012) ........................................................... 15
Picture 5: A view of berries from field collection (Author, 2012) .............................................. 15
Picture 6: View of berries on farm (Author, 2012) ...................................................................... 42
Picture 7: View of a P. nitida tree in a farm in Nguila (Author, 2012) ....................................... 43
Picture 8: Field collection of the product from farm in Mbangassina ......................................... 59
List of Annexes
Annex 1 : Questionnaire survey ............................................................................................... 74 Annex 2: Some Statistics .......................................................................................................... 79
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Abbreviations and acronyms
AFCOM : « Association des Femmes de la Communauté »
ICRAF : World Agroforestry Centre
IFAD : International Fund for Agricultural Development
IMRD : International Master in Rural Development
MSF : Medecin Sans Frontières/Doctors Without Borders
NGO : Non-Governmental Organizations
NTFP : Non-Timber Forest Product
PH : Partners in Health
SPSS : Statistical Package for Social Sciences
RGPH : Third General Population and Housing Census
TEK : Traditional Ecological Knowledge
TRN : Taiga Rescue Network
UNESCO : United Nations of Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF : United Nations of International Children's Emergency Fund
USAID : United States Agency for International Development
VFCs : Village Forest Communities
WCA : West and Central Africa
WHO : World Health Organization
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Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter provides an overview of the role of forest resources including medicinal plants, the
problem statement, research objectives, the significance of the study, and its limitations.
1.1. Background
The values people attach to forest are multi-faceted and differential, simultaneously more or less
materially useful and culturally meaningful. In the same way, material uses for which forest
resource is collected must be understood in specific and local terms (David et al., 1996).
Medicinal plants are plants or plant parts used for therapeutic purposes or containing substances
that may provide drugs through synthetic or semi-synthetic ways (Sofowora, 1996). They are the
most-used category of plant resources in terms of species diversity. An estimate of Hamilton
(2002) indicates that 10 % of plants are more or less collected for therapeutic reasons in
Anapurna (Nepal). Rural populations depend most on medicinal plants. According to Ayensu
(1996), demographic studies conducted by various national and international organizations such
as the World Health Organization (WHO) show that for 75 to 90 % of the world’s rural
populations, the traditional healer is the only doctor, curing by plants. This means that medicinal
plants are essential for the health care of many people (Sofowora, 1996).
For instance, infectious diseases like typhoid transmitted by animal vectors are largely spread in
the world (Aquado, 2005). The same author argues that more than 21 million people worldwide
are infected and about 200,000 die annually, with 45 % of cases from Africa. These deaths are
due to Salmonella enterica serotype typhi (vector of typhoid). Roumagnac et al. (2006) declared
that this is a bacterium strictly adapted to humans and transmitted by fecal-oral way. Given the
relative persistence of the disease, a major study of population genetics of Salmonella typhi was
conducted by WHO in collaboration with the Pasteur Institute in Paris, the Welcome Trust
Sanger Institute in Britain and several medical research centers in Asia, including Vietnam
(Acosta et al., 2006). Following the analysis of nearly 300 asian strains, the study identified a
number of unrelated strains resistant to fluoroquinolones in Asia. These emerged following the
widespread use of antibiotics in this region in the early 90s. In some places, 90% of the bacteria
are now resistant to fluoroquinolones.
Masson (1998) argues that in developing countries, a tropical disease such as typhoid is still a
major health concern. As a consequence, researchers continue to search for effective controls to
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prevent typhoid epidemics. The same author argues that antibiotic therapy has proved effective
for many years in the treatment of typhoid fever, but resistances to antibiotics are more and more
reported. Today, rural and urban families in Cameroon turn to medical plants to cure this disease,
as well as other tropical diseases like malaria. Among plants species used to traditionally treat
typhoid fever, figures prominently Picralima nitida (Adjanohoun et al, 1996). The pressure
people exercised on these resources varies from one method to another. Current methods for the
harvest of medicinal plants from forests and fallows involve both destructive and non-destructive
practices (Balick and Mendelsohn, 1992). These authors argue that destructive methods of
harvest include stripping a tree completely of its bark, or cutting it to facilitate harvest.
Removing the roots or tubers from a woody or herbaceous plant can also result in its demise.
Non-destructive methods include removal of some percentage of the leaves or peeling small
strips of bark, to avoid girdling the tree. Betti (2001) found that P. nitida ranks first among four
plants used to treat typhoid fever by indigenous communities in the eastern region of Cameroon,
with endangerment index above 2 (according to decreasing IV values, these species were ranked
as follows: Picralima nitida > Alstonia boonei > Rauvolfia vomitoria > Zanthoxylum heitzii).
Traditional medicine is an essential part of the health care systems in Central Africa, where
synthetic pharmaceutical drugs are not easily accessible to a majority of the population,
especially the rural population. In this sense, CDRI (2006) argues that the majority of Africans
routinely use the services of traditional healers to restore their health. Recognizing that
traditional medicine is affordable and easily accessible for most rural Africans, the African
Union (AU) declared 2001-2010 the “Decade for Traditional Medicine in Africa" (WHO, 2011).
Moreover, the roles of medical plant for poverty reduction and health security at household as
well as at national level are well recognized (Ndoye, 1995).
1.2. Problem statement
In Cameroon, rural and urban people showed a renewed interest for Picralima nitida to
overcome various tropical diseases (Betti, 2001). Its use as a drug against typhoid and malaria is
reported in the cameroonian humid forest. The berries are used in traditional medicines for
fighting muscular pain (Adjanohoun et al., 1996; Yakeu et al., 2012). In addition to its medicinal
virtue, P. nitida is a source of cash income for rural and urban households, thus contributing to
the reduction of poverty in rural areas (Milliken, 1997; Sofowora, 1996). Nevertheless, very little
information on local knowledge about the growth, resource management, medicinal properties,
and socio-economic contribution of P. nitida to household welfare is available. Yakeu et al.
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(2012) reported that unlike other Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) used for medicinal
purposes, P. nitida has not yet attracted the attention of scientists in the field of domestication
and/or conservation. However, berries of P. nitida are omnipresent in most markets of the
country (Pictures 1 and 2). In spite of a number of projects and programmes implemented in
Cameroon for rural development, the contribution of medicinal plants in general and particularly
P. nitida to fight tropical diseases is an aspect that has not been much investigated until now.
Pictures 1 & 2: Berries and local juices of Picralima nitida at the markets of respectively
Kekem and Yaounde (Cameroon)
The contributions of medicinal plants to local health systems are obvious to ensure good physical
conditions to meet other needs such as education, farming and other economic occupations.
However, there is scarcity of relevant data to illustrate the importance of P. nitida as an
alternative source for the treatment of tropical diseases, as well as a source of income that can
help to support farmers’ livelihoods. An assessment of local knowledge of people and socio-
economic values of P. nitida to household livelihoods could therefore provide insights and
identify opportunities for research institutions, pharmaceutical enterprises, and policy-makers to
adopt relevant interventions. Specific attention will be paid to gather information on: the
knowledge about growth, harvesting techniques, medicinal applications; social and economic
values of the product; and the relationship between people knowledge and the contributions of P.
nitida to household welfare.
1.3. Research objectives
The general research objective is to assess local knowledge on and socio-economic values of P.
nitida in the localities of Nguila and Mbangassina of the Cameroonian rainforest. The specific
objectives of the study are as follows:
Berries Local juices
Pict
ure
: Yak
eu, 2
010.
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1) To describe knowledge about growth and harvesting techniques,
2) To describe knowledge about the medicinal applications of this product,
3) To assess the social contributions of the product to household welfare,
4) To assess economic contributions to household welfare,
5) To assess the relationship between people knowledge and the contributions of
P.nitida to household welfare.
1.4. Significance of the research
NTFPs are an important income generating activity in the Cameroonian rain forest. However, its
contribution to the national economy and the welfare of people is not well documented (Ndoye,
1995). Nonetheless, the impact of medicinal plant in the households has been recognised. This
study provides additional information for the assessment of their importance and for the
development of the sector. It has therefore become urgent to document and analyse the impact of
medicinal plants in developing countries in order to establish a sustainable policy in Cameroon.
Moreover, the study provides information useful to support the domestication of the species.
Thus, it helps to fill the gap of knowledge with relevant data to illustrate the importance of P.
nitida as an alternative source for the treatment of tropical diseases as well as source of
household incomes. Finally, it could provide insights and opportunities for research institutions,
pharmaceutical enterprises, and policy-makers to adopt relevant interventions.
1.5. Limitations of the study
The execution of the study was limited by a number of constraints. Due to time and budget
limitations, the study was limited to a humid forest production zone of Cameroon nearest to
Yaounde (Ntui and Mbangassina Subdivisions with respectively the villages of Nguila and
Mbangassina). It was impossible to go to the most prominent production zones of P. nitida such
as Nkolbewa (Kribi), Maleke (Moungo), and Yokadouma (Eastern region) reported by
Adjanohoun et al. (1996). The research could certainly be improved by a larger sample and by
including further details over a long period to capture the different steps of exploitation of this
species.
In addition, very little data were found on the consumption of P. nitida in order to provide
support to its medicinal purpose as well as social and economic values. For this reason, findings
with regards to the socio-economic aspects of the study were discussed with extension to the
socio-economic contributions of NTFPs in general (Chapter 6).
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Chapter 2: Conceptual framework
Chapter two describes the conceptual framework into which the study has been developed, and
the research hypotheses. The research work is based on the concept of indigenous knowledge.
Indigenous groups offer alternative knowledge and perspectives based on their own locally
developed practices of resource use and management.
2.1. Conceptual analysis and understanding indigenous knowledge
2.1.1. Conceptual analysis
Local knowledge serves as base to assess the impact of rural communities’ interventions on the
sustainable management of environmental resources (Hladick et al., 1989; Ayensu, 1981). In this
way, the Taiga Rescue Network (www.taigarescue.org) reveals that NTFPs involve numerous
dimensions of economic and social significance. These include commercial (including domestic
consumer markets, industrial uses, and export), household uses (direct collection and
consumption, sometimes providing very essential components in nutrition) and recreational
(related to collection by households but may relate also to a part of commercial harvesting as
well). The social dimension is further enhanced by the fact that NTFPs are available for all
people regardless of forest ownership, and are often available for communities and regions with
fewer opportunities (Adjanahoun et al., 1988; Hecketsweiler and Ikonga, 1991; Borobou-
Borobou, 1994).
For this study, indigenous knowledge refers to the set of interactions between the economic,
ecological, and social environments within a group or groups with a strong identity, drawing
existence from local resources through patterned behaviours that are transmitted from generation
to generation to cope with change (Eyong, 2007). In relation to the above statements, the
conceptual framework can be illustrated as shown in figure 1. It is therefore assumed that both
knowledge characteristics of stakeholders and socio-economic contributions of forest resources
are interlinked in a process of their sustainable management from where ecological, social and
economic potentials can be derived. UNESCO (2004) argues that for the vast majority of rural
and indigenous peoples (80%), the knowledge systems provide the basis for local level decision-
making about fundamental aspects of day-to-day life (economic, social, cultural, and ecological).
The model could be explained by the knowledge development model provided by Lawas (1997)
and reported by Roling and Seegers (1991). These authors stress that in the process of interaction
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between stakeholder and the environment, the stakeholders develop a cognitive view of their
environment. During this process of cognition, they undertake complex and interlinked stages of
sensing, perceiving, remembering, supposition, questioning, imagining, and judging in a relevant
process of testing and evaluation (figure 2). Lawas (1997) refers to this as a cyclical process,
which may be an oversimplification; rather it is continuing process, dynamic and multiple. The
response behaviour of the stakeholder is assumed to be induced by their motivation. Responses
of the stakeholders depend in part on the cognitive view of their environment, that is, their
behaviour is a consequence of the reflection of the view they have of the environment.
Figure 1: Conceptual framework (Source: Author, 2012)
Figure 2: Knowledge development model (Adapted from Lawas, 1997)
Cognitive view : Indigenous knowledge
Interaction process
Socio-economic environment
Bio-physical environment
Motivation (Goals)
Stakeholders (Farmers)
Cognitive process: sensing, perceiving, remembering, supposition, questioning, imagining, and judging
Response behaviour : Resources utilisation,
Resources management
Local knowledge
Ecological potential
Sustainable management (Potentials)
Economic contributions
Medicine
Socio-Economic contributions
Social contributions
Growth Harvesting techniques
Social potential Economic potential
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2.1.2. Understanding indigenous knowledge
Researchers have much to learn from those who have managed to survive and adapt to local
ecological conditions and see this knowledge as the basis for identifying ecologically sustainable
and more equitable options of resource use (Richards, 1985; Johnson, 1992; Chambers et al.,
1989, Scoones and Thompson, 1993). This process forms what is called knowledge systems as
qualified by Chadwick et al. (2001).
Roling and Seegers (1991), describe knowledge systems (KS) as "a set of actors, networks or
organisations which are expected to work synergically to support knowledge processes that
improve the correspondence between knowledge and environment, and/or the control, provided
through technology use, in a given domain of human activity". Several features distinguish
indigenous systems from western scientific knowledge systems. For Warren et al. (1995),
indigenous knowledge as local knowledge is unique to a given culture or society and contrasts
with the western scientific knowledge, or as they prefer to call it the "international knowledge
system" which is generated through a global network of universities and research institutes. For
others (Guba, 1990; Scoones and Thompson, 1993), it is an epistemology system with its own
basis of validity, methods and its scope, that is all important.
Berkes (1989) raises exactly this question by pointing out that the use of the term traditional is
ambiguous and goes on to raise questions regarding the cultural dynamics of such knowledge
systems. Since knowledge is socially and politically constructed, Scoones and Thompson (1993)
suggest that it requires a social differentiation, political astute analysis for better understanding.
2.2. Interaction between knowledge and values in sustainable resources management
Knowledge and values (social and economic) are interrelated. They can provide a way to better
understand the direction of a sustainable management. Berkes et al. (2000) write that some
indigenous knowledge and management systems are characterized by the use of local ecological
knowledge to interpret and respond to feedbacks from the environment to guide the direction of
resource management. The emphasis is on the role of local or indigenous communities in using
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) to respond to and manage processes and functions of
complex systems. Of special interest are practices by which ecosystems and biological diversity
are managed to secure a flow of natural resources and ecological services on which people
depend (Eyong, 2003; Nkuinkeu, 1999). Nevertheless, they also argue that growing interest in
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traditional knowledge since the 1980s is indicative of the need to gain further insights into
indigenous and/or local practices of resource use from an ecological perspective (Berkes, 1999).
For the Taiga Rescue Network (TRN), NTFPs can also play an important role in maintaining or
strengthening the importance of forests among rural and urban citizens. As the multitude of
NTFPs represent a non-negligible sample of the biodiversity of forests, their proper management
also supports related conservation values. Indeed, their contribution to economic, ecological and
social sustainability of forest communities cannot be regarded as a minor one. Peters (1987)
supports that NTFPs are an important part of forest ecosystems. Whenever the forest is
influenced through forest management, it will affect these products.
2.3. Local knowledge and its applications
Madhav et al. (2000) stress that all knowledge and wisdom ultimately flow from practices, but
their organization differs among the different streams of knowledge. Folk knowledge is
maintained, transmitted, and augmented almost entirely in the course of applying it in practice; it
lacks a formal, institutionalized process for handling. Folk ecological knowledge and wisdom are
therefore highly sensitive to changing relationships between people and their ecological resource
base. Chadwick et al. (2001) argued that the people most intimately dependent on and
knowledgeable about biodiversity belong to the economically and politically most disadvantaged
segments of the society. In consequence, conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity are not
a high priority among the development aspirations held by the people. Berkes (1999) provided
three levels of analysis in traditional knowledge and management systems which are:
- Local knowledge on land, forest and animals;
- Land and resource management systems;
- Social institutions or rules-in-use;
- The world view or cosmology which gives shape to cultural values, ethics, and the basic
norms and rules of a society.
Such a representation falls short of showing the feedbacks among selected items and the close
coupling of some parts of the system, especially management systems and social institutions.
However, it does convey the idea of embeddedness of local knowledge and rules/norms in the
world view of a particular culture (Berkes et al., 2000).
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In the African ecosystem, the perennial mixed plantations that include cash crops such as cocoa,
oil palms, and coffee, have been developed since the 20th century. Many species management
approaches result in soil fertility improvement and crop protection through the integration of
trees, animals, and crops (Altieri, 1994). Practices largely abandoned by conventional resource
management are still found in some local and traditional societies. These include practices that
have fallen out of favour in government resource management, presumably because of
production inefficiency. But many of them are being rediscovered, as reflected for example in
the growing emphasis on agroecology, integrated farming and aquaculture, and polyculture.
Explicitly or implicitly, Scoones and Thomson (1993) reveal that these rediscoveries continue to
be inspired by traditional practices. Many traditional systems use multiple species management,
for example, through integrated farming and cultivation systems. Warren and Pinkston (1998)
illustrated this with a Nigerian case study (identifies an agroforestry system combining food
crops and domesticated trees as the oldest farming practice in the area).
2.4. Indigenous knowledge and medical pluralism
The relationship between indigenous knowledge and medical pluralism can be seen as the
integration of traditional and modern medicine or simply therapeutic pluralism as solution to
overcome some diseases (McGrath, 1999). De Mello (2004) affirmed that therapeutic pluralism
is common throughout the world and can be understood as the coexistence, within the same
society or group, of a number of health care alternatives with diverse origins and treatment foci,
representing different systems of medical practice and ideology. Some researchers have found
that patients and their relatives, when confronted with illness, may make use of the multiple
treatment options available, even when there are clearly established limits and functions ascribed
to the different coexisting medical systems (Colson, 1971; Hamnett and Connell, 1981;
McGrath, 1999). People take a pragmatic view of treatment and are willing to try whatever may
be effective (Hamnett and Connell, 1981).
The introduction of modem medicine adds another option to the pluralistic base already
established and does not eliminate people's use of traditional medicine. Instead in many
instances, traditional and modern procedures are employed together (Alexiades and Lacaze,
1996; Candido, 1987). Elisabetsky and Setzer (1985) report that the combined utilization of
modern health services and folk medicine elements, mainly plants, occurred in cases of illness in
Amazonia (Brazil). From their study, they reveal that resort only to modern medicine accounted
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for 29 % of cases, whereas treatment exclusively with plants, self-medication with allopathic,
and remedies occurred in 18 % of cases, mainly for influenza and cold symptoms.
Explanations of health are endorsed by culturally specific knowledge and are then naturalized
and taken as objective. A synthesis of theoretical descriptions and political-economic aspects of
medical pluralism, along with a historical analysis, explains the presence of multiple health
practices and how a person’s choice of medical practice is heavily influenced by dynamic socio-
cultural, religious, historical, political and economic factors (Martinson, 2011). For instance,
Borja (2010) reported that several international organizations such as the WHO, United States
Agency for International Development (USAID), Partners in Health (PH), Doctors without
Borders (MSF), United Nations of International Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), CARE
International, and even local Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), have placed a great deal
of emphasis on the integration of the traditional practices and modern biomedicine in Peru. They
have created programs that have led to great health improvements in the category of
communicable and non-communicable diseases in addition to working collaboratively with the
indigenous populations in order to improve health outcomes through comprehension of culture
and beliefs (Borja, 2010).
2.5. Research Hypotheses
The following research hypotheses have been checked for better understanding of the importance
of the product, the evaluation of its socio-economic welfare, the local knowledge of people and
its relation to the contributions to household welfare.
a) There is no difference between males and females with respect to the importance of P.
nitida.
b) There is no difference between importance of P. nitida and the evaluation of its socio-
economic values by the respondents.
c) Product importance of P. nitida and the evaluation of its socio-economic values do not
differ between age groups of respondents
d) The level of knowledge on different characteristics (growth, harvesting techniques,
medicine, gender role, places of sale, forms of sale, and prices of sale) all have
significant influence on household welfare.
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Chapter 3: Definition of concepts and literature review
This chapter reviews the concepts and relevant academic literature that serve as a framework for
understanding the findings from our field data.
3.1. Overview, concepts and definition
3.1.1. Medicinal plants
For Bruneton (2002), medicinal plants are plants from which components of medicine (or active
principles) are derived. These components have therapeutic effects which are known or not.
Simply, this term signifies “constituent with therapeutic effect” (e.g. Quinine is one of the active
principles of the stem of Quinquina (Cinchona officinalis, C. V. Linne)).
Hachette (2000) states that medicinal plants act on the nervous system in different forms, such
as: sweet poison, essential oils, tannins, bitter principles, and medicinal drugs. They can be found
in different colors (yellow, white, red, blue, or violet) and in different forms (flower, leave, root,
or bark). Alkaloids are among the most powerful poisons in the vegetal kingdom. They come in
various forms and only a few milligrams are often sufficient to cause death. This is the case for
P. nitida (Meyer et al., 2006). It acts on the nervous system and is used as analgesic or as
sedative.
3.1.2. Local knowledge
According to Warren (1991), indigenous knowledge is the information base for a society, which
facilitates communication and decision-making. Indigenous information systems are dynamic,
and are continually influenced by internal creativity and experimentation as well as by contact
with external systems. Berkes et al. (2000) have therefore developed a working definition of
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) as a cumulative body of knowledge, practice, and
belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural
transmission, about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and
with their environment.
Berkes (1989) supports that knowledge refers to the categorisations that individuals make to
understand the reality and meanings attached to their experiences. These categorisations are
usually shared, or socially available, but it is ultimately at the level of the individual that
knowledge occurs. Similarly, Fairhead (1992) defines knowledge as an interaction between the
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subject and the way reality is perceived or reconstructed. Appelton and Hill (1994) go even
further and argue for differentiation between indigenous and traditional knowledge, that
indigenous knowledge is an original form of knowledge which cultures have evolved out of the
sheer need to survive.
3.1.3. Social value
The concept of social value can be defined as non-physical or non-quantitative benefits people
can derive from their attachment to a group or community. Auerswald (2009) argues that social
value is a larger concept which includes social capital as well as the subjective aspects of
the citizens' well-being, such as their ability to participate in making decisions that affect them.
For Waine et al. (2005), the discussion of social values suggests that, although there is reliance
on ‘taken-for-granted’ meanings, there is, in fact, considerable ambiguity about them. Thus,
statements such as ‘social values determine the shape of services’ are problematic, requiring
elaboration on how the value is defined and perceived by different stakeholders. These authors
identified the following, as regularly cited in stakeholder publications, as the key values to be
pursued in the provision of services: independence, citizenship, empowerment, social inclusion,
respect for diversity, care and protection for vulnerable people/children and young people and
the community.
Also outside the sphere of ecology, but relevant to indigenous knowledge, are cultural values as
a social mechanism behind traditional practice (Fuller, 1998). In this regards, cultural values
such as respect (for humans as well as for nature), sharing, group relationship, trust,
participation, reciprocity, and humility characterize a diversity of systems of traditional
knowledge and practice, including those of American aboriginal groups (Alcorn and Toledo,
1998), Africans (Dei, 1993), and Pacific Island peoples (Roberts et al., 1995).
With regard to social values people can receive from forest resources, Ledoux and Turner (2002)
provide a social values’ typology from which the following items have been selected according
to welfare people derive from ecosystem services:
− Access: Places of common property free from access restrictions or exclusive
ownership/control.
− Cultural: Place for passing down wisdom, knowledge, and traditions.
− Historic: Place of natural and human history that matter to individuals, communities,
societies, and nations.
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− Learning: Place of educational value through scientific exploration, observation,
discovery, and experimentation.
− Recreation: Place for favourite/enjoyable outdoor recreation activities.
− Subsistence: Provision of basic human needs, emphasis on reliable, regular food/protein
source.
− Therapeutic: Place that enhances feelings of well-being (e.g. “an escape”, “stress relief”,
“comfort and calm”).
− Wilderness: Place of minimal human impact and/or intrusion into natural environment.
Furthermore, Kritz and Gurak (2001) argue that social value is part of capacity building using
knowledge/local technology transfer from rural community. It is important as it provides
incentives and information useful for diverse purposes such as building networks, cooperation
and partnerships. In this sense, it helps to improve people’s capacities in the rural transformation
process through education, training and advertisement, improvements in social institutions and
social networks (Ellis, 2000; Lee et al., 2005; Norton et al., 2010).
3.1.4. Economic value
Economic Value is the value of an asset deriving from its ability to generate income in one or
several forms and to support livelihoods. Most people assume that the economic value is
measured by market price, and economists sometimes also make this statement. However,
Hanemann (2005) argues that if it was true that economic value is measured by market price, this
would imply that only marketed commodities can have an economic value. Items that are not
sold in a market including the natural environment, NTFPs, and public goods generally would
have no economic value. If this was so, economic value would indeed be a narrow concept and
different from many people’s intuitive sense of what is valuable (Ward and Michelsen, 2002).
In fact, we assume in this study that economic value is more than price and income. Price does in
general not measure economic value, and items with no market price can still have a positive
economic value (Marshall, 1879; Hanemann, 2005; Ward and Michelsen, 2002).
Hanemann (1991) provides a possible meaning of economic value. He supports that the
distinction between market price and economic value was famously noted by Adam Smith in a
passage in the “Wealth of Nations” describing the paradox of water and diamonds: The word
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“Value”, it is to be observed, has two different meanings, and sometimes expresses the utility of
some particular object, and sometimes the power of purchasing other goods which the possession
of that object conveys. The one may be called ‘value in use’; the other, ‘value in exchange’. The
things which have the greatest value in use have frequently little or no value in exchange; and,
contrary, those which have the greatest value in exchange have frequently little or no value in
use (Ward and Michelsen, 2002; Wegge et al., 1996).
Payant (2007) stresses that economic value is not necessarily market, liquidation, or capitalized
value. For it to be the balance sheet’s market value, every account position would need to be
precisely tuned to prices observed in established and recognized markets. While fine in theory,
many accounts have no observable market. Nevertheless, economic value is derived from
market-derived factors, and is at best, an estimate of capital’s fair value.
Value is not an objective property of commodities. Rather, it is the subjective attitude of
individuals as expressed through their exchange activities in the marketplace. Trivus (1976)
suggests therefore that we would do better on grounds of conceptual clarity, to define the
economic value of a thing directly in terms of the actual goods for which it is exchangeable.
To summarise, economic value can be understood by all forms of income benefits that support
livelihoods of beneficiaries (Ledoux and Turner, 2002).
3.2. Desrciption of Picralima nitida
3.2.1. Geographical distribution and physical description
From the family of Apocynaceae, the species was first described and characterised by T. & H.
Durand in 1909 (Meyer et al., 2006). Adjanohoun et al. (1996) state that the species grows in the
forest regions of Africa from Ivory Coast, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania
to Uganda.
Hutchinson and Dalziel (1963) revealed that it is a tree of about 15 meters high and with
circumference of about 50 centimeters. The same authors affirmed that in Cameroon, the species
can be found in Maleke, Nkongsamba in Moungo Division, East of Yokadouma and in the forest
of Nkol-Bewa (Ocean Division). At maturity, the leaves are pinnate (see picture 3) with about 14
to 18 leaflets (Meyer et al., 2006).
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Picture 3: A view of a leaf of P. nitida
(Author, 2012)
The thick bark of on average a centimeter is granular and yellow-orange hue punctuated (see
picture 4). It is used in indigenous pharmacopoeia to treat malaria and stomach ache (amoeba).
Berries have an ellipsoid form (see picture 5), with large size and green in color. During the fall
on the ground, they turn to yellow and the seeds germinate on the ground with many seedlings.
These berries are also used in traditional medicines for treating typhoid and fight against
muscular pain (Adjanohoun et al., 1996).
Picture 4: A view of the stem of P. nitida (Author,
2012)
Picture 5: A view of berries from field collection
(Author, 2012)
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3.2.2. Overview of medicinal composition of P. nitida
In addition to the above description of the species, Meyer et al. (2006) assessed its medicinal
composition. From laboratory analysis, they found that the active principle of P. nitida is formed
by more than 10 alkaloids (see figure 3) present in different tree parts (from bark, leaves, roots
and fruits). Their names derive from the local name "Akuamma" (Okunji et al., 2006).
Figure 3: Some alkaloids found in P. nitida (Meyer et al., 2006)
These alkaloids play several biological roles (Meyer et al., 2006) such as:
− Anti-inflammatory (pseudo-akuammigine),
− Anti-fever (erythrocytic phase inhibition of P. falciparum with use of roots, stem bark
and fruit skin),
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− Antimicrobial (against Gram bacteria and fungi with use of root bark),
− Hypoglycemic control (with use of roots and fruits) and,
− Anti-malaria (with fruits), and anti-leishmaniasis (with roots).
François et al. (1996) have examined the anti-plasmodial activities of organic and aqueous
extracts from P. nitida in an in-vitro model, against asexual erythrocytic forms of Plasmodium
falciparum. Root and leaf extracts of this species had never been examined before. Several
extracts displayed considerable inhibitory activities. The highest activities were found in root,
stem bark and fruit rind extracts, with IC50 values of 0.188, 0.545 and 1.581 micrograms/ml,
respectively. The leaf and seed extracts generally yield much lower activity or were completely
inactive.
Moreover, Bickii et al. (2006) used an in-vitro test for fifteen crude extracts from the stem bark
and seeds of four medicinal plants (Entandrophragma angolense, Picralima nitida,
Schumanniophyton magnificum and Thomandersia hensii) to check their anti-malarial activity
against the chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum W2 strain. The results showed that the
extracts of these plants possessed some anti-malarial activity, but the methanol extract of P.
nitida demonstrated the highest activity in-vitro. Further isolation and identification of some
active compounds from these plants could justify their common use in traditional medicine for
the treatment of malaria or fever in Cameroon.
3.3. Impact of tropical diseases and historical treatment methods
Milliken (1997) reports that in the recent decades, the consensus remains that in the global
perspective malaria is one of the most serious tropical diseases affecting mankind, with
approximately 2000 million people (40 % of the world’s population), in over 90 countries,
exposed to the disease, and between 100 and 500 million clinical cases causing between one and
two million deaths per year, principally in tropical developing countries. Of these deaths, at least
one million are estimated to occur in Africa alone. Phillipson and Wright (1991) reveal that
about 75 and 80% of the world’s population either cannot afford or do not have access to
pharmaceutical products for disease treatment. Indeed, these people rely upon traditional systems
of medicine, generally involving the use of plants. This is certainly the case for malaria, although
researchers are still relatively ignorant of the diversity of species used in its control (Milliken,
1997).
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Until the 1930s, when synthetic derivatives of quinine were developed, all medicines for the
treatment of malaria were extracted from natural sources. With the use of the synthetic drugs,
some of whose side-effects appeared to be less severe than those of the original compound, the
active use of quinine as an anti-malarial declined. It is only when the first signs of resistance to
these comparatively new drugs began to appear in the 1960s that confidence in their
effectiveness began to wane. This, combined with increasing concerns about the adverse side
effects of many of these compounds and the consequent restriction of their use (Peters, 1987),
has contributed to a resurgence in the use of quinine in some parts of the world and renewed
interest in alternative sources of anti-malarials (Milliken, 1997).
For Klayman (1985), the most significant development in anti-malarial drugs in recent years was
again based on a traditionally used plant, Artemisia annua L. (Asteraceae). Its properties had
been recognized in China since 2000 years, but only began to be investigated in depth in the
1970s.
In spite of the fact that large numbers of other species are used throughout the tropics in the
treatment of malaria, many of these have yet have to be tested for their properties and
effectiveness (Schultes and Raffauf, 1994). A considerable part of the research has been based
on randomly selected species. Historical events like the discovery of the quinine and the logic
suggest that the most effective means of looking for new and effective anti-malarial compounds
is to follow the leads from traditional medicine (Brandao et al., 1985). In fact, the case for
ethnobotanical leads appears to be strong for any field of medicine (Brunelli, 1987).
3.4. Role of indigenous knowledge in the conservation of forest resources
3.4.1. General overview
The World Bank (1997) stressed that indigenous knowledge is unique to a given community,
culture or society. It is seen to contrast with the modern learning system. Communities use
indigenous knowledge at the local level as basis for decision making pertaining to food security,
human and animal health, education and natural resources management (Tanyanyiwa and
Chikwanha, 2011). Very little of this knowledge has been recorded, yet it represents an
immensely valuable database that provides humankind with insights on how numerous
communities have interacted with their changing environment including its floral and faunal
resources (Mukwada, 2000; World Bank, 1997). The same sources argued that the
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unprecedented deforestation has rendered the world community vulnerable to dreadful threats of
climatic change, global warming, disappearing bio-diversity and desertification.
Indigenous management practices have stood the test of time, embodying the knowledge of a
particular ecosystem accumulated over several generations. According to Mukwada (2000),
forests provide mankind with a wealth of benefits including wood for construction, fuel and
production of wagons, medicines for health care systems, boats and ships. Forests are also an
ideal habitat for a wide range of animals including some endangered species. They constitute an
integral part of the earth’s life support systems (IUCN/UNED/WWF, 1991). Forests are home to
various mammalian species, rodents, antelopes, lizards and monkeys, birds and invertebrates.
They provide excellent habitats for both livestock and wild animals. Both forests and woodlands
are important for non-consumptive uses such as scientific research and recreation. Some forms
of recreation associated with forests are photography, indigenous knowledge, sport hunting and
bird and animal viewing (Tanyanyiwa and Chikwanha, 2011; Warren, 1991). The last author
supports that forests are also crucial in environmental protection. Apart from curbing erosion and
the siltation of watercourses and reservoirs, forests indirectly protect aquatic habitats, especially
spawning grounds for fish and other aquatic organisms. In fact, forests are an integral part of the
earth’s life support systems.
Moreover, Thrupp (1998) revealed that incorporating indigenous knowledge into research
projects can contribute to local empowerment and development, increasing self-sufficiency and
strengthening self-determination. This could mean that utilizing indigenous knowledge in
research projects and management plans gives it legitimacy and credibility in the eyes of both
local people and outside scientists, increasing cultural pride and thus motivation to solve local
problems with local ingenuity and resources.
3.4.2. Some features of indigenous knowledge systems
Indigenous people can provide valuable input about the local environment and how to effectively
manage its natural resources. Emergy (1996) argued that outside interest in indigenous
knowledge systems has been fueled by the recent worldwide ecological crisis and the realization
that its causes lie partly in the overexploitation of natural resources based on inappropriate
attitudes and technologies (Dewalt, 1994). Scientists now recognize that indigenous people have
managed the environments in which they have lived for generations, often without significantly
damaging local ecologies. Many feel that indigenous knowledge can thus provide a powerful
basis from which alternative ways of managing resources can be developed. Indigenous
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knowledge technologies and know-how have an advantage over science in that they rely on
locally available skills and materials and are thus often more cost-effective than introducing
exotic technologies from outside sources (Pandey, 2002). Tanyanyiwa and Chikwanha (2011)
provide the following features of indigenous knowledge, which can be relevant to forest
community welfare as well as to conservation and sustainable development:
Locally appropriate: indigenous knowledge represents a way of life that has evolved
with the local environment, so it is specifically adapted to the requirements of local
conditions.
Restraint in resource exploitation: production is for subsistence needs only; only what
is needed for immediate survival is taken from the environment.
Diversified production systems: there is no overexploitation of a single resource; risk is
often spread out by utilizing a number of subsistence strategies.
Respect for nature: a conservation ethics often exists. The land is considered sacred,
humans are dependent on nature for survival, and all species are interconnected.
Flexible: indigenous knowledge is able to adapt to new conditions and incorporate
outside knowledge.
Social responsibility: there are strong family and community ties, and with them feelings
of obligation and responsibility to preserve the land for future generations.
3.4.3. Local practices of indigenous knowledge
Several case studies of indigenous knowledge practices have been reported all over the world.
For instance, Pandey (2002) says that the tribal communities of Meghalaya – Khasis, Garos, and
Jaintias in India have a tradition of environmental conservation based on various religious
beliefs. As elsewhere in India, particular patches of forests are designated as sacred groves under
customary law and are protected from any product extraction by the community. Such forests are
very rich in biological diversity and harbor many endangered plant species including rare herbs
and medicinal plants. Tiwari et al. (2007) identified 79 sacred groves and their floristic survey
revealed that these sacred groves are home to at least 514 species representing 340 genera and
131 families of medicinal plants useful for various needs.
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Haugerud and Collinson (1991) reported that East African farmers "recognize in maize, as in
potato cultivars, important differences in taste, texture, storability, marketability, disease and
pest resistance, and response to moisture stress. At least nine possible end uses, many of them
simultaneously relevant on a single farm, help to determine the maize genotypes east African
farmers prefer". Chambers et al. (1989) have found that farmers evaluate cultivars using a wide
variety of criteria that can be of immense interest and value to crop breeders. In Zambia, the
farmers' evaluation of a high-yielding hybrid maize variety and description of the positive and
negative characteristics of locally-adapted open-pollinated varieties led to a more effective
national maize breeding program (Haugerud and Collinson, 1991).
In Zimbabwe for instance, Matter and Timberlake (1992) reported that the Shona/Ndebele tribes
regard certain plant species for example “Burkea africana” and “Sclerocarya sp” as sacred. As a
result such specified species could not be tempered with in any way such as burning or cutting.
The belief was that the ancestral spirits use such tree species to reach people. So the cutting or
destruction of such trees would detach people from their ancestors, thereby spelling doom to the
tribe. Tsikai (2006) argues that although the Shona people believe in God, virtually all of them
still believe that their ancestral spirits are their protectors. Matter and Timberlake (1992) argue
that some tree species are used by traditional healers as traditional medicine in Zimbabwe. They
cited examples of Psudalachnostylis maprouniflolia (Mushozhowa) and Maytenus senegalensis
(Chizhuzhu) as some of the commonly used medicinal herbs among the Shona and Ndebele
tribes. The same authors reported that these specific species have in many cases survived
deforestation, among other mismanagement activities, from the hands of the communal people,
who are usually in great need of fuel wood.
In Central Africa, indigenous healing practices have some common principles and procedures
utilized in modern medicine like hydrotherapy, heat therapy, spinal manipulation, quarantine,
bone setting and surgery. Incantations and other devices of psychotherapeutic dimension are
often applied (Anani, 1999; Emeagwali, 2003). Eyong (2003) reports that treatment for various
diseases such as cancer, obesity, drug addiction, diabetes and other ailments have benefited
directly and indirectly from indigenous healers through plants such as the “Iboga (Tabernanthe
iboga, Bail H.)” as it is known in Cameroon and Gabon. The same author argues that it is thanks
to indigenous knowledge that the California based Shaman Pharmaceuticals were founded in
1989 with the goal to commercialize indigenous pharmaceutical uses of plants. Indigenous
knowledge is economically viable for companies. Indigenous people employ at least 20,000
plant species for medicines and related purposes (Emeagwali, 2003; Eyong, 2007; Melchias,
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2001). In this regard, Nkuinkeu (1999) stresses that Central Africa is very rich in medicinal plant
species with a case study from Mount Cameroon. The study has confirmed that medicinal plants
used in the region are as efficient as the imported “Western” prescription medicine.
Moreover, Nyamu (2003) argued that other western-based pharmaceutical companies often send
agents to tap the knowledge of indigenous healers in the region. Today, billions of dollars are
paid to botanical gardens for doing research on plant varieties and species that can benefit
pharmaceutical companies. The author affirmed that major botanical gardens in the area like
Limbe Botanic Garden for Cameroon, Eala and Kisantu Botanic Gardens of the Democratic
Republic of Congo, cooperate with partners from the developed world and this partnerships form
the pipe through which indigenous knowledge is drained.
Eyong (2007) believed that traditional and folk methods of conservation work better than forced
relocation of external methods. In this regard, he distinguished some folk methods which
include:
a) Hunting Habits: Hunters are cautious that not too many people hunt in one area at the
same time for safety reasons.
b) Sacred Forests: The existence of restricted areas or sacred forests makes certain sections
of rivers and streams to be declared sacred.
c) Cultivation Habits: Forest dwellers grow fruit trees on their farms and around the
village. In this way, harvest is more effective.
d) Knowledge of the Forest and its Resources: The people of Korup in Cameroon have a
great knowledge of different plants and animals in their forest. They rely on leaves, roots
and barks of trees for medicines, animals for food and cash income and other forest
products.
3.5. Local knowledge and biological diversity conservation
Williams and Baines (1993) reported that the convention on biological diversity obliges its
signatories to ‘respect, preserve and maintain knowledge, innovations, and practices of
indigenous and local communities embodying traditional lifestyles relevant for the conservation
and sustainable use of biological diversity and promote their wider application with the approval
and involvement of the holders of such knowledge, innovations and practices and encourage the
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equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of such knowledge, innovations and
practices’. For Milliken (1997), it is beyond reasonable doubt that indigenous knowledge has
much to contribute to the future of mankind. The moral dilemma therefore is how to find a way
to ensure that the wider application of this knowledge will bring genuine and fair benefits to the
peoples who originally owned it.
For Berkes et al. (2000), traditional knowledge may be holistic in outlook and adaptive by
nature, gathered over generations by observers whose lives depended on this information and its
use. It often accumulates incrementally, tested by trial-and-error and transmitted to future
generations orally or by shared practical experiences (Ohmagari and Berkes, 1997). Obviously,
not all traditional practice and belief systems were ecologically adaptive in the first place; some
became maladaptive over time due to changing conditions. Not all, traditional practice is
ecologically wise. For example, Diamond (1993) notes that even though New Guinea natives
possess detailed knowledge of plants and animals, some of the groups had, and continue to have,
a heavy negative impact on their native biota.
From Eyong (2003), the analysis of many Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) systems
shows that there is a component of local observational knowledge of species and other
environmental phenomena, a component of practice in the way people carry out their resource
use activities, and further, a component of belief regarding how people fit into or relate to
ecosystems. In short, traditional knowledge is a knowledge–practice–belief complex (Berkes et
al., 2000). The study of Traditional Ecological Knowledge began with the study of species
identifications and classification (ethnobiology), and proceeded to considerations of peoples’
understandings of ecological processes and their relationships with the environment (Williams
and Baines, 1993; Berkes, 1999).
Conservation biologists, ecological anthropologists, ethnobiologists, other scholars, and the
pharmaceutical industry all share an interest in traditional knowledge for scientific, social, or
economic reasons (Anani, 1999; Melchias, 2001).
3.6. Brief views of the contributions of NTFPs
3.6.1. Dimensions of the contributions of NTFPs
Today, policy makers and the scientific community recognize the contribution of NTFPs as
alternative sources of food and income for the people living especially in the rainforests.
Wollenberg and Ingles (1998) emphasize that the importance attached to NTFPs has possibly
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changed forever the way forest values and their development potential are assessed. They also
argue that interest in NTFPs has launched significant advances in enterprise development,
marketing and income generation among forest dwellers.
In the exploitation of these goods, it is also interesting to recognize that their values are largely
diversified. For Delali (2004), many NTFPs have significant economic value by preventing the
need for cash expenditure and providing ready sources of income to cash-poor households.
Wollenberg and Ingles (1998) confirmed that vast sums have been invested in exploring the
potential of nondestructive uses of forests to provide substantial benefits to local people while
conserving forests. With less contribution to national economy in rainforest countries, NTFPs
play a greater role in food and income generation for poverty alleviation, but for Delali (2004),
their role in supporting livelihoods and food security has been undetermined. According to
Barham et al. (1999), their recognition is essential for programme and policy design.
Shashidhara (2011) examines the role of forest diversity in influencing the success of NTFPs
uses and assesses the conditions under which these products are managed by Village Forest
Communities (VFCs) members. It appears from his analysis that small farmers received the
majority of their income from agricultural activities. In addition, they are largely involved in the
collection and marketing of NTFPs on a small scale. In summary, NTFPs are the second source
of income for VFCs’ members (Cash and non-cash incomes) after income from agriculture.
Education is one of the most important human assets necessary in the pathways out of poverty.
Magar (2008) found that in Nepal, the majority of the respondents engaged in the collection of
NTFPs had a primary level of education and only very few had secondary and higher level of
education in the study area. This gives the impression that this activity is reserved for poor
households.
3.6.2. Socio-economic contributions of NTFPs to household livelihoods
NTFPs provide goods, services, and income to rural and urban households. According to Ndoye
(1995), NTFPs provide the second source of household annual income after that derived from
crop production. These goods are sometimes used in scarcity periods as source of short-time
income generation. Wollenberg and Ingles (1998) declare that generally NTFPs are most
extensively used to supplement household income during particular seasons in the year
and to help meet dietary shortfalls.
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In this sense, Belcher et al. (2005) support that there is strong evidence that in certain conditions
the poor are disproportionately dependent on NTFPs. This high dependence can be explained in
terms of the economic characteristics of forest-dependent people and of the products themselves.
3.7. Some limitations of indigenous knowledge systems
As with scientific knowledge, indigenous knowledge has its limitations. Indigenous knowledge
is sometimes accepted uncritically because of naive notions that whatever indigenous people do
is naturally in harmony with the environment. However, limitations of indigenous knowledge
have been reported. For Tanyanyiwa and Chikwanha (2011), there is historical and
contemporary evidence that indigenous peoples have also committed environmental 'sins'
through over-grazing, over-hunting, or over-cultivation of the land. It is misleading to think of
indigenous knowledge as always being 'good, ‘right’, or ‘sustainable’.
For example, Pandey (2002) argues that a critical assumption of indigenous knowledge
approaches is that local people have a good understanding of the natural resource base because
they have lived in the same, or similar, environment for many generations, and have accumulated
and passed on knowledge of the natural conditions, soils, vegetation, food and medicinal plants
etc. However, under conditions where the local people are in fact recent migrants from a quite
different ecological zone, they may not have much experience with the new environment. In
these circumstances, local knowledge may be helpful, or it may cause problems (e.g., use of
agricultural systems adapted to other ecological zones). Therefore it is important, especially
when dealing with recent migrants, to evaluate the relevance of different kinds of indigenous
knowledge to local conditions.
Grenier (1998) found that wider economic and social forces can also erode indigenous
knowledge. Pressure on indigenous peoples to integrate with larger societies is often great, and
as they become more integrated, the social structures, which generate indigenous knowledge and
practices, can break down. He also argues that the growth of national and international markets,
the imposition of educational and religious systems and the impact of various development
processes are leading more and more to the 'homogenization' of the world’s cultures.
Consequently, indigenous beliefs, values, customs, know-how and practices may be altered and
the resulting knowledge base becomes incomplete.
For Thrupp (1998), sometimes indigenous knowledge that was once well adapted and effective
for securing a livelihood in a particular environment, becomes inappropriate under conditions of
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environmental degradation. Although indigenous knowledge systems have a certain amount of
flexibility in adapting to ecological change, when change is particularly rapid or drastic, the
knowledge associated with them may be rendered unsuitable and possibly damaging in the
altered conditions (Warren et al., 1995; Grenier, 1998).
Finally, an often-overlooked feature of indigenous knowledge, which needs to be taken into
account, is that indigenous knowledge which local people rely on, unlike scientific knowledge, is
sometimes wrong or even harmful (Thrupp, 1998). Practices based on, for example, mistaken
beliefs, faulty experimentation, or inaccurate information can be dangerous and may even be a
barrier to improving the well being of indigenous people (Chamber et al., 1989).
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Chapter 4: Materials and methods
Chapter four highlights the geographical and demographical scopes of the study, as well as the
materials and methods used in developing the research.
4.1. Selection, geographical and demographical description of the sites
4.1.1. Selection of the studied sites
The sites comprise the villages of Nguila and Mbangassina from Ntui and Mbangassina
subdivisions, in Mbam & Kim Division of the Centre Region of Cameroon. The interview was
done in Nguila and Mbangassina. In addition, health care data have been checked from the
District hospital of Ntui (see figure 4). These localities have been selected from a list of localities
where the berries of Picralima nitida found in the markets of Mokolo and Mfoundi in the city of
Yaounde come from. A brief survey was conducted with a request to traders on these markets
during which a single question was asked to know from where they collect the product. A list of
places was obtained which comprises Nkolbewa (Ocean Division), Manengole, Nkongsamba,
Kékem and Manjo (Moungo Division), and Ntui (Nguila) and Mbangassina (Mbam & Kim
Division), the last two sites have been selected due to time and budget constraints.
4.1.2. Geographical and demographical description of the sites
The Centre region of Cameroon is characterized by an equatorial climate of Guinean type, with
an average annual temperature of 25°C, and annual precipitation from 1500 to 2000 mm/year
(Degrande et al., 2007). Bernier (1996) states that the rainforests of Cameroon have optimal
weather conditions likely to promote the development of this species. Indeed, elevation varies
between 400 and 950 m and temperature between 18 and 28°C. The plant formations are made
primarily of forest.
The Third General Population and Housing Census (RGPH, 2010) reported that Cameroon has a
total population of about 19.4 million in January 2010 with an annual growth rate of 2.6 %
(2010) and an average annual growth rate of 2.8 % from 1987-2005. The same source estimates
that the population will increase up to 21.9 million by 2015 with an annual growth rate of 2.5 %.
The structure of population per sex revealed that females are relatively more represented than
males. From the RGPH (2010), it has been noted that in Cameroon, there are 97 male for 100
female inhabitants.
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From April 1987 to November 2005, population density moved from 22.6 to 37.5
inhabitants/km2. However, this indicator has a high geographical variation. The regions of
Littoral and West are densely populated with respectively 124 and 123.8 inhabitants per km2
whereas the Regions of Adamaoua, South and East are less densely populated with 13.9, 13.4
and 7.1 inhabitants per km2 respectively. Moreover, the same source stressed that according to
age, Cameroon distinguishes itself by the extreme youthfulness of the population. The majority
of the population has less than 18 years old and the demographic weight of children aged below
15 is about 43.6 %. According to the residence, they are 39.2 % in urban areas compared to 47.8
% in rural areas. The age group of people from 60 and more counts for 5 % of the total
population with 6.5 % in rural areas versus 3.4 % in urban milieu.
Finally, in comparison with other regions of the country, the central region is the most populated
and counts for about 18.2 % of the total population in 2010 with 72 % of people living in urban
areas and only 28 % living in rural areas. This proportion of total population will increase up to
about 18.7 % in 2015. The proportion of males and females living in both areas are relatively the
same (50.3 % for males to 49.7 % for females in the cities, and 49.5 % for males to 50.5 % for
females in rural communities).
The Division of Mbam & Kim with a total population of 105,511 inhabitants is divided into five
subdivisions which are Mbangassina, Ntui, Ngambe-Tikar, Ngoro and Yoko. The localities of
Mbangassina and Ntui are more populated with respectively 41,180 and 25,618 inhabitants.
Males are relatively more represented than females in both subdivisions. They represent 51.4 and
50.8 %, while females represent 48.6 and 49.2 % respectively (RGPH, 2010).
Generally, agriculture is the basic activity in the study area. Pouomogne and Pemsl (2008)
revealed that in the Central region as well as in the southern part of Cameroon, inhabitants have
intensified agriculture and diversified farming systems to combine food production, livestock
rearing, aquaculture and harvesting of non-timber forest products to fulfil demand of the town
dwellers.
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Figure 4: Map of the sites of study (By Ngaunkam., ICRAF Cameroon)
4.2. Data collection
Primary data have been collected through semi-structured interviews using a questionnaire.
Secondary data have been collected from reports, publications and other official documents
concerning indigenous knowledge and socio-economic contributions of NTFPs. Data and
information gathered have then been summarized and statistically analysed.
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4.2.1. Secondary Data Sources
Secondary data have been gathered from a wide range of sources such as published and
unpublished documents from several local, national and international institutions, organizations
and internet. Given the long term experience and richness in documentation on case studies
developed on indigenous knowledge and NTFPs, special attention has been paid to the electronic
library of the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF, West and Central Africa), and the online
library the Faculty of Bioscience Engineering of the University of Ghent, Belgium. Data related
to local knowledge and the socio-economic values of P. nitida in Cameroon and elsewhere have
been searched for fulfilment of the gap of information. The secondary data have been useful to
this concern and gave guidelines to design primary data collection.
4.2.2. Primary Data Collection
The sampling method and data collection have been developed as follows.
4.2.2.1. Sampling Size and Sampling Techniques
Households constituted the basic sampling unit for the questionnaire survey. Due to the absence
of a valid population census in the area to provide the exact number of households in both
villages, interviewees have been selected based on purposeful sampling using expert advice from
people with experience in the field of research. This sampling method has been adopted from the
handbook developed by Tashakkori and Teddlie (2003). The chiefs of both villages served as the
entry point for the selection of the first interviewed. They guided the researcher towards the
persons/ key informants that are knowledgeable about the topic of study and that are more likely
to provide answers. The sampling technique has additionally been based on the snowball
sampling method (Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003; De Vaus, 2001). This technique consists in
selecting only knowledgeable households’ heads based on their interest and experience in
exploiting/consuming the species. The first interviewer was chosen through asking the chief of
the village to indicate a knowledgeable person regarding the survey and at the end of the
interview, the interviewed person indicated the next person to be interviewed. To be part of the
sample, the household should have used the product at least two times in the past two years. The
selection/survey stopped when saturation1 was obtained in the responses. The interview has been
done with the household head (male or female). The availability and willingness household
heads to participate, guided the survey. In total, 31 and 34 interviewees have been selected
1 When the same information is received from other interviewees.
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respectively in Nguila (Ntui) and Mbangassina (Table 1). They included local healers, traders
and farmers.
Table 1: Distribution of respondents in the study sites
Village of respondent Sexe of respondent
Total Male Female
Nguila 26 5 31
Mbangassina 28 6 34
Total 54 11 65
4.2.2.2. Data collection techniques
Both quantitative and qualitative data have been combined in each area for the target. Data
collection has been carried out by the researcher with the support of a local assistant in each
village.
A. Household survey
It has been done with a structured questionnaire with both open and closed-ended
questions (De Vaus, 2001). The local assistants were selected based on their familiarity
with the study area and the exploitation of NTFP in their corresponding locality. In each
village, most of the questions have been orally translated by the assistant and the answers
have been directly recorded on the questionnaire. Four (4) weeks were sufficient for the
household survey (from May 7 till June 02, 2012) and the research team spent about two
(2) weeks per village. Information gathered includes:
− Socio-economic characteristics of households (gender, age, marital status, type of
household head, education level, professional status, principal source of income,
number of children per household, and average income per household per month),
− Local knowledge about growth (growth form, growth place, and accessibility),
− Harvesting techniques (field collection, Climbing, slaughter),
− Medicinal properties (identification of tropical diseases treated with P. nitida and
its importance, place of having health care, parts of P. nitida used, mode of
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preparation, duration of treatment of a disease with the product, and dependency
on medicinal plants),
− Social contributions of the product (gender role in terms of participation of family
members, involvement in a local group or existence of a network for value-chain
and other derivatives, and improvement of health care),
− Economic contributions (percentage of income from sales of P. nitida, place of
sales, forms of sales, price per unit of sale, type of consumers, contribution of the
product to the saving in expense with regard to household cost for health care, and
contribution of P. nitida to household income with regard to household cost for
health care or simply the derived household income in terms of costs for the
treatment of any disease done with the product).
Globally, questions and answers reflected the type of information needed, and they
addressed the specific objectives of the study.
B. Field observations
With a notebook support, field observations have been used to record other important
aspects relevant to the research in the field. In order to avoid any loss of information, an
unstructured/unfocused observation has been followed with no predetermined rules about
what to observe and what kind of notes to take. Field observations helped in
understanding the dynamic situation of stakeholders and the way of life of the household,
more particular access to health care and income sources, social adaptation to constraints,
etc. some of which are not covered by the questionnaire.
C. Additional information
Moreover, additional information on health status has been collected in the local
healthcare centres where farmers usually bring their family members for treatment. This
helped us identifying alternative sources of treatment if they exist. Also, additional
questions related to the challenges and problems encountered in the field have been
discussed with local health care officers. They included: frequency of patients suffering
malaria, typhoid, stomach ache, and yellow fever; capabilities of the health care centres
to provide adequate treatment, and their opinion regarding consumption of medicinal
plants for healthcare needs.
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4.3. Data Analysis techniques
Data have been analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively. Quantitative data have been
analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 16.0) and Microsoft Excel (Version
7). Descriptive statistics were used to provide information on measure of central tendencies
(Socio-economic characteristics, and socio-economic contributions of the product). They were
also used in measuring the variables of knowledge about growth, harvesting techniques, as well
as knowledge about medicinal properties of P. nitida for both villages.
Correlation was used to check the difference between the importance of P. nitida and the
evaluation of its socio-economic values. The Independent samples t-test was used to test the
difference between males and females with respect to their perception of the importance of P.
nitida. One-Way Anova F-test was performed to check whether product importance and the
evaluation of its socio-economic values differed between age groups. From the above
quantitative data, the multiple regression analysis was performed for local knowledge
characteristics that influence the contribution of P. nitida to household welfare. These statistic
techniques were adopted from Field (2009).
Qualitative data have been analyzed using content and structural functional analysis techniques
with components of verbal discussions from different respondents. Qualitative data, mainly from
field observations have been used to complete the data obtained from the questionnaires.
4.4. Definition of variables and measurement
4.4.1. Independent variables
A multiple regression model adopted from Field (2009) was performed on the data to determine
the relationship between the independent variables (local knowledge characteristics) and
dependent variable (contributions to household welfare).
The model used is as follows: Y = a + bX Where a and b are least-squared estimates.
Where X = b1X1 + b2X2 + b3X3 + b4X4 + b5X5 + b6X6 + b7X7.
This gives the following equation:
Y = a + b1X1+b2X2+ b3X3 + b4X4 + b5X5 + b6X6 + b7X7 + ε (For the estimation of the
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change in household welfare caused by knowledge characteristics).
Y = Change in household welfare;
Xj = Local knowledge characteristics of the respondents (continuous data) ;
bj = Coefficient to be estimated from the data ; j= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
The explanatory variables used in the regression analysis have been obtained by assigning scores
as explained in table 2. The scores obtained by a respondent in all items were used to
assess the overall involvement in a given activity. This has been computed using 4-point likert
scale as indicated (from not at all (score 1) to very high (score 4)). The knowledge dimensions
have been explained to interviewees using some understanding criteria as follow and the
corresponding score has been recorded.
a. Growth
The criteria used are: growth form, growth place and accessibility. Score 4 was assigned
to interviewees who indicated the three criteria. Score 3 was assigned to interviewees
who indicated two of the three criteria. Score 2 was assigned to interviewees who
indicated one of the three criteria, and finally score 1 was assigned to interviewees who
do not indicated any of the three criteria. This means that the interviewee don’t know
anything about the growth of the species.
b. Harvesting techniques
The criteria used are: field collection and climbing. Score 4 was assigned to interviewees
who move only for field collection because of the safety associated with this criterion in
preventing any damage of the species. Score 3 was assigned to interviewees who
indicated the two criteria. Score 2 was assigned to interviewees who indicated climbing
as criterion, and finally score 1 was assigned to interviewees who do not indicated any of
the two criteria. This means that the interviewee do not harvest the product.
c. Medicine
The criteria used are: use parts of the species, knowledge of mode of preparation, and
duration of treatment. Score 4 was assigned to interviewees who indicated the three
criteria. Score 3 was assigned to interviewees who indicated two of the three criteria.
Score 2 was assigned to interviewees who indicated one of the three criteria, and finally
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score 1 was assigned to interviewees who do not indicated any of the three criteria. This
means that the interviewee don’t know anything about medicine made with P. nitida.
d. Gender role
The criteria used are: full participation of family members (head, spouse, and children),
partial participation of family members (head and spouse or children), and low
participation of family members (only the interviewee). Score 4 was assigned to
interviewees who indicated the first criterion. Score 3 was assigned to interviewees who
indicated second criterion. Score 2 was assigned to interviewees who indicated the third
criterion, and finally score 1 was assigned to interviewees who do not indicated any of
the three criteria. This means that the interviewee is not involved in the exploitation of
the species, but s/he buys the product from seller(s) when needed.
e. Place of sale
The criteria used are: home-based, local market, and Outside (Yaounde market for
instance). Score 4 was assigned to interviewees who indicated the three criteria. Score 3
was assigned to interviewees who indicated two of the three criteria. Score 2 was
assigned to interviewees who indicated one of the three criteria, and finally score 1 was
assigned to interviewees who do not indicated any of the three criteria. This means that
the interviewee is not involved in the sale of P. nitida.
f. Form of sale
The criteria used are: fruit/berry, bottle of juice or simply juice made from berry’s flesh
of P. nitida, and basket of 25 kg. Score 4 was assigned to interviewees who indicated the
three criteria. Score 3 was assigned to interviewees who indicated two of the three
criteria. Score 2 was assigned to interviewees who indicated one of the three criteria, and
finally score 1 was assigned to interviewees who do not indicated any of the three
criteria. This means that the interviewee is not involved in the sale of P. nitida.
g. Price of sale
The criteria used are: more than CFA 150, CFA 150, and less than CFA 150. Score 4 was
assigned to interviewees who move for “more than CFA 150” which means that the sales
are done outside of the village because such a price can be obtained only on a city
market. Score 3 was assigned to interviewees who move for “CFA 150”. Score 2 was
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assigned to interviewees who move for “less than CFA 150”, and finally score 1 was
assigned to interviewees who do not involved in the commercialisation of P. nitida.
Table 2: Dimensions of knowledge and their measurement
Knowledge dimensions Responses and Assigned Scores
X1 = Growth Very high (4) High (3) Low (2) No at all (1)
X2 = Harvesting techniques Very high (4) High (3) Low (2) No at all (1)
X3 = Medicine Very high (4) High (3) Low (2) No at all (1)
X4 = Gender role Very high (4) High (3) Low (2) No at all (1)
X5 = Places of sale Very high (4) High (3) Low (2) No at all (1)
X6 = Forms of sale Very high (4) High (3) Low (2) No at all (1)
X7 = Prices of sale Very high (4) High (3) Low (2) No at all (1)
4.4.2. Definition of dependent variable
The change (Contributions) on household welfare (Y) was computed according to the responses
of the respondents and the answers have been recoded as quantitative data by giving suitable
scores. Y was computed using 5-point likert scale (from full contribution (score 1), partial
contribution (score 2), average contribution (3), low contribution (score 4), to no contribution
(score 5)). These observations were explained by the cost spent by a household for health care
needs (Contribution to households’ income deriving from the amount of money spent by a
household for health care in normal situation in a hospital or using a modern medicine).
The households’ welfare should be understood in terms of benefit for health, and additional
income derive from sales useful to support household livelihoods. Full contribution means that a
household is using only P. nitida for health care and can derive additional income from sales.
Partial contribution means that a household is using either P. nitida only and sometimes use to
mix it with another medicine for health care, or can when to hospital (when it has money), and
can derive additional income from sales. Average contribution means that a household is using
P. nitida with another medicine and can derive additional income from sales. Low contribution
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means that a household is using P. nitida for health care but didn’t derive additional income from
sales. No contribution means that a household didn’t receive any benefit from P. nitida.
4.4.3. Other variables
⇒ Importance and evaluation: The first variable (importance) is measured on a four-point
Likert scale (from very important (score 1), important (score 2), less important (score 3)
to not at all important (score 4)). The second variable (evaluation) is measured on a five-
point Likert scale (from very good (score 1), good (score 2), average (score 3), poor
(score 4), to very poor (score 5)). Both are assumed to be continuous variables.
⇒ Gender: It is a categorical variable with two categories males and females.
⇒ Age: Considering age as a categorical variable with four categories (21-35, 36-50, 51-65,
66-80), we are interested to find out whether product importance of P. nitida and the
evaluation of its socio-economic values differs between these four groups. Age is a
categorical variable.
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Chapter 5: Results and Discussion
Chapter five provides the main findings obtained from the research with both quantitative and
qualitative analysis of the data in response to the objectives. These findings have been discussed
with similar or relative findings obtained from literature. These results derive from
questionnaires, observations and additional information from field work.
5.1. Socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
The socio-economic particulars of the respondents are highlighted in Table 3. A total of 65
interviewees were surveyed. The majority of respondents in both villages were males (n=54)
compared to females (n=11). The results reveal that the greatest proportion of respondents (43
%) is between 36-50 years, while about 34 % are older than 51 years.
With regard to the marital status of the respondents, the results show that the majority (about
54%) of the respondents is living in couple with no legal marital status. Meanwhile, 35 % are
married. The majority (about 82 %) of the households is headed by males and only 14 % headed
by females. Almost the same figure is observed in both villages where households are headed by
males (87 % in Nguila and 76 % in Mbangassina).
With regard to the education level of the respondents, about 51 % of respondents attended
secondary school, about 40 % attained primary education with 8 % who attended university and
only one respondent did not follow formal education. Concerning the main occupation of the
respondents, the results revealed that the majority of respondents (about 85 %) are farmers. Eight
percent of respondents are managing local jobs which comprise handicraft, part-time
construction jobs such as carpenter, and bricklayer. These categories have been added into a so
called “others” as category. The majority of respondents (83 %) then derived their main revenue
from farming.
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Table 3: Socio-economic characteristics of respondents
Measurements Villages
Variables Categories Total (n = 65) (Count & %)
Nguila (n = 31) (Count & %)
Mbangassina (n=34) (Count & %)
Gender Males 54 (83.1) 26 (84.0) 28 (82.4)
Females 11 (16.9) 5 (16.0) 6 (17.6)
Age
21 – 35 15 (23.1) 9 (29.0) 6 (17.6)
36 – 50 28 (43.1) 14 (45.2) 14 (41.2)
51 – 65 16 (24.6) 6 (19.4) 10 (29.4)
66 - 80 6 (9.2) 2 (6.4) 4 (11.8)
Marital
status
Married 23 (35.4) 8 (25.8) 15 (44.1)
Single 4 (6.2) 4 (13.0) 0 (0.0)
Divorced 1 (1.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (3.0)
Widowed 2 (3.1) 0 (0.0) 2 (5.8)
In couple 35 (53.8) 19 (61.2) 16 (47.1)
Household
heads
Females 9 (13.8) 4 (13.0) 5 (14.7)
Males 53 (81.6) 27 (87.0) 26 (76.5)
No header 3 (4.6) 0 (0.0) 3 (8.8)
Educational
level
No formal
education 1 (1.5) 0 (0.0) 1 (3.0)
Primary school 26 (40.0) 15 (48.4) 11 (32.3)
Secondary school 33 (50.8) 14 (45.2) 19 (55.9)
University 5 (7.7) 2 (6.4) 3 (8.8)
Professional
status
Farmers 55 (84.6) 25 (80.6) 30 (88.2)
Civil servants 3 (4.6) 1 (3.2) 2 (5.8)
Traders 2 (3.1) 1 (3.2) 1 (3.0)
Others 5 (7.7) 4 (13.0) 1 (3.0)
Principal
source of
income
Farming 54 (83.1) 24 (77.4) 30 (88.2)
Salary 4 (6.2) 2 (6.4) 2 (5.8)
Trade 2 (3.1) 1 (3.2) 1 (3.0)
Others 5 (7.7) 4 (13.0) 1 (3.0)
In addition to table 3, figure 5 regarding the distribution of respondents based on age categories
revealed that the mean age of respondents is 46 years with 43 % found between 36-50 years old.
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Thereby, middle age people are the most involved in the exploitation of P. nitida according to
the targeted sample.
Figure 5: Distribution of respondents according to age
The average income per household and per month was assessed. Figure 6 displays that the mean
income of households is CFA2 88.15 (or 88,150 FCFA). The answers were received on an annual
basis and we prefer to bring them on a monthly basis. To this aim, interviewees were asked to
list all the activities which support family livelihoods by providing money benefit for the
households. The corresponding amounts of money were summed and the average per month was
retained. These incomes mostly derived from farming are not earned on a regular basis, but are
seasonal. They depend on the productivity of farm products such as cocoa and cash crops
(Banana, Coco yams, groundnuts and maize). The study sites are part of the cocoa production
zone of the Centre region. Mbam Division is known to produce high quality cocoa in Cameroon
(Gockowski and Mva, 2001). Thus, a large proportion of household income comes from the
commercialisation of cocoa. The part of money gained from cocoa sales is very large. The
respondents argue that the household income depends mostly on the productivity of cocoa over a
year. The results of the same figure reveal that some famers earned an average of CFA 250 per
month (250,000 FCFA).
2 1 EUR = 655.957 CFA (http://www.oanda.com/lang/fr/currency/converter/)
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Figure 6: Average household’s
monthly income
Figure 7 highlights that the mean number of people living in a household is about 7 with an
average of 4 children below 18 years. This number is lower in comparison with the average
number of children below 18 per household found for the whole country which is 5.5 (RGPH,
2010).
Figure 7: Distribution of household members
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5.2. Local knowledge assessment
5.2.1. Knowledge about growth
Local knowledge was assessed with regard to the growth form, growth place and accessibility of
the resource by local communities. From table 4, the majority of respondents revealed that the
species is growing naturally in the forest (52 %). However, in Mbangassina the species is
sometimes conserved in farms which is (almost) not the case in Nguila (see pictures 6 and 7).
This result can be explained by the fact that Nguila is part of a forest domain (close to the
National Park of Mpem and Djerem) and thus closely covered by forest.
Regarding the accessibility aspect, almost all respondents (95 %) stressed that they collect the
product from the growing sites previously defined. They have free access in gathering the
product with no exclusive control over the resource. Ledoux and Turner (2002) believe that
accessibility to forest resources without restrictions or with exclusive ownership/control
favourably contribute to welfare of people over time. They collect foods, materials and other
services from forest ecosystem to improve their livelihoods.
Emercy (1998) argues that forest people know where to look for the plants they use with respect
to particular locations and the general ecological characteristics associated with them. Only 5 %
of respondents are buying the product from local market or directly from collectors.
Picture 6: View of berries on farm (Author, 2012)
It was noted that there is no existing practice of cultivation of P. nitida in both villages. Such a
practice can offer an added value to benefit the respondents derive from the species such as
selling plants of P. nitida. Joshi et al. (2010) reveal that some of the community forests of
Kanchanpur District in Nepal have established nurseries for the production of seedlings of
medicinal plants. They use improved techniques (grafting, cutting or marcotting) and traditional
production techniques (seedling or transplantation) in this regard. The majority of the forest
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patches was under community forests and managed by the local community forestry user groups
(same authors). This could lead to a conservation and sustainable management strategy for P.
nitida and other NTFPs.
Table 4: Knowledge about growth of P. nitida
Measurements Villages
Variables Categories Total (n = 65) (Count & %)
Nguila (n = 31) (Count & %)
Mbangassina (n = 34), (Count & %)
Means of propagation (growth forms)
Seeding 5 (7.7) 1 (3.2) 4 (11.8)
Natural growth 57 (87.7) 27 (87.1) 30 (82.2)
No idea 2 (3.1) 2 (6.5) 0 (0.0)
Transplantation 1 (1.5) 1 (3.2) 0 (0.0)
Place of growth
Farm 12 (18.5) 4 (13.0) 8 (23.5)
Forest 34 (52.3) 18 (58.0) 16 (47.1)
Farm/Forest 19 (29.2) 9 (29.0) 10 (29.4)
Accessibility
Collect from sites
62 (95.4) 29 (93.5) 33 (97.0)
Buy 3 (4.6) 2 (6.5) 1 (3.0)
Picture 7: View of a P. nitida tree in a farm in Nguila (Author, 2012)
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5.2.2. Knowledge about harvesting techniques and regeneration
The harvesting techniques were assessed in terms of field collection, climbing, and slaughter (if
in use). Table 5 shows that about 91 % of actors simply pick the berries of P.nitida from the
ground when they fall. It should be noted that when a berry falls and is still green, it is improper
for human consumption due to the condensation of bitter active principles. When the color turns
from green to yellow, the product is ready and saves for human consumption. Similar
information has been found in Haut-Nkam Division of Cameroon by Yakeu et al. (2012).
Only about 5 % of actors climb on the tree to collect the product (see table 5). However, another
5 % don’t know any harvesting method and no one is slaughtering a P. nitida three for harvest.
By just picking the fruit from the ground, it appears that this act reduces its regeneration
potential and thus, the sustainability of the species is not guaranteed for future generations.
Harvesting of P. nitida fruits, as well as most NTFPs, is done by hand. When they are used,
gathering tools generally are muscle powered and commonly available. For NTFP (2001),
NTFPs are gathered by a diverse group, identifiable principally by their common interest in
harvesting these goods. Occasionally gathering helps to maintain valuable skills even when
subsistence values and/or cash income from resources are not critical.
Table 5: Harvesting techniques used in the collection of P. nitida
Measurements Villages
Variable Categories Total (n = 65) (Count & %)
Nguila (n = 31) (Count & %)
Mbangassina (n = 34), (Count & %)
Harvesting techniques
Field collection 59 (90.8) 28 (90.3) 31 (91.2)
Climbing 3 (4.6) 1 (3.2) 2 (5.8)
Don’t know 3 (4.6) 2 (6.5) 1 (3.0)
5.2.3. Knowledge about medicine
Knowledge about the medicinal properties was analysed with a focus on the following aspects:
identification of tropical diseases treated with P. nitida and its importance, place of having health
care, parts of species used as well as modes of preparation, average duration of treatment per
main disease and finally the assessment of the dependency of respondents on medicinal plants as
way to cure tropical diseases.
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The study reveals that in general respondents used P. nitida to cure yellow fever, malaria,
stomach disorder, kidney cleaning, amoebic dysentery, influenza, intestinal worm, and muscular
pain. With regard to importance, respondents were asked to give the top three diseases for which
with P. nitida is used the most. Then, a score from 1 to 3 was assigned. After adding all scores
from all respondents, malaria ranked first, followed by typhoid and yellow fever.
Mostly people used (78 %) a combination of health care centers and local healers’ services to
overcome these diseases (Table 6). Thirty-two percent use the services of local healers. When
taken individually, only respondents from Nguila preferred to go to healthcare centers (13 %).
For De Mello (2004), the combined utilization of modern health services and folk medicine
elements, mainly plants, occurred in reported cases of illness (like heart attack, cerebrovascular
accidents, trawna, pneumonia, and throat inflammation) in Mato Grosso State (Brazil). Modern
medicine accounted for 29 % of cases, whereas treatment exclusively with plants and with plants
and self-medication with allopathic remedies occurred in 18 % of cases.
Brunelli (1987) argues that the combined employment of folk therapies, mainly plants, and
modern medicine is reported in almost half of the disease cases in Zoro communities in Brazil. It
is possible that minor complaints were underreported in the recall survey, which could lead to an
underestimate of exclusive use of traditional therapies, normally employed in the first place in
such cases, or no treatment at all. This pluralism is sometimes expressed as a sort of therapeutic
opportunism. To a certain extent, the availability of health care facilities encourages this
behavior. But, respondents argue that medical services offered locally do not entirely meet
people's expectations.
Table 6: Place of having health care in the study sites
Measurements Villages
Variable Categories Total (n = 65) (Count & %)
Nguila (n = 31) (Count & %)
Mbangassina (n = 34), (Count & %)
Place of having healthcare
Local healers 10 (32.2) 4 (13.0) 6 (17.6)
Local health care centers
4 (6.2) 4 (13.0) 0 (0.0)
Both sources 51 (78.4) 23 (74.0) 28 (82.4)
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Regarding the parts of the species used, figure 8 shows that fruits are the parts mostly (92 %)
used. Leaves and barks of P.nitida are less used (3 %). It can be observed that fruits and leaves
are preferred by 5 % of the respondents.
Figure 8: Parts of P. nitida used
Regarding the preparation mode, figure 9 displays that almost half of the respondents (49 %)
usually mix the berry flesh of P. nitida with other products such as leaves of guava and Aloe
verra, stems of papaya, and juice of citrus. Water is added to the mixture and the whole is
cooked for about an hour and conserved into bottles of 1.5 l for about one week. However, others
respondents (11 %) prefer to mix the berry flesh only with fruits of citrus and water. In this case,
the mixture is kept into a bottle of 1.5l for about three days before consumption. This period of
time is sufficient to dissolve the juice from cutting parts of berry. Independent of the mode of
preparation, the final product, a liquid is taken two times a day, one glass (normal glass) in the
morning and one in the evening.
Figure 9: Modes of
preparation of medicine
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The average treatment duration of four diseases was assessed and the result is highlighted in
figure 10. The duration of treatment of a concerned disease varies from one user to other. From
figure 10, it appears that stomach disorder and malaria do not require long time for recovery
(respectively 4 and 5 days), while typhoid and yellow fever take about 10 and 8 days
respectively. Interviewees argued that this is because typhoid is caused by a resistant vector
namely Salmonella enterica for typhoid (Roumagnac et al., 2006; Aquado, 2005). For
Roumagnac et al. (2006), this is a bacterium strictly adapted to humans and transmitted by fecal-
oral way, very resistant to medicine. Interviewees were not able to describe the cause of yellow
fever.
The majority of tropical illnesses reported in the interviews received some kind of treatment with
P. nitida. In general, self medication was the first step of treatment. It consisted mainly of a
mixture of the product with other medicinal plants, and allopathic medicines or alternative
medicines (or conventional medicine using drugs that produce effects contrary to those of the
disease to cure) that can be easily obtained without legal prescriptions. If symptoms persist, or if
there is a physician or health service available, people seek further treatment, even in cases of
common ailments.
Figure 10: Average duration of
treatment
With regard to the dependency of the respondents on medicinal plants in general, it appears on
figure 11 that 65 % of respondents are partially dependent on medicinal plants to overcome these
tropical diseases, while 35 % of them fully depend on medicinal plants to cure the diseases.
Interviewees argued that sometimes, hospital (health care center) serves as alternative support for
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the treatment of typhoid particularly. Depending on the period of illnesses (dry or raining
season), treatment with medicinal plant is better than using medicine from hospital. This is the
case for typhoid and yellow fever mostly cured with P. nitida during the dry season. In addition,
they stressed that the mode of treatment used depends on their availability of money.
Figure 11: Dependency on medicinal
plants
Information received from health care centers revealed that population of both villages went to
hospital mostly to overcome malaria (at least three times a year per household member), typhoid
(at least two times a year per household member) and diarrhea (occur mostly during the
intersection between dry and rainy season). Respondents rarely go the health care centers to treat
yellow fever and typhoid. Data from these health care centers revealed that villagers consult the
hospital almost once a year for both diseases. They find P. nitida more effective than modern
medicine to overcome these diseases.
The dependency of forest communities on medicinal plants is also reported by De Mello (2004).
He revealed that whatever medical professionals were sought locally, for serious or acute
problems (like heart attack, cerebrovascular accidents, trauma, pneumonia) of undiagnosed
illnesses, this did not prevent patients from seeking alternative means of healing.
5.3. Socio-economic contributions of the product
5.3.1. Social contribution
The social contributions of the product were assessed. They were analysed in terms of
involvement in local groups as a network, improvement of health care, participation of family
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members into the activities, and development of social relationships. Table 7 highlights the first
two variables. From this table, it appears that the majority of respondents (88 %) are not
involved in local groups regarding the exploitation of P. nitida. Only one group was found in
Mbangassina. It is a group locally called AFCOM (“Association de Femmes de la Communauté
de Mbangassina”) with 6 members. This group processes P. nitida into medicinal products.
However, they affirmed that their health has been improved (95 %) since they consume the
product. It has been found that the cost of health care for the identified diseases have been
reduced by about 20 %. Thus this contributes to the social welfare of the household as the
product serves as an alternative source/means of treatment and allows saving money on modern
health care.
Table 7: Involvement in social group and improvement in health care
Measurements Villages
Variables Categories Total (n = 65) (Count & %)
Nguila (n = 31) (Count & %)
Mbangassina (n = 34), (Count & %)
Involvement in local group
Yes 8 (12.3) 2 (6.5) 6 (7.6)
No 57 (87.7) 29 (93.5) 28 (82.4)
Improvement in health care
Very high 62 (95.4) 31 (100.0) 31 (91.2)
Low 3 (4.6) 0 (0.0) 3 (8.8)
With regard to the participation of family members into the activity, figure 12 reveals that the
majority of members (58 %) are fully participating (household head, spouse, and children) in the
exploitation of P. nitida. This comprises: collecting the product from farm or forest, selling or
participating in the preparation processes. Partial participation (42 %) means that the household
head and his children or with his/her partner are involved. Gatherers’ processing, whether for
personal consumption or sale, also relies predominantly on personal labor and implements
readily available at home or in the community (NTFP, 2010). This source also affirms that men
and women of all ages from different ethnic backgrounds in both rural and urban areas are
concerned. Gathering groups often include both males and females and multiple generations of
the same family.
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Figure 12: Participation of household’s members in the activities
Regarding social relationship, respondents, mostly healers argue that the activity helps to keep
group relationships, trust, and humility. In the same line, Dei (1993), Alcorn and Toledo (1998),
and Fuller (1998) argue that these cultural benefits are common for stakeholders engaged in the
exploitation of medicinal plants.
5.3.2. Economic contribution
The economic aspect comprises the contribution of income from the sales of the product to the
entire household revenue, the places of sales, types of consumers, forms of sales, price per unit
of sale, the contribution in terms of saving in expense with regard to household cost for health
care, as well as the converted amount of income in terms of costs for the treatment of any disease
done by using the product.
Concerning the contribution of income from sales of P. nitida, figure 13 shows that during the
production season, about 12 % of the household income is derived from sales of P. nitida (n=24).
This happens only during the harvesting period of the species which is in the rainy season, from
April till August every year. This result (not negligible) shows the economic potential of the
product for households in the study areas.
It was similarly noted in a ANSAB survey in Humla (Nepal) that NTFPs can contribute for about
25 % to the household income for the collecting households (Subedi, 1999). Thus, NTFPs in
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particular are considered as having an immense potential for employment and income generation
to the rural people (Edward, 1996; Kanel, 2000).
Magar (2008) believes that in Nepal, Chepang communities have very few options other than
utilizing the NTFPs for meeting their food demands as well as generating some cash income to
sustain their life. The role and contribution of NTFPs are crucial on their livelihoods.
Figure 13: percentage of household’s income
from P. nitida sales
With regard to places of sales, figure 14 displays that the product is sold on the local market
(33%), Yaounde markets (21 %) or can be sold directly at the farmer’s home (29 %).
Respondents affirm that they lack information on the market value of the species. Apart from
those who sold the product outside the study sites (21 %), the rest of respondents always sell it
locally. By mostly selling the product locally, there is a possibility of a loss in terms of added
value from sales. Magar (2008) argues that the lack of market information in value chain of
NTFPs is the reason that they provide only marginal revenue to the collectors or producers. Most
part of the market profit is taken by the middle man and traders at the cost of local people
(Magar, 2008).
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Figure 14: Places of sales of P. nitida
Concerning the types of consumers, figure 15 displays that the majority of the customers are
households and resellers (62 %). When taken the customers individually, we have households
(17 %), local healers (8 %), and resellers (4 %).
Figure 15: Types of customers
With regard to the forms of sale, figure 16 shows that, 88 % of respondents sold the fruits per
piece. However, some of them sell in baskets of 25 kg and others (8 %) transform the berries into
juice ready to use. Locally, only traditional methods are used in the transformation of the
product. Then, sellers rarely commercialize the resource in a processed form (8 %). This could
be due to lack of processing infrastructure or to the absence of storage facilities for liquid.
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Figure 16: Forms of sale of the product
The price per unit of sale was assessed for fruits of P. nitida. The mean price per fruit is CFA
277 (figure 17). However, it is important to note that the price per unit of sale is different in the
village compared to Yaounde market. The price of a berry is not more than CFA 150 in the
village while it can be sold in Yaounde market for about CFA 1,500 or more.
Figure 17: Price per unit of sale
The proportion of revenue received by the respondents in comparison to the cost of treatment
using modern means was assessed. It was done by simply asking interviewees to indicate from 1
to 10 (1=10 % and 100=100 %) a corresponding number which has been affected to each
disease. It was noted that respondents receive a mean proportion of revenue of 64, 58, 66 and 77
% compared to cost of treatment for respectively typhoid, malaria, yellow fever and stomach
disorder (see Annex 2, figures A, B, C and D). These figures highlight the value of this species
in those localities for the concerned needs as it has been revealed that households mostly derive
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their income from farming. The proportion of benefit which generally is not evaluated is
indirectly used for other family purposes such as to cover the costs of transportation, education,
clothes as well as costs for electricity.
The contribution of the product to the saving in expense with regard to household cost for health
care has been assessed. The survey result (figure 18) reveals that the product fully contributes to
this need for the majority of respondents (58 %). This is particularly true for those who are
exclusively using P. nitida to cure the above diseases (no modern medicine is used).
Figure 18: Contribution of P. nitida to households’ saving in expense with regard to household
cost for health care
5.4. Relation between males and females with respect to the importance of P. nitida
The relationship between males and females with respect to the importance of P. nitida has been
assessed by using the Independent Sample t-test (Annex 2, Table A and B). P-value from
levene’s Test of equality of variances is significant (0.037<0.05) and thus we reject H0 of equal
variances. We can conclude that males have a significant higher (p<0.05) mean value as
compared to females (1.31 and 1.18 respectively), thus they found the product more important
than females.
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5.5. Relationship between importance of P. nitida and the evaluation its socio-economic
values
Correlation was used to check the relationship between the importance of P. nitida and the
evaluation of its socio-economic values. The scatterplot of both variables (importance and
evaluation) shows a positive correlation (Annex 2, Figure E). This correlation is reasonably high,
since points are almost on a straight line (Annex 2, Table C). The output gives a significant and
positive correlation coefficient (0.348) between the two variables. P-value (0.0025<0.05) is
significant and thus we reject the null hypothesis of no correlation and can conclude that the
importance people attach to P. nitida is significantly and related to their evaluation of its socio-
economic values. This means that people, who attach more importance to the product, also
evaluate its socio-economic values very good (higher scores).
5.6. Product importance and the evaluation of its socio-economic values between groups of
age
One-Way Anova F-test was performed to check whether product importance and the evaluation
of its socio-economic values differ between groups of age (Annex 2, Table E). Levene’s test for
equal variances give both p-values (0.467 and 0.626) higher than 0.05, thus accepting the null
hypothesis of equal variances (Annex D). In both cases, mean values do not differ significantly
from each other (p-values are 0.18 and 0.08 respectively). Based on these results, we can
conclude that there are no differences in product importance and the evaluation of its socio-
economic values between groups of age.
5.7. Influence of local knowledge characteristics on the contributions of P. nitida to
households’ welfare
The multiple regression analysis was performed for local knowledge characteristics that
influence the contribution of P. nitida to household’s welfare. The enter model shows a
significant model (F=4,354, p = 0.001), so at least one bj’ is unequal to zero (Annex 2, Table G).
The results reveal that the model explains 26.8 % of the variance ((Adjusted R2= 0.268), Table F
of Annex2). The multiple regression model of independent variables (Annex 2, Table H)
indicates that knowledge about medicine (t= -4.79, p=0.000), knowledge about place of sales (t=
2.95, p=0.005), and knowledge about forms of sales (t= -2.117, p=0.039) were positive and
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significantly associated with the change in households’ welfare (X3, X5, and X6 seem to have
predictive abilities, p<0.05). The significant and positive relationship between knowledge about
medicine, places of sales and knowledge about forms of sales on households’ welfare implies
that the change in welfare can be increased with increase in knowledge about medicine, places
and forms of sales respectively. Knowledge about growth, harvesting techniques, gender role and
price of sales had weak relationship to change in households’ welfare.
5.8. Experience in exploitation of NTFP
The duration in consuming NTFPs, medicinal plants and especially P. nitida were assessed. The
results are reported into figure 19 and 20. It appears from figure 19 that the mean duration in
consuming NTFPs by respondents is 30 years. This result is not far from the findings by Yakeu
et al. (2012) who reveal that 40 % of stakeholders with 67 % of women living in the humid
forest of Cameroon are exploiting NTFP resources for about two decades. This is also consistent
with the finding of Warner et al. (1997).
Figure 19: Duration in consuming NTFP in general
The above figure could reflect that, many rural people are interested in consuming NTFPs.
Regarding the duration in consuming medicinal plants and especially P. nitida, the results from
figure 20 displays that the respondents have been exploiting medicinal plants and P. nitida for
about 22 and 14 years respectively.
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Figure 20: Duration in consuming medicinal plants and P. nitida particularly
5.9. Access to resources and services
The accessibility for men/women to resources and services was assessed and the outcomes are
shown in table 8. This includes the accessibility to public services (which are services of
forestry, wildlife management and environmental services), to land or farm, and to forest
resources. The results revealed that almost the majority of respondents (49 %) have partially
access to public services amongst which those from Mbangassina are more concerned (58 %).
Seventy-two percent of respondents from Nguila have full access to public services as these
services are closely located to their surrounding settlement. In Mbangassina, population is
widely spread within the locality rather than in Nguila where people are closely settled. The
greatest numbers of respondents have full access (85 %) to land and farm resource with a
predominant observation in Nguila (94 %) over the one in Mbangassina (76 %). In Mbangassina,
most of interviewers stressed that they do not own the land used. This figure bound with the
accessibility to forest resources. It has been observed that 74 % of respondents with 80 % and 68
% respectively in Nguila and in Mbangassina have full access to these resources.
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Table 8: Access to resources and services
Measurements Villages
Variables Categories Total (n = 65) (Count & %)
Nguila (n = 31) (Count & %)
Mbangassina (n = 34),
(Count & %)
Accessibility to public services (Forestry & Environmental services)
Not at all 8 (12.3) 1 (3.2) 7 (20.6)
Partial 32 (49.2) 12 (38.7) 20 (58.8)
Full access 25 (38.5) 18 (58.1) 7 (20.6)
Accessibility to land or farm
Not at all 1 (1.5) 1 (3.2) 0 (0.0)
Partial 9 (13.8) 1 (3.2) 8 (23.5)
Full access 55 (84.6) 29 (93.6) 26 (76.5)
Accessibility to forest resources
Not at all 2 (3.1) 1 (3.2) 1 (3.0)
Partial 15 (23.1) 5 (16.2) 10 (29.4)
Full access 48 (73.8) 25 (80.6) 23 (67.6)
Concerning the accessibility of respondents to public services, their awareness on the sustainable
management of forest resources has been assessed and findings are reported into table 11. This
has been explained by asking the interviewees if they have already took part to a sensitization
campaign or follows training on a harvesting method, planting, or maintenance techniques of
forest resources, particularly NTFPs. When the answer was “yes”, the interviewer re-asks them
to explain for better understanding. Unlike the findings of table 8, table 9 shows that people
closely settled to public serves (forest and environmental services) are less aware (62 %) about
measures for sustainable management of forest resources. The survey reveals that people from
Nguila (77 %) which are more concerned have mostly full access to these resources and they can
collect them when needed as their own goods. The majority of respondents from Mbangassina
(53 %) are the most aware on the sustainability of these resources. In addition by picking the
berries from the ground which reduce the regeneration potential of the species, both situations
somehow can result with time to a situation of scarcity regarding the resources for future
generation.
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Table 9: Awareness of respondents on the sustainability of forest resources
Measurements Villages
Variables Categories Total (n = 65) (Count & %)
Nguila (n = 31) (Count & %)
Mbangassina (n = 34), (Count & %)
Awareness Yes 25 (38.5) 7 (22.6) 18 (53.0)
No 40 (61.5) 24 (77.4) 16 (47.0)
5.10. Constraints in exploiting the species
During our study, we didn’t register any constraint with regard to the collection of the species. It
has been observed that until the time of this research, people agreed that they have almost full
access to the resource (from forest as well as from domesticated farms). However, they are less
(62 %) aware on its sustainable management. This could be explained by the fact that the species
has not yet attracted the attention of scientists.
Moreover, field observations revealed that unlike respondents from Nguila who live close to
forest resources and thus to P. nitida, respondents in Mbangassina used to walk for long
distances in order to collect the product. Picture 8 was taken in a peasant farm at about seven (7)
kilometers from the village center using a motorcycle.
Picture 8: Field collection of the product from farm in Mbangassina
Interviewees in our study area were interested to get involved in the collection and sales of P.
nitida in the study area. However, there were other challenges that were limiting their interests
such as lack of market information, processing facilities at local level, lack of infrastructure to
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store the liquid (juice obtained from berries), and insufficient awareness on collection methods,
planting or maintenance techniques, to ensure long-term use of the species. These observations
are similar to those observed by other authors in India (Joshi et al., 2010) who found that
processing facilities, market information, infrastructure for storage, value addition and grading of
products, and lack of clear policy on collection, are main constraints in the exploitation of
NTFPs.
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Chapter 6: Conclusion and recommendations
6.1. Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to provide empirical evidence on the local knowledge and socio-
economic values of P. nitida in the study area. The study reveals that the majority of respondents
are getting the product from natural stands in the forest and in the farm. Almost all respondents
(95 %) have free access in gathering the product with no exclusive control over the resource. P.
nitida is mostly used to overcome yellow fever, malaria, stomach disorder, kidney cleaning,
amoebic dysentery, influenza, intestinal worm, and muscular pain. Particularly, it is used for
malaria, typhoid and yellow fever. This pluralistic medication is expressed as a sort of
therapeutic opportunism in both sites. Medical health centers do not entirely meet people's
expectations. About 49 % of respondents mix the berry flesh of P. nitida with other products
among which are guava leaves, papaya stems, citrus fruits, and Aloe verra leaves. Thirty-five
percent of respondents are fully dependent on medicinal plants to overcome these diseases. They
find P. nitida more effective than modern medicine to cure typhoid.
One network was found in Mbangassina called AFCOM with 6 members and it offers medicine
with medicinal products including P. nitida. All household members are fully participating in the
consumption of P. nitida. About 12 % of household income is derived from sales. The product
fully contributes to the need for the majority of respondents (58 %) in terms of saving in expense
with regard to household cost for health care. A significant and positive correlation between the
importance of P. nitida and the evaluation of its socio-economic values was obtained ((r=0.348),
p=0.0025). People, who attach more importance to the product, also evaluate its socio-economic
values very good. Males have a significant mean value as compared to females, thus they found
the product more important than females (p=0.037). The difference in product importance and
the evaluation of its socio-economic values between groups of age is not significant. Thus, there
is no difference independent to a group of age. The multiple regression analysis shows that for
F=4,354 and p=0.001, at least one bj’ is unequal to zero. Knowledge about medicine (t=-4.79,
p=0.000), place of sales (t=2.95, p=0.005), and forms of sales (t=-2.117, p=0.039) were positive
and significant. Hence, the change in welfare can be increased with increase in knowledge about
medicine, places and forms of sales respectively. Several limitations were found as challenges in
supporting the development of activity in both areas: insufficient information on the exploitation
of the species, less awareness on measures to sustaining the durability of forest resources, lack of
market information, lack of processing and storage facilities.
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6.2. Recommendations
In order to provide pathways to some limitations highlighted in the introduction chapter as well
as solutions to the main constraints identified during the field study, the following
recommendations and further researches should be considered.
A. Education, Training and Awareness
a) The services of forestry, wildlife management and environmental protection should
develop more educational and training activities on sustainable resources management in
the direction of rural communities. This could enhance their level of awareness about
protecting forest resources and preventing their over exploitation. It was noted that
people even closely settled to those public services are less aware about measures to
sustaining the durability of forest resources. This was the case with people from Nguila
who are more concerned and have mostly full access to these resources and they can
collect them when needed as their own goods.
b) It has been noted that the majority of respondents are not involved in local groups
regarding the exploitation of P. nitida. Only one group was found in Mbangassina
(AFCOM) with 6 members. To better improve their capacities and strongly be aware on
new production techniques as well as getting more information on the market demand,
interviewees should organise themselves in groups. They could then take the opportunity
to learn from each other and tackle several challenges within the marketing channels of
the product and other NTFPs in general.
B. Further research
Interested universities and research institutions such as the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF)
should develop the following research proposals:
1) Ethnobothany study of P. nitida with a larger sample in the main production sites of
Cameroon (such as Nkolbewa (Kribi), Maleke (Moungo), and Yokadouma (Eastern
region) reported by Adjanohoun et al. (1996). This study could help in gathering a wide
range of information on the existing practices and benefits people derive from the
product.
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63
2) Marketing research which could help in identifying the key challenge for the
improvement of the value-chain of the product (providing market information, possible
availability of processing facilities, identification of clear policy measures, and etc). In
addition, it could provide key marketing support to stakeholders such as underlining the
best processing channels, and the most cost-effective process. Moreover, it could offer
an opportunity to the development of farmers’ group producers as well as attracting
pharmaceutical organizations.
3) A domestication of the species which could bring people closely-related to it either in
their farm or in their gardens. It was noted that there is no existing practice of product
cultivation in both villages and medical services offered locally do not entirely meet
people's expectations. Thus, the domestication of medicinal plants should be encouraged
to offer alternative sources of treatment to local communities.
4) Laboratory test analysis of the species to find the side effects of the product. This could
be helpful to raise aware of consumers and provide additional useful information with
this regard.
5) Organise an awareness seminar on P. nitida. This could give opportunity to researchers,
other research and development institutions and policy-makers to discover the species
(for those who are not familiar with it), its importance and benefits regarding the
alternative solution it offers in the treatment of key tropical diseases such yellow fever,
typhoid and malaria.
Page 76
64
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Annexes
Annex 1: Questionnaire survey
International Master of Science in Rural Development (IMRD)
ACADEMIC YEAR 2011 - 2012
Research Title: Local knowledge and socio-economic values of Picralima nitida in the Humid Forest zone of Cameroon
Researcher: ir. Serge Eric Yakeu Djiam, UGENT Promoter: Prof. dr. ir. Patrick Van Damme, UGENT Co-Promoter: dr. Ir. Zac Tchoundjeu, ICRAF
Questionnaire for household’s survey This research intends to assess local knowledge of people and socio-economic values of P. nitida to household’s livelihoods in the localities of Ntui and Mbangassina of the Cameroonian rainforest. You are kindly requested to answer the questions. This research is being undertaken in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the International Master programme in Rural Development (IMRD). Information provided will be used in strict confidence only for the purpose intended. This research has been made possible through the assistance of Ghent University in Belgium and the World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF, West and Central Africa) in Cameroon. Section 0: Preliminary
1. Date: ………………..2012
2. Sub-Division: ……………………………… 3. Village: ……………………………………
4. Member of a Peasant Association or CIG : Yes ………. No ……….
5. If Yes, name of the group: ……………………………………… Date of creation: ………
6. Reasons of being member of this organisation or association: …………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Section1: General Information of Respondent 7. Sex : a. Female b. Male
8. Age ……… (Years)
9. Marital Status: a. Married b. Single c. Divorced. d. Widowed
10. Household Title: a. Female headed household b. Male headed household
11. Educational Status: a. Primary b. Secondary
c. University Degree d. No formal education
12. Number of children below 18 a. Boy …… b. Girl …… Total number of members: …
13. Professional status:
a. Peasant farmer b. Civil servant c. Trader d. Other ……………………
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14. Principal sources of household’s income over the years
a. Crop production b. Livestock c. Salary d. a + b e. all of the above
f. Other ………………………………
15. Average income per month (FCFA) : ………………………………………………………..
Section 2: Local knowledge assessment
Section 2.1: Knowledge about growth
16. Do you have any knowledge about the growth of P. nitida? a. Yes b. No
17. If yes, indicate the form of growth:
a. Seeding b. Cutting c. Grafting d. Marcottage e. Natural
18. Type of farm/place of growth: a. Farm b. Forest c. Garden
d. Other ................
19. Growing period: a. Raining season b. Dry season
Section 2.2: Knowledge about harvesting techniques and regeneration
20. Do you have any knowledge on harvesting the product? a. Yes b. No
21. Harvesting period: a. Raining season b. Dry season c. Offseason
22. If yes (20), give the method of harvest used:
a. Field collection b. Climbing c. Slaughter d. Other method …………
Section 2.3: Knowledge about medicine
23. Do you have any knowledge about medicine in using the product?
a. Yes b. No
24. Where do you get healthcare?
a. Local health center b. Local healer b. Both sources
25. List of disease treated with P. nitida
…………………………………………………………………………………………
26. List three main diseases treated by the means of P. nitida
……………………………………………………………………………………………
27. Give the part of the species used in the treatment process
……………………………………………………………………………………………
28. What is/are the form(s) of consumption of the species?
a. Cook b. Non-cook c. Processing d. Mixed with another product
29. If processing, could you please describe the processing procedure?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
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30. According to each disease mentioned above, give the corresponding part of the species
used in the treatment process
a. Berry ……………………….. b. Leave ……………………………..
c. Bark ……………………… d. Roots ……………………………..
31. For each disease mentioned in 23, explain the preparation process of the drug
……………………………………………………………………………………………
32. For each disease, what is the duration of the treatment?
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Section 3: Social contribution of the product
33. Gender role: To what extent are you involved in these activities? Tick where
corresponding: a. Full participation b. Partial Participation
c. Average participation d. Low participation e. No participation
34. How large to you think your health care system is improved since you are engaged in
exploitation of this species?
a. Very high b.High c. less b. No at all
35. If yes, please explain
……………………………………………………………………………………………
36. How much do you think your dependency to modern means of treatment has been
reduced? a. Full b. Partial c. Average d. No at all
37. If no at all, please explain a bit.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
38. Are you involved in a local group regarding this activity?
a. Yes b. No
39. If yes, please explain some of the activities of the group.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
40. To what extend do you think the following factors of knowledge influence social welfare
of the households? Tick where corresponding:
Factors Not at all Low High Very high
Growth
Harvesting techniques
Medicine
Gender role
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41. Summary, to what extend do you think those factors of knowledge influence social
welfare of households? a. Full b. Partial c. Average d. No at all
Section 4: Economic contributions
42. Form of consumption a. Households b. Sales c. Gifts
43. Percentage of household’s income from sales
a. 0% b. 20% c. 40& d. 50% e. More than 50%
44. Place of sales a. Farm/bush gate b. Home c. Local market
45. Types of customers a. Households b. Resellers c. Exporters d. Local healers
46. Forms of processing if any a. Juice (Bottle) b. other ………………………
47. Form of sales a. Fruit/berry b. Bottle of juice c. Basket d. Bag of 50kg
48. Price per unit of sale (FCFA) a. Fruit/berry …… b. Bottle of juice …………….
c. Basket ……………… d. Bag of 50kg ……………………
49. How much your revenue changed since you began to exploit P. nitida?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
50. Converted proportion of revenue compared to cost of treatment in case of disease.
a. Malaria 0% … 20% …… 40% ….. > 40 % ………
b. Typhoid 0% … 20% …… 40% ….. > 40 % ………
c. Other disease ………… 0% … 20% …… 40% ….. > 40 % ………
51. Average percentage of income gained/served in using the product compare to the overall
income spent by the households for healthcare needs
…………………………………………………………………………………………..
52. To what extend do you think the following factors of knowledge influence economic
welfare of the households? Tick where corresponding:
Factors Not at all Low High Very high
Growth
Harvesting techniques
Medicine
Gender role
Places of sales
Forms of sales
Price of sales
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53. Summary, to what extend do you think the product is important for households needs?
a. Very important b. Important c. Low important d. Not important
54. To what extend do you evaluate the socio-economic welfare provide by P. nitida?
a. Very good b. Good c. Neutral d. Poor e. Very poor
55. At all, to what extend you think the product has contribute to the households’ welfare in
term of cost for household healthcare? a. Full participation b. Partial Participation
c. Average participation d. Low participation e. No participation
Section 5: Experience in exploitation of NTFP and access to natural resources
56. How long have you been consuming NTFP in general? ……………. (Years)
57. How long have you been consuming medicinal plants? ……………. (Years)
58. How long have you been consuming P. nitida? …………………….. (Years)
Section 6: Access to resources and services
59. To what extend do men or women have access to the following assets? Tick where
corresponding:
Factors Not at all Low Partial Full access
Public services (health)
Farm/bush (inherited properties)
Forestry officers
Natural resources (NTFP)
Section 6: Solution to sustainable management of the species
60. Which technique you think could help to improve the availability/durability of the
species? a. Seeding b. Cutting c. Grafting d. Marcottage e. Natural
61. Please justify your choice.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
62. Have you received any awareness in the exploitation of this species?
a. Yes b. No
63. If Yes, from who/which institution(s)? ………………………………………………
THANKS SO MUCH FOR YOUR KIND PARTICIPATION!
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Annex 2: Some Statistics
Figure A, B, C D: Converted proportion of revenue gained compared to cost of treatment for
typhoid, malaria, yellow fever and stomach disorder
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Table A: Relationship between males and females with respect to the importance of P. nitida
Table B: Relationship between males and females with respect to the importance of P. nitida
Table C: Correlation between importance of P. nitida for households’ needs and the evaluation
of its socio-economic values Correlations
Importance of the product for households' needs
Evaluation of socio-economic values of the product
Importance of the product for households' needs
Pearson Correlation 1 ,348**
Sig. (2-tailed) ,005
N 65 65Evaluation of socio-economic values of the product
Pearson Correlation ,348** 1Sig. (2-tailed) ,005 N 65 65
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
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Figure E: Scatterplot for correlation relationship
between importance of P. nitida and the evaluation
of its socio-economic values
Table D: Test of homogeneity of Variances
Table E: ANOVA Test of variables
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Table F and G: Model Summary
Table H: Multiple Regression Analysis of Independent Variables
