IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997 1 Low-Power Logic Styles: CMOS Versus Pass-Transistor Logic Reto Zimmermann and Wolfgang Fichtner, Fellow, IEEE Abstract— Recently reported logic style comparisons based on full-adder circuits claimed complementary pass- transistor logic (CPL) to be much more power-efficient than complementary CMOS. However, new comparisons per- formed on more efficient CMOS circuit realizations and a wider range of different logic cells, as well as the use of real- istic circuit arrangementsdemonstrate CMOS to be superior to CPL in most cases with respect to speed, area, power dis- sipation, and power-delay products. An implemented 32-bit adder using complementary CMOS has a power-delay prod- uct of less than half that of the CPL version. Robustness with respect to voltage scaling and transistor sizing, as well as gen- erality and ease-of-use, are additional advantages of CMOS logic gates, especially when cell-based design and logic syn- thesis are targeted. This paper shows that complementary CMOS is the logic style of choice for the implementation of arbitrary combinational circuits, if low voltage, low power, and small power-delay products are of concern. Index Terms— Adder circuits, CPL, complementary CMOS, low-voltage low-power logic styles, pass-transistor logic, VLSI circuit design. I. INTRODUCTION HE increasing demand for low-power very large scale in- tegration (VLSI) can be addressed at different design lev- els, such as the architectural, circuit, layout, and the process technology level [1]. At the circuit design level, consider- able potential for power savings exists by means of proper choice of a logic style for implementing combinational cir- cuits. This is because all the important parameters govern- ing power dissipation—switching capacitance, transition activ- ity, and short-circuit currents—are strongly influenced by the chosen logic style. Depending on the application, the kind of circuit to be implemented, and the design technique used, dif- ferent performance aspects become important, disallowing the formulation of universal rules for optimal logic styles. Investi- gations of low-power logic styles reported in the literature so far, however, have mainly focused on particular logic cells, namely full-adders, used in some arithmetic circuits. In this paper, these investigations are extended to a much wider set of logic gates, and with that, to arbitrary combinational circuits. The power dissipation characteristics of various existing logic styles are compared qualitatively and quantitatively by actual logic gate implementations and simulations under realistic circuit arrange- Manuscript received November 20, 1996; revised January 29, 1997. The authors are with the Integrated Systems Laboratory, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland. Publisher Item Identifier S 0018-9200(97)04363-1. ments and operating conditions [2]. Investigations of sequential elements, such as latches and flip-flops, were not included in this work, but can be found elsewhere in the literature [3]. Section II gives a short introduction to the most important existing static logic styles and compares them qualitatively. Re- sults of quantitative comparisons based on simulations of dif- ferent logic gates as well as of a 32-b adder implementation are given in Sections III and IV, respectively. Some conclusions are finally drawn in Section V. II. LOGIC STYLES A. Impact of Logic Style The logic style used in logic gates basically influences the speed, size, power dissipation, and the wiring complexity of a circuit. The circuit delay is determined by the number of inver- sion levels, the number of transistors in series, transistor sizes (i.e., channel widths), and intra- and inter-cell wiring capaci- tances. Circuit size depends on the number of transistors and their sizes and on the wiring complexity. Power dissipation is determined by the switching activity and the node capacitances (made up of gate, diffusion, and wire capacitances), the latter of which in turn is a function of the same parameters that also control circuit size. Finally, the wiring complexity is determined by the number of connections and their lengths and by whether single-rail or dual-rail logic is used. All these characteristics may vary considerably from one logic style to another and thus make the proper choice of logic style crucial for circuit performance. As far as cell-based design techniques (e.g., standard-cells) and logic synthesis are concerned, ease-of-use and generality of logic gates is of importance as well. Robustness 1 with re- spect to voltage and transistor scaling as well as varying process and working conditions, and compatibility with surrounding cir- cuitries are important aspects influenced by the implemented logic style. B. Logic Style Requirements for Low Power According to the formula 2 the dynamic power dissipation of a digital CMOS circuit depends on the supply voltage , the clock frequency , the node switching activities , the node capacitances , the node short- circuit currents , and the number of nodes . A reduction of each of these parameters results in a reduction of dissipated 1 A robust circuit guarantees correct functioning under a wide range of certain conditions.
Transcript
IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997 1
Low-Power Logic Styles: CMOSVersus Pass-Transistor LogicReto Zimmermann and Wolfgang Fichtner, Fellow, IEEE
Abstract— Recently reported logic style comparisonsbased on full-adder circuits claimed complementary pass-transistor logic (CPL) to be much more power-efficient thancomplementary CMOS. However, new comparisons per-formed on more efficient CMOS circuit realizations and awider range of different logic cells, as well as the use of real-istic circuit arrangementsdemonstrate CMOS to be superiorto CPL in most cases with respect to speed, area, power dis-sipation, and power-delay products. An implemented 32-bitadder using complementary CMOS has a power-delay prod-uct of less than half that of the CPL version. Robustness withrespect to voltage scaling and transistor sizing, as well as gen-erality and ease-of-use, are additional advantages of CMOSlogic gates, especially when cell-based design and logic syn-thesis are targeted. This paper shows that complementaryCMOS is the logic style of choice for the implementation ofarbitrary combinational circuits, if low voltage, low power,and small power-delay products are of concern.
I. INTRODUCTION�HE increasing demand for low-power very large scale in-tegration (VLSI) can be addressed at different design lev-
els, such as the architectural, circuit, layout, and the processtechnology level [1]. At the circuit design level, consider-able potential for power savings exists by means of properchoice of a logic style for implementing combinational cir-cuits. This is because all the important parameters govern-ing power dissipation—switching capacitance, transition activ-ity, and short-circuit currents—are strongly influenced by thechosen logic style. Depending on the application, the kind ofcircuit to be implemented, and the design technique used, dif-ferent performance aspects become important, disallowing theformulation of universal rules for optimal logic styles. Investi-gations of low-power logic styles reported in the literature so far,however, have mainly focused on particular logic cells, namelyfull-adders, used in some arithmetic circuits. In this paper, theseinvestigations are extended to a much wider set of logic gates,and with that, to arbitrary combinational circuits. The powerdissipation characteristics of various existing logic styles arecompared qualitatively and quantitatively by actual logic gateimplementations and simulations under realistic circuit arrange-
Manuscript received November 20, 1996; revised January 29, 1997.The authors are with the Integrated Systems Laboratory, Swiss Federal Institute
of Technology (ETH), CH-8092 Zurich, Switzerland.Publisher Item Identifier S 0018-9200(97)04363-1.
ments and operating conditions [2]. Investigations of sequentialelements, such as latches and flip-flops, were not included in thiswork, but can be found elsewhere in the literature [3].
Section II gives a short introduction to the most importantexisting static logic styles and compares them qualitatively. Re-sults of quantitative comparisons based on simulations of dif-ferent logic gates as well as of a 32-b adder implementation aregiven in Sections III and IV, respectively. Some conclusions arefinally drawn in Section V.
II. LOGIC STYLES
A. Impact of Logic Style
The logic style used in logic gates basically influences thespeed, size, power dissipation, and the wiring complexity of acircuit. The circuit delay is determined by the number of inver-sion levels, the number of transistors in series, transistor sizes(i.e., channel widths), and intra- and inter-cell wiring capaci-tances. Circuit size depends on the number of transistors andtheir sizes and on the wiring complexity. Power dissipation isdetermined by the switching activity and the node capacitances(made up of gate, diffusion, and wire capacitances), the latterof which in turn is a function of the same parameters that alsocontrol circuit size. Finally, the wiring complexity is determinedby the number of connections and their lengths and by whethersingle-rail or dual-rail logic is used. All these characteristics mayvary considerably from one logic style to another and thus makethe proper choice of logic style crucial for circuit performance.
As far as cell-based design techniques (e.g., standard-cells)and logic synthesis are concerned, ease-of-use and generalityof logic gates is of importance as well. Robustness1 with re-spect to voltage and transistor scaling as well as varying processand working conditions, and compatibility with surrounding cir-cuitries are important aspects influenced by the implementedlogic style.
the dynamic power dissipation of a digital CMOS circuit dependson the supply voltage
� � �, the clock frequency
� �, the node
switching activities �, the node capacitances
� �, the node short-
circuit currents � � � , and the number of nodes � . A reductionof each of these parameters results in a reduction of dissipated
1A robust circuit guarantees correct functioning under a wide range of certainconditions.
2 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997
power. However, clock frequency reduction is only feasible atthe architecture level, whereas at the circuit level frequency
� �is usually regarded as constant in order to fulfill some giventhroughput requirement. All the other parameters are influencedto some degree by the logic style applied. Thus, some generallogic style requirements for low-power circuit implementationcan be stated at this point.
1) Switched capacitance reduction: Capacitive load, originat-ing from transistor capacitances (gate and diffusion) and inter-connect wiring, is to be minimized. This is achieved by havingas few transistors and circuit nodes as possible, and by reducingtransistor sizes to a minimum. In particular, the number of (high-capacitive) inter-cell connections and their length (influenced bythe circuit size) should be kept minimal. Another source forcapacitance reduction is found at the layout level [4], which,however, is not discussed in this paper. Transistor downsizing isan effective way to reduce switched capacitance of logic gateson noncritical signal paths [5]. For that purpose, a logic styleshould be robust against transistor downsizing, i.e., correct func-tioning of logic gates with minimal or near-minimal transistorsizes must be guaranteed (ratioless logic).
2) Supply voltage reduction: The supply voltage and thechoice of logic style are indirectly related through delay-drivenvoltage scaling. That is, a logic style providing fast logic gatesto speed up critical signal paths allows a reduction of the supplyvoltage in order to achieve a given throughput. For that purpose,a logic style must be robust against supply voltage reduction,i.e., performance and correct functioning of gates must be guar-anteed at low voltages as well. This becomes a severe problem atvery low voltages of around 1 V and lower, where noise marginsbecome critical [6], [7].
3) Switching activity reduction: Switching activity of a cir-cuit is predominantly controlled at the architectural and registertransfer level (RTL). At the circuit level, large differences areprimarily observed between static and dynamic logic styles. Onthe other hand, only minor transition activity variations are ob-served among different static logic styles and among logic gatesof different complexity, also if glitching is concerned.
4) Short-circuit current reduction: Short-circuit currents (alsocalled dynamic leakage currents or overlap currents) may vary bya considerable amount between different logic styles. They alsostrongly depend on input signal slopes (i.e., steep and balancedsignal slopes are better) and thus on transistor sizing. Theircontribution to the overall power consumption is rather limitedbut still not negligible (� 10–30%), except for very low voltages� � � � � � � � �� � � �
, where the short-circuit currents disappear. Alow-power logic style should have minimal short-circuit currentsand, of course, no static currents besides the inherent CMOSleakage currents.
C. Logic Style Requirements for Ease-of-Use
For ease-of-use and generality of gates, a logic style shouldbe highly robust and have friendly electrical characteristics, thatis, decoupling of gate inputs and outputs (i.e., at least one in-verter stage per gate) as well as good driving capabilities andfull signal swings at the gate outputs, so that logic gates canbe cascaded arbitrarily and work reliably in any circuit configu-ration. These properties are prerequisites for cell-based design
and logic synthesis, and they also allow for efficient gate model-ing and gate-level simulation. Furthermore, a logic style shouldallow the efficient implementation of arbitrary logic functionsand provide some regularity with respect to circuit and layoutrealization. Both low-power and high-speed versions of logiccells (e.g., by way of transistor sizing) should be supported inorder to allow flexible power-delay tuning by the designer or thesynthesis tool.
D. Static Versus Dynamic Logic Styles
A major distinction, also with respect to power dissipation,must be made between static and dynamic logic styles. As op-posed to static gates, dynamic gates are clocked and work in twophases, a precharge and an evaluation phase. The logic functionis realized in a single NMOS pull-down or PMOS pull-up net-work, resulting in small input capacitances and fast evaluationtimes. This makes dynamic logic attractive for high-speed ap-plications. However, the large clock loads and the high signaltransition activities due to the precharging mechanism result inan excessive high power dissipation. Also, the usage of dy-namic gates is not as straightforward and universal as it is forstatic gates, and robustness is considerably degraded. With theexception of some very special circuit applications, dynamiclogic is no viable candidate for low-power circuit design [1], [8],[9] and was therefore not considered any further in this study.
E. Complementary CMOS Logic Style
Logic gates in conventional or complementary CMOS (alsosimply referred to as CMOS in the sequel) are built from anNMOS pull-down and a dual PMOS pull-up logic network. Inaddition, pass-gates or transmission gates (i.e., the combinationof an NMOS and a PMOS pass-transistor) are often used forimplementing multiplexers, XOR-gates, and flip-flops efficiently(CMOS with pass-gates will be denoted as CMOS+). Any logicfunction can be realized by NMOS pull-down and PMOS pull-up networks connected between the gate output and the powerlines. Figs. 1(a) and (b) depicts a two-input multiplexer gate(MUX2) in pure CMOS (using tristate inverters) and CMOSwith pass-gates, respectively. Simple monotonic gates, such asNAND/NOR and AOI/OAI, can be realized very efficiently withonly a few transistors (A� , P� )2, one signal inversion level (T� ),and a few circuit nodes (P� ). Non-monotonic gates, such asXOR and multiplexer, require more complex circuit realizationsbut are still quite efficient.
Other advantages of the CMOS logic style are its robustnessagainst voltage scaling and transistor sizing (high noise mar-gins) and thus reliable operation at low voltages and arbitrary(even minimal) transistor sizes (ratioless logic). Input signalsare connected to transistor gates only, which facilitates the us-age and characterization of logic cells. The layout of CMOSgates is straightforward and efficient due to the complementarytransistor pairs. Basically, CMOS fulfills all the requirementsregarding the ease-of-use of logic gates. An often mentioneddisadvantage of complementary CMOS is the substantial num-ber of large PMOS transistors, resulting in high input loads (P� ,T� , A� ). However, the best gate performance is achieved with a
2This notation documents the tendency whether circuit area (A), delay (T),and power (P) are increased (� ) or decreased (� ) by the mentioned property.
ZIMMERMANN AND FICHTNER: CMOS VERSUS PASS-TRANSISTOR LOGIC 3
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Fig. 1. Two-input multiplexer in (a) CMOS, (b) CMOS with pass-gates, (c)DPL, (d) LEAP, (e) CPL, (f) EEPL, (g) SRPL, and (h) PPL logic style.
PMOS/NMOS width ratio of only about 1.5 (� � � � � � �
, [10]),and this ratio will decrease even further in deep-submicron tech-nologies, where the carrier drift velocities in NMOS and PMOStransistors become almost equal due to velocity saturation [11].Another drawback of CMOS is the relatively weak output drivingcapability due to series transistors in the output stage (T� ). This,however, can be corrected by additional output buffers/inverterswhich are inherent in other logic styles.
A more restrictive approach was taken for the design of low-power low-voltage cells using CMOS branch-based logic in [4],[6]. Here, the transistor networks consist only of branches (i.e., a
series of up to three transistors between power line and gate out-put), thus disallowing the usage of pass-gates. The advantagesof transistor branches are higher layout regularity (i.e., smallerdiffusion capacitances) and simpler characterization (i.e. branchinstead of gate modeling). Other aspects, such as the design ofdelay-independent flip-flops, were addressed in order to face themassively increasing effects of process, temperature, voltage,and transistor size variations at very low voltages.
F. Pass-Transistor Logic Styles
The basic difference of pass-transistor logic compared to theCMOS logic style is that the source side of the logic transistornetworks is connected to some input signals instead of the powerlines. The advantage is that one pass-transistor network (eitherNMOS or PMOS) is sufficient to perform the logic operation,which results in a smaller number of transistors and smaller in-put loads, especially when NMOS networks are used (A� , T� ,P� ). However, the threshold voltage drop (
� � � � � � � � � � � �)
through the NMOS transistors while passing a logic “1” makesswing (or level) restoration at the gate outputs necessary in orderto avoid static currents at the subsequentoutput inverters or logicgates. Adjusting the threshold voltages (i.e.,
� � � � � � �) as a
solution at the process technology level is usually not feasible forother reasons. In order to decouple gate inputs and outputs andto provide acceptable output driving capabilities, inverters areusually attached to the gate outputs (A� , T� , P� ). Because theMOS networks are connected to variable gate inputs rather thanconstant power lines, only one signal path through each networkmust be active at a time in order to avoid shorts between inputs.Therefore, each pass-transistor network must realize a multi-plexer structure, which limits the number of logic functions thatcan be implemented efficiently.3 Because these pass-transistormultiplexer structures require complementary control signals,dual-rail logic is usually used in order to provide all signals incomplementary form. As a consequence, two MOS networksare again required in addition to the swing restoration and out-put buffering circuitry (A� , T� , P� ), which all in all annihilatesthe advantage of low transistor count and small input loads ofpass-transistor logic. Also, the required double inter-cell wiringincreases wiring complexity and capacitance by a considerableamount (A� , P� ). A small advantage of dual-rail logic is thatinverted signals are for free. Layout of pass-transistor cellsis not as straightforward and efficient due to rather irregulartransistor arrangements and high wiring requirements. Finally,pass-transistor logic with swing restoration circuitry is sensi-tive to voltage scaling [12] and transistor sizing with respectto circuit robustness (reduced noise margins), i.e., efficient orreliable operation of logic gates is not necessarily guaranteed atlow voltages or small transistor sizes. In other words, transistorsizing is crucial for correct gate operation and therefore moredifficult (ratioed logic). Short-circuit currents are rather largedue to competing signals in the swing restoration circuitry.
Many different pass-transistor logic styles have been proposedrecently. The most important ones are now briefly summarized.
1) Complementary pass-transistor logic (CPL): A CPL gate[1], [13] consists of two NMOS logic networks (one for each sig-
3Note that each logic function can be realized in a multiplexer structure, butoften at a lower circuit efficiency.
4 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997
nal rail), two small pull-up PMOS transistors for swing restora-tion, and two output inverters for the complementary outputsignals. Fig. 1(e) depicts a two-input multiplexer which repre-sents the basic and minimal CPL gate structure (ten transistors).All two-input functions (e.g. AND, OR, XOR, � � � ) can be imple-mented by this basic gate structure, which is relatively expensivefor simple monotonic gates such as NAND and NOR. The ad-vantages of the CPL style are the small input loads (P� , T� ), theefficient XOR and multiplexer gate implementations, the goodoutput driving capability due to the output inverters (T� ), andthe fast differential stage due to the cross-coupled PMOS pull-uptransistors (T� ). This differential stage, on the other hand, leadsto considerably larger short-circuit currents (P� ). Other disad-vantages of CPL are the substantial number of nodes and highwiring overhead due to the dual-rail signals (P� , A� ) and theinefficient realization of simple gates (i.e., high transistor count,two signal inversion levels).
2) Swing restored pass-transistor logic (SRPL): The SRPLstyle [14] is derived from CPL. Here, the output inverters arecross-coupled to a latch structure which performs swing restora-tion and output buffering at the same time [Fig. 1(g)]. Note thatthe pull-up PMOS transistors are not required anymore and thatthe output nodes of the NMOS network are also the gate outputs.Because the inverters have to drive the outputs and must alsobe overridden by the NMOS network, transistor sizing becomesvery difficult and results in poor output driving capability (T� ,P� ), slow switching (T� ), and large short-circuit currents (P� ).This becomes even worse when cascading SRPL gates. Theresulting series of NMOS networks with competing inverters inbetween leads to very slow switching and unreliable operation.SRPL gates are highly sensitive to transistor sizing and show ac-ceptable performance only in very special circuit arrangements(e.g., no gates in series, small output loads).
3) Double pass-transistor logic (DPL): In the DPL style [7],[15], [16], both NMOS and PMOS logic networks are used inparallel [Fig. 1(c)]. This provides full swing on the output signals(i.e., no level restoration circuitry is needed), and circuit robust-ness is therefore high. However, the number of transistors—especially large PMOS transistors—and the number of nodes isquite high (A� , P� ), leading to substantial capacitive loads (T� ,P� ). The combination of large PMOS transistors and inefficientdual-rail logic makes DPL not competitive compared to otherpass-transistor logic styles and to complementary CMOS. Notethat DPL can be regarded as a dual-rail pass-gate logic, whileCMOS+ is a single-rail pass-gate logic.
4) Single-rail pass-transistor logic (LEAP): A single-railpass-transistor logic is proposed in the LEAP logic designscheme [12]. As opposed to the dual-rail logic styles, onlysingle inter-cell wiring and single NMOS networks are required(A� , T� , P� ), while the required complementary input signalsare generated locally by inverters [Fig. 1(d)]. Swing restorationis realized by a fed back pull-up PMOS transistor which, how-ever, is slower than the cross-coupled PMOS transistors of CPLworking in differential mode. Note also that this swing restora-tion structure only works for
� � � � � � � � �� � � �, because the
threshold voltage drop through the NMOS network for a logic“1” prevents the NMOS of the inverter and with that the pull-upPMOS from turning on. Therefore, robustness at low voltages
CMOS n + p med.–good yes no single highCPL 2n good yes yes dual medium
SRPL 2n poor no yes dual lowDPL 2n + 2p good yes no dual high
LEAP n good yes yes single mediumEEPL 2n good yes yes dual mediumPPL n + p poor no yes dual low
is only guaranteed if the threshold voltages are appropriatelysmall. On the other hand, ease-of-use of logic gates and com-patibility with conventional cell-based design is partly providedin this logic style. The fact that conventional logic networkscan be mapped more efficiently onto simple logic gates than onmultiplexers is dealt in the LEAP system with a new synthe-sis approach which exploits the full functionality of multiplexerstructures [12].
5) Other pass-transistor logic styles: Some other pass-transistor logic styles have been proposed. The differentialpass-transistor logic (DPTL) in [17] is a generalized dual-railpass-transistor logic structure. It consists of the NMOS pass-transistor networks and a buffer circuit for level restoration,which can be a clocked precharging buffer (dynamic) or a staticbuffer (e.g., as in CPL). In the energy economized pass-transistorlogic (EEPL) of [18], the sources of the PMOS pull-up transis-tors of a CPL gate are connected to the complementary outputsignal instead of
� � �[Fig. 1(f)]. The reputed advantage of
shorter delay and smaller power dissipation compared to CPL,however, could not be confirmed in this work. The push-pullpass-transistor logic (PPL) of [19] can be regarded as a CPLgate without output inverters and with complementary transis-tors on one signal rail [i.e.,PMOS pass-transistors followed by anNMOS pull-down transistor, Fig. 1(h)]. Besides its attractivelylow transistor count, switching and output driving characteristicsare even worse than in SRPL (see Section III), and it does notwork for
� � � � � � � � �� � � �.
G. Qualitative Comparisons
Some basic logic style characteristics which influence circuitperformance and power dissipation are qualitatively comparedin Table I. In particular, the number of MOS logic networks,the output driving capabilities, the presence of input/output de-coupling, the need for swing restoration circuitry, the number ofsignal rails, and the robustness with respect to voltage scalingand transistor sizing are given for the logic styles discussed.
III. ANALYSIS OF LOGIC GATES
The efficient implementation of logic gates is a prerequisite forthe realization of well-performing combinational circuits. Thisis especially true for high-speed and low-power applications.
A. Results from the Literature
Various investigations of logic styles with respect to lowpower dissipation have recently been carried out and reported
ZIMMERMANN AND FICHTNER: CMOS VERSUS PASS-TRANSISTOR LOGIC 5
in the literature [1], [12]–[14], [19]–[23]. In all these publica-tions (except [23]), CPL or related pass-transistor logic stylesare propagated as low-power logic styles. This is basically ex-plained by the fact that CPL gates count less transistors, havesmaller transistors and smaller capacitances, and are faster thangates in complementary CMOS.
However, some weak points show up in all these investiga-tions. First, all examinations are based only on full-adder cir-cuits. This comparison, however, is not representative becausethe critical three-input XOR function of the full-adder requiredfor sum bit calculation is perfectly suited for implementationin pass-transistor logic due to its multiplexer structure. On theother hand, the XOR is the logic function with the least efficientimplementation in CMOS. Secondly, rather inefficient CMOSfull-adder implementations counting 40 transistors were usedthroughout except for [12]. More efficient CMOS realizationswith only 28 transistors exist which perform better with respectto circuit size, speed, and power dissipation.
Furthermore, full-adders have only limited importance evenin arithmetic circuits. Full-adders or the related 4-2 compressorsare the basic cells in adder arrays (i.e., carry-save adders) usedin multipliers and similar components like dividers. In suchapplications, efficient full-adder circuits are crucial since thesebuilding blocks are often the critical ones. However, in simplerarithmetic circuits, such as adders, incrementers/counters, andcomparators, full-adders are hardly used. Most fast adder ar-chitectures (e.g. carry-lookahead) do not use entire full-adderssince their function is broken up in order to speed up carry-propagation. Moreover, the greater part of typical circuit ap-plications is made up of other (nonarithmetic) combinationalfunctions, which require no full-adders at all.
Finally, the simulation conditions and circuit arrangementsare often not clearly specified. One has to assume that idealisticand highly specific rather than realistic and more general setupsare used in some cases.
B. Improved Investigations
For a more general characterization of logic styles with respectto low-power circuit implementation and standard-cell librarydevelopment, the investigations have to be extended to a largerset of gates and therefore must include multiplexers and simplegates as well. Realistic circuit and simulation setups have tobe chosen in order to capture worst case behavior, which iscrucial in synchronous designs. In particular, gate inputs haveto be driven by typical gate outputs rather than by the simulator.Similarly, gate outputs have to drive typical gate inputs, thussimulating realistic fan-outs. Several gates have to be cascadedin order to observe their behavior within multilevel logic circuits.A comprehensive set of input stimuli has to be applied duringsimulation for sensitization of all critical signal paths.
An additional aspect to be considered within pass-gate andpass-transistor circuits is the fact that input signals may connectto transistor gates and transistor sources at the same time. Sincecurrent is drawn from a logic gate input at the transistor source,switching of that respective signal is slowed down (i.e., flatsignal ramp). If the same signal is connected to a transistorgate somewhere else, switching of that transistor and of thecorresponding logic gate is slowed down as well. For simulation
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of this effect (referred to as source-gate effect), such worst-caseinput combinations must be included in the circuit arrangementas well.
C. Circuit Arrangement and Simulation Conditions
The first set of comparisons was carried out on various sim-ple and complex logic gates. Circuits were designed at thetransistor-level in a standard 0.6-
�m CMOS process technology
(double-metal,� � � �
0 �8 V,� � � � �
0 �8 V). Layout was carriedout for all compared logic gates and for the CMOS and CPLfull-adders. It was done in a standard-cell-like manner usingsymbolic layout and compaction, which allowed for an efficientexploration of layout topologies for the different logic styles.The circuits were simulated using HSPICE at 3.3 V and 1.5 V,27� C, 20 MHz, with the capacitances extracted from the lay-out. All possible transition combinations at the gate inputs weresimulated. Worst-case gate delays and average power dissipa-tion (including power from short-circuit currents) were obtainedfrom simulation. PT-products are calculated as a quality measurefor power efficiency, giving the energy consumed by a gate perswitching event. Transistors were sized carefully by hand withthe objective of balanced gate performance, low PT-products,and, to some extent, uniform and regular transistor sizes. Mostcircuits are depicted in Figs. 1 and 4 with the transistor widths(�
) given in � (� �0 �3
�m, � �
2� ).Fig. 2 illustrates the circuit arrangement for simulation of
the full-adders. Inverters equivalent to the full-adder outputinverters are placed at the inputs and wiring capacitances of20 fF attached in order to simulate two full-adders connectedin series with a fan-out of one, which is typical for full-adderapplications (e.g., adder arrays, Wallace trees, and ripple-carryadders). This simple circuit setup allows application of arbitrarysignal transition combinations to the full-adder inputs, as well asconsideration of output driving and fan-out characteristics.
Fig. 3 shows the general circuit arrangement used for all other
6 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997
logic gates. Several gates of the same type are connected in serieswith a fan-out of two and with typical interconnect loads attached(50 fF, corresponds to three typical cell pitches [24]). This setupmakes sure that all inputs are driven by typical gate outputs andthat all possible gate input combinations are simulated (source-gate effect mentioned above).
D. Comparisons and Results
1) Full-adders (FA): Four different CMOS full-adder circuitswere implemented: the mentioned 28-transistor version [25][Fig. 4(p)], the often used 40-transistor version [1], a versionusing branch-based gates [26], and a pure pass-gate version [25].Pass-transistor full-adders were realized for CPL [Fig. 4(o)],LEAP, EEPL, and DPL. A comparison based on actual layoutand extracted capacitances was done only for the CMOS andCPL full-adders. Their layout is given in Fig. 5. Another set ofcomparisons comprising all logic styles was done without layoutand based on estimated diffusion and wiring capacitances.
The simulation results are given in Table II. The compar-isons based on cell layouts basically confirm the better delay andPT-product values of CPL full-adders at 3.3 V due to the effi-cient three-input XOR pass-transistor implementation, while the
power dissipation of CMOS and CPL are comparable. However,CMOS has a shorter carry-in to carry-out delay (
� � � � � � � �) at
3.3 V as well as overall shorter delays and comparable PT-products at 1.5 V. Similar results were reported recently in [23].Also, the layout size of the CMOS full-adder is considerablysmaller due to the smaller number of transistors and, in particular,due to a higher circuit regularity (i.e., complementary transistorsare easy to layout) and smaller number of wires (single-rail).
The comparisons without cell layouts show a higher perfor-mance advantage of CPL over CMOS full-adders. This againdocuments the worse layout efficiency of CPL. The 28-transistorCMOS full-adder performs considerably better than the 40-transistor version and the other CMOS implementations in termsof circuit speed, power dissipation, or both. EEPL proves to becomparable, but not better than CPL, from which it is derived.The single-rail pass-transistor logic style used in LEAP does notwork at 1.5 V (i.e.,
� � � � � � � � �� � � �, as mentioned earlier), and
its superiority over CMOS [12] at higher voltages could not beconfirmed. Finally, DPL is not competitive compared to CMOSand CPL due to the very high transistor count. Note that in allthese circuit implementations, power and delay can be tradedoff by a considerable amount through transistor sizing, while the
ZIMMERMANN AND FICHTNER: CMOS VERSUS PASS-TRANSISTOR LOGIC 7
PT-products remain fairly constant, except for minimum-sizedtransistors where PT-products become typically larger.
2) Logic gates: Two sets of comparisons on logic gates werecarried out based on the cells’ layout. The first set includestwo-input multiplexers (MUX2) for all different logic styles.The circuits are given in Fig. 1 and the results summarized inTable III. Here, the multiplexer in complementary CMOS out-performs all other implementations with respect to circuit delay,power, PT-product, and layout size, despite the relatively hightransistor count. It is far more efficient than any pass-transistorsolution, also with respect to layout (Fig. 6). This is remark-able since multiplexers are actually the domain of pass-transistorlogic. CPL is the best performing pass-transistor logic style and,in particular, the fastest one. Again, EEPL has worse perfor-mance than CPL, and the additional signal connections requiredin EEPL gates are sometimes difficult to layout. LEAP is quitepower-efficient but rather slow. DPL is comparable to CPL inall respects. Finally, SRPL and PPL suffer from the weak out-put driving capability and the missing input-output decoupling,
resulting in increasingly slow signal ramps through a series ofgates and, as a consequence, in high short-circuit currents. Thisis illustrated by the simulated waveforms of Fig. 7 and confirmsthe well-known fact that gates without input-output decouplingcannot be connected in series to form arbitrary circuits with-out inserting buffers every few gates. This, however, makesthese logic styles difficult to use, and they hardly yield bettercircuit performance than logic styles with inherent input-outputdecoupling in each gate.
In the second set of gate investigations, the following logicgates were compared between CMOS and CPL: two-inputNAND (NAND2), four-input AND (AND4), three-input and-or-invert/or-and-invert (AOI/OAI), two- and four-input multi-plexers (MUX2, MUX4), and two-input XOR [Figs. 4(a)–(n)].The results are given in Table IV. In most cases, complemen-tary CMOS clearly outperforms CPL with respect to circuit de-lay, power dissipation, power-delay product, and layout size.This especially holds true for the simple gates (NAND2, AND4,AOI/OAI). The only exception are the MUX4 and XOR gates
8 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997
1 CMOS version used in most comparisons [1]2 decomposed, branch-based CMOS version proposed in [26]3 pure pass-gate version4 does not work for � � � � � �
TABLE III
MULTIPLEXER COMPARISONS (ALL LOGIC STYLES).
gate logic delay (ns) power (� W) PT (norm.) # sizetype style 3.3 V 1.5 V 3.3 V 1.5 V 3.3 V 1.5 V trans. (� 2)
1 two-input NAND/NOR combination (decomposition)2 relaxed cell layout rules due to large number of (otherwise area dominating) input/output wires3 does not work for � � � � � �
ZIMMERMANN AND FICHTNER: CMOS VERSUS PASS-TRANSISTOR LOGIC 9
facmosly.ps62 � 41 mm
VD
DV
SS
VD
DV
SS
B CO S CI A
B CO S CI A
(a)
facplly.ps88 � 48 mm
VD
DV
SS
VD
DV
SS
S S A CI B B CI A CO CO
S S A CI B B CI A CO CO
(b)
Fig. 5. Layout of (a) CMOS and (b) CPL full-adder.
where CPL is faster at 3.3 V. The small layout area of MUX4 inCPL was only achieved by relaxing the cell layout rules (i.e., allinput metal-2 wires lead only to one side of the cell). Otherwise,its layout size would have been dominated by the large numberof input/output wires and thus have been much larger. CMOSalso proves to be less sensitive to voltage scaling than CPL. Thedelays increase by a smaller amount and the PT-product ratiosget better for CMOS when scaling down to 1.5 V. Finally, pureCMOS also performs better than the combination of CMOS andpass-gates (CMOS+), which is one basic advantage of branch-based logic [4]. Also, a reduction of short-circuit currents inCMOS compared to pass-gate logic was reported in [23], whencomparing tristate inverter selectors (CMOS) with pass-gate se-lectors (CMOS+). The two CMOS implementations of AND4further demonstrate that the decomposition of complex gatesinto simpler ones often improves performance [4], but not al-ways (see CMOS implementations of full-adder). Complex gatedecomposition minimizes the number of series transistors (i.e.,simpler gates)—an important aspect at low supply voltages—atthe cost of additional signal inversion levels (i.e., more gates).
E. Discussion
Among the pass-transistor logic styles, CPL proves to havethe best performance values and lowest power-delay products.Only the single-rail style of LEAP is a viable alternative if lowerpower and compatibility with cell-based design are of concern.
Complementary CMOS, however, proves to be superior to allpass-transistor logic styles in performance for all logic gates,with the exception of the full-adder at higher supply voltages.
mux2cmos1ly.ps40 � 33 mm
VD
DV
SS
VD
DV
SS
S A B O
S A B O
(a)
mux2cplly.ps54 � 33 mm
VD
DV
SS
VD
DV
SS
O A S B B S A O
O A S B B S A O
(b)
Fig. 6. Layout of (a) CMOS and (b) CPL two-input multiplexer.
a.epsi///figures89 � 47 mm
preprocessing cell (AND+OR+XOR)
prefix cell (AOI+NAND or 2 MUX)
buffer cell (2 BUF/INV)
postprocessing cell (XOR)
empty cell
a0 b0
s0
Fig. 8. Buffered parallel-prefix adder structure.
The advantages of efficient circuit and layout implementationof simple gates, the absence of swing restoration circuitry, andthe single-rail logic property are predominant in most circuitapplications. CMOS also shows the highest robustness andsmallest sensitivity to transistor and voltage scaling, which wasalso documented in [23].
IV. ANALYSIS OF ADDERS
Binary adders are good examples for circuit performance com-parisons because they include a balanced combination of differ-ent logic gates and make up the crucial building blocks in manycircuit applications.
A. Adder Architecture and Implementation
Adder architecture investigations carried out on cell-baseddesigns showed the best circuit performance measures for theclass of parallel-prefix adders (carry-lookahead adders), with theone using the parallel-prefix structure by Sklansky [27] resultingin the fastest adder circuit implementations [28], [29]. Thisseems also to hold true for transistor-level circuits, since the
10 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997
waveform.ps169 � 120 mm
Fig. 7. Simulation waveforms for two-input multiplexer in CMOS, CPL, and SRPL logic style (@ 1.5 V).
1 down-sized transistors2 conditional-sum adder in DPL from literature [30]
area-efficient but slower Manchester chains as a transistor-levelalternative do not fit well into the parallel-prefix adder structure.
A 32-b adder was realized in a 0.5-�
m CMOS process usingthe unbounded fan-out parallel-prefix adder structure of Fig. 8.One level of buffers was inserted for driving the nodes withlarge fan-outs and thus for fan-out decoupling on the criticalpaths (i.e., speed-up). Since the prefix carry-propagation can berealized using AOI/OAI-gates or multiplexers, the more efficientvariant was chosen for each logic style. That is, the CMOSimplementation makes use of the efficient AOI/OAI-gates whilethe CPL solution uses two-input multiplexers. Transistors weresized for high speed. Note that these adder architectures do notcontain any full-adder circuits, and that the three-input XOR’sare split into two two-input XOR’s, one in the preprocessing andone in the postprocessing stage. The adders were simulated at
2.8 V, 110� C, and 100 MHz with estimated wiring capacitances(layout topology taken into account). The worst-case delay onthe critical path as well as average power dissipation on a set ofrandom data was measured.
B. Results and Discussion
Table V gives the comparison results. The CMOS solutionis about 20% slower than the CPL version, but has a muchsmaller transistor count and dissipates less than 1/3 the power.A CPL version with down-sized transistors still consumes twiceas much power and is slower than CMOS. The CMOS adderhas 41% fewer transistors and 29% fewer circuit nodes thanthe CPL version. The reasons for the greater power dissipationof the CPL adder are basically the larger switched capacitance
ZIMMERMANN AND FICHTNER: CMOS VERSUS PASS-TRANSISTOR LOGIC 11
(more transistors, dual-rail wiring), larger short-circuit currents� � (differential swing-restoration circuitry), and a higher av-erage switching activity than was observed in the CMOS ver-sion. On the other hand, the CMOS adder takes advantage ofthe efficient implementation of the simple AOI/OAI-gates usedfor carry-propagation and of the single-rail interconnects. Notethat the inaccuracies from wiring estimation can be regardedas considerably smaller than the observed differences in circuitperformance.
For comparison, the performance figures of a low-power high-performance 32-b conditional-sum adder implementation usingthe DPL style are given from the literature [30].
V. CONCLUSIONS
In our investigations, CPL was found to be the most efficientpass-transistor logic style. Complementary CMOS, however,proves to be superior to CPL in all respects with only few excep-tions. An interesting alternative is represented by the single-railpass-transistor logic and the proposed synthesis approach usedin LEAP in order to better exploit the multiplexer structure ofpass-transistor logic.
The advantages of high functionality with few pass-transistorsand of small input capacitances in the CPL style are partially un-done by the need for swing restoration circuitry, dual-rail encod-ing, and the resulting wiring overhead. The investigation resultspresented show that—for all simple and complex logic gatesexcept the full-adder, and under realistic circuit conditions—-complementary static CMOS performs much better than CPLand other pass-transistor logic styles if low power is of con-cern. CMOS also compares favorably with regard to circuitspeed and layout efficiency. Its single-rail property is crucialfor saving routing resources, which is an important issue insubmicron VLSI. Its robustness against transistor downsizingand voltage scaling allows the efficient power optimization ofnoncritical signal nets and of entire circuit components. As amatter of fact, circuit robustness is becoming a key aspect indeep-submicron VLSI, where variation ranges of many processand environment parameters will increase massively [24]. This,together with its ease-of-use, makes complementary CMOS thelogic style of choice for low-power, low-voltage implementationof arbitrary combinational circuits and for design automation—i.e., low-power synthesis and cell-based design—, also and par-ticularly in the future [10]. However, other logic styles, such asCPL, may still be viable candidates for low-power high-speedimplementation of dedicated circuit applications like multipliers.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors would like to thank Dr. H. Kaeslin for his encour-agement, valuable suggestions, and careful reviewing. Theywould also like to thank Dr. N. Felber for his support and thereviewers for their constructive comments. This work was partlydone in collaboration with R. Gupta and D. Fisher from the DSPDevice Design Group of Rockwell Semiconductor Systems inNewport Beach, CA, USA.
REFERENCES
[1] A. P. Chandrakasan and R. W. Brodersen, Low Power Digital CMOSDesign, Kluwer, Norwell, MA, 1995.
[2] R. Zimmermann and R. Gupta, “Low-power logic styles : CMOS versusCPL”, in Proc. 22nd European Solid-State Circuits Conf., Neuchatel,Switzerland, Sept. 1996, pp. 112–115.
[3] J. Yuan and C. Svensson, “New single-clock CMOS latches and flipflopswith improved speed and power savings”, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits,vol. 32, pp. 62–69, Jan. 1997.
[4] C. Piguet, J.-M. Masgonty, P. Mosch, C. Arm, and V. von Kaenel, “Low-power low-voltage standard cell libraries”, in Proc. Low Voltage – LowPower Workshop, ESSCIRC’95, Lille, France, Sept. 1995.
[5] R. Rogenmoser, H. Kaeslin, and N. Felber, “The impact of transistorsizing on power efficiency in submicron CMOS circuits”, in Proc. 22ndEuropean Solid-State Circuits Conf., Neuchatel, Switzerland, Sept. 1996,pp. 124–127.
[6] C. Piguet, J.-M. Masgonty, S. Cserveny, and E. Dijkstra, “Low-powerlow-voltage digital CMOS cell design”, in Proc. PATMOS’94, Barcelona,Spain, Oct. 1994, pp. 132–139.
[7] N. Ohkubo et al., “A 4.4 ns CMOS 54 � 54-b multiplier using pass-transistor multiplexer”, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 30, pp. 251–257,Mar. 1995.
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[9] K. Chu and D. Pulfrey, “A comparison of CMOS circuit techniques:Differential cascode voltage switch logic versus conventional logic”, IEEEJ. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 22, pp. 528–532, Aug. 1987.
[10] J. M. Rabaey, Digital Integrated Circuits, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs,NJ, 1996.
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[13] K. Yano et al., “A 3.8-ns CMOS 16 � 16-b multiplier using complementarypass-transistor logic”, IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 25, pp. 388–393,Apr. 1990.
[14] A. Parameswar, H. Hara, and T. Sakurai, “A swing restored pass-transistorlogic-based multiply and accumulate circuit for multimedia applications”,IEEE J. Solid-State Circuits, vol. 31, pp. 805–809, June 1996.
[15] M. Suzuki, N. Ohkubo, T. Yamanaka, A. Shimizu, and K. Sasaki, “A 1.5ns32b CMOS ALU in double pass-transistor logic”, in Proc. 1993 IEEE Int.Solid-State Circuits Conf., Feb. 1993, pp. 90–91.
[16] A. Bellaouar and M. I. Elmasry, Low-Power Digital VLSI Design: Circuitsand Systems, Kluwer, Norwell, MA, 1995.
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[18] M. Song, G. Kang, S. Kim, and B. Kang, “Design methodology forhigh speed and low power digital circuits with energy economized pass-transistor logic (EEPL)”, in Proc. 22nd European Solid-State CircuitsConf., Neuchatel, Switzerland, Sept. 1996, pp. 120–123.
[19] W.-H. Paik, H.-J. Ki, and S.-W. Kim, “Push-pull pass-transistor logicfamily for low-voltage and low-power”, in Proc. 22nd European Solid-State Circuits Conf., Neuchatel, Switzerland, Sept. 1996, pp. 116–119.
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[27] J. Sklansky, “Conditional sum addition logic”, IRE Trans. Electron.Comput., vol. EC-9, pp. 226–231, June 1960.
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[29] R. Zimmermann, “Non-heuristic optimization and synthesis of parallel-prefix adders”, in Proc. Int. Workshop on Logic and Architecture Synthesis,Grenoble, France, Dec. 1996, pp. 123–132.
[30] I. S. Abu-Khater and R. H. Yan, “A 1-V low-power high-performance32-bit conditional sum adder”, in Proc. 1994 IEEE Symp. Low PowerElectron., San Diego, Oct. 1994, pp. 66–67.
12 IEEE JOURNAL OF SOLID-STATE CIRCUITS, VOL. 32, NO. 7, JULY 1997
Reto Zimmermann received the Dipl. Ing. degree incomputer science from the Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology (ETH), Zurich, Switzerland, in 1991. Heis currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in elec-trical engineering.
He joined the Integrated Systems Laboratory ofETH in 1991 as Research and Teaching Assistant. Hewas involved in the implementation of VLSI compo-nents for cryptographic and spread-spectrum systemsand in the design and synthesis of arithmetic units forcell-based VLSI. His research interests include digi-
tal VLSI design and synthesis, high-speed and low-power circuit techniques,computer arithmetic, computer-aided design, and artificial intelligence.
Wolfgang Fichtner (M’79–SM’84–F’90) receivedthe Dipl. Ing. degree in physics and the Ph.D. degreein electrical engineering from the Technical Universityof Vienna, Austria, in 1974 and 1978, respectively.
From 1975 to 1978, he was an Assistant Professorin the Department of Electrical Engineering, Techni-cal University of Vienna. From 1979 through 1985, heworked at AT&T Bell Laboratories, Murray Hill, NJ.Since 1985 he is Professor and Head of the IntegratedSystems Laboratory at the Swiss Federal Institute ofTechnology (ETH). In 1993, he founded ISE Integrated
Systems Engineering AG, a company in the field of technology CAD.Dr. Fichtner is a member of the Swiss National Academy of Engineering.
