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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Making a Living
• Adaptive Strategies
• Foraging
• Cultivation
• Pastoralism
• Modes of Production
• Economizing and Maximization
• Distribution, Exchange
• Potlatching
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adaptive Strategies
• Advent of food production fueled major changes in human life
– Formation of larger social and political systems - eventually states
– Yehudi Cohen used term adaptive strategy to describe a group's system of economic production
• Developed typology of societies based on correlation between economies and social features.
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Adaptive Strategies
– Foraging– Horticulture– Agriculture– Pastoralism– Industrialism
• Yehudi Cohen included 5 adaptive strategies
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Yehudi Cohen’s Adaptive Strategies (Economic Typology) Summarized
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Foraging
– All foragers rely on natural resources for subsistence, rather than controlling plant and animal reproduction.
– Foraging survived mainly in environments that posed major obstacles to food production
• Foraging economies have relied on nature to make their living
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Foraging
– Correlations – association or covariation between two or more variables
– People who subsist by hunting, gathering, and fishing often live in band-organized societies
• Band – small group of fewer than 100 people
• Correlates of Foraging
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Foraging
– Fictive Kinship – personal relationships modeled on kinship
– All human societies have some kind of division of labor based on gender
• Men typically hunt and fish• Women gather and collect
– All foragers make social distinctions based on age
• Typical characteristic of foraging societies is mobility
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Horticulture
– Field not permanently cultivated• Slash-and-burn cultivation• Shifting cultivation
• Cultivation that makes intensive use of none of factors of production: land, labor, capital, and machinery
– Use simple tools
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Agriculture
• Domesticated animals– Many agriculturalists use animals as
means of production
• Cultivation that requires more labor than horticulture does, because it uses land intensively and continuously
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cultivation
– Labor necessary to build and maintain a system of terraces is great
• Irrigation– Can cultivate a plot year after year– Capital investment that increases in value
• Terracing
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cultivation
– Long-term yield per area is far greater and more dependable
– Agriculture societies tend to be more densely populated than are horticultural ones
• Costs and Benefits of Agriculture
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Cultivation Continuum
– Horticulture always uses a fallow period whereas agriculture does not
– Until recently, horticulture was main form of cultivation in Africa, Southeast Asia, Pacific islands, Mexico, Central America, and South American tropical forest
• Intermediate economies, combining horticulture and agricultural features, exist
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Intensification: People and the Environment
• Agricultural economies grow increasingly specialized – focusing on:– One or a few caloric staples, such as rice – Animals that are raised
• Agricultural economies also pose a series of regulatory problems – which central governments often have arisen to solve
• Intensive cultivators are sedentary people
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Pastoralism
• Pastoralists – herders whose activities focus on such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and yak
– Herders attempt to protect their animals and to ensure their reproduction in return for food and other products
– Herders typically make direct use of their herds for food
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Pastoralists
– Pastoral Nomadism – members of pastoral society follow herd throughout the year
– Transhumance – part of group moves with herd, but most stay in the home village
• Before the Industrial Revolution, pastoralism almost totally confined to the Old World
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Mode of production – way of organizing production; “set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature using tools, skills, organization, and knowledge” (Wolf, 1982)
Modes of Production
• Economy – system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Production in Nonindustrial Populations
• Division of economic labor related to age and gender a cultural universal, but specific tasks assigned to each sex and age varies– Betsilio of Madagascar have 2 stages of
teamwork in rice cultivation
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Means of Production
• Land– Land less permanent among foragers than
it is for food producers– Among food producers, rights to means of
production also come through kinship and marriage
• Means, or Factors, of Production – include land, labor, technology, and capital
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Modes of Production
– In nonindustrial societies, access to land and labor comes through social links
• Alienation in Industrial Economies– When factory workers produce for sale and
for their employer's profit, rather than for their own use, they may be alienated from the items they make
• Labor, tools, and specialization
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Economizing and Maximization
• What motivates people in different cultures to produce, distribute or exchange, and consume?– Anthropologists view both economic
systems and motivations in a cross-cultural perspective
• How are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies?
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Economizing and Maximization
• Economizing – rational allocation of scarce means (or resources) to alternative ends
• Idea that individuals choose to maximize profits basic assumption of classical economist of 19th century
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Economizing and Maximization
– Maximize profit– Wealth– Prestige– Pleasure– Comfort– Social Harmony
• Some economists recognize individuals may be motivated by other goals
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Economizing and Maximization
– People devote some of their time and energy to building up subsistence fund
– Citizens of nonindustrial states also allocate scarce resources to a rent fund, resources that people render to an individual or agency that is superior politically or economically
• Alternative Ends
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Alternative Ends– Peasants – small-scale agriculturalists
who live in nonindustrial states and have rent fund obligations
Economizing and Maximization
• Live in state – organized societies• Produce food without elaborate technology• Pay rent to landlords
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Distribution, Exchange
– “Organizational process of purchase and sale at money price” (Dalton 1967)
• Value set by supply and demand
• Redistribution– Operates when goods, services, or their
equivalent, move from local level to a center
• The Market Principle
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Distribution, Exchange
– Exchange between social equals, normally related by kinship, marriage, or close personal tie
– Dominant in more egalitarian societies
• Reciprocity
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Distribution, Exchange
– Generalized reciprocity – giving with no specific expectation of exchange
– Balanced reciprocity – exchanges between people who are more distantly related than are members of the same band or household
– Negative reciprocity – dealing with people outside or on the fringes of their social systems
• Three types of reciprocity
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Coexistence of Exchange Principles
• Also support redistribution and generalized reciprocity– Balanced reciprocity would be out of place in
foraging band
• In North America, market principle governs most exchanges
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Potlatching
– Some tribes still practice the potlatch– Potlatches traditionally gave away food,
blankets, pieces of copper, or other items
• Festive event within a regional exchange system among tribes of the north Pacific Coast of North America
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©2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Potlatching
– Potlaching also served to prevent the development of socioeconomic stratification, a system of social classes
• If profit motive universal, how does one explain the potlach, in which wealth is given away?