Marine ReservesThe need for systems

Compiled by Bill BallantineLeigh Marine Laboratory, New Zealand

New Zealand's first marine reserve, near Leigh

What are marine reserves?

Marine Reserves are places in the sea that are left undisturbed so that -

They continue in their natural state.

Or recover towards a more natural state.

No commercial fishing

No traditional fishing

No sport fishing

No constructions, no dumping, no dredging, no filling

No unnatural inputs

Europe has very few marine reserves and they are all small.

There are no official plans to develop systems of highly protected marine reserves.

Europe has many Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)These are areas with some extra regulations.

MPAs aim to make human activities more efficient, more effective or more sustainable.

MPAs are extensions of standard marine planning.

MPAs are people-orientated locality-specific knowledge dependent problem-solving

Marine Reserves are completely different.

All potentially-disturbing activities are prohibited.

The burden of proof is reversed, no evidence of damage or danger is needed

All marine life is protected.

Marine Reserves are :

A simple and practical idea.

New, different and additional to existing management.

Regarded by policy makers as revolutionary.

Four points to note:

1. I am familiar with Europe.

I was born and trained in the U.K. I have often returned

to Europe to work.

In 1960 and 1986

I carried out surveys of

rocky shores

Plotting the distribution of Patella vulgata (against zonation,

waveexposure

and region)

Dominance of all Patella species

2. I speak only for myself

I hold no positions of power or influence.

If you agree with any of these ideas, they become your ideas.

If you do not, there is nothing I can do about it!

3. There is considerable practical experience with marine reserves in New Zealand

The first was established in 1975. There are now 32 reserves, covering a wide range of bioregions and habitats.

Poor Knights

Cape Rodney - Okakari

Long Bay

Pollen Island

Whanganui a Hei

Tuhua

Te Tapuwae o Rongokako

Te Angiangi

Kapiti

Westhaven

Tonga Island

Long Island

PohatuPiopiotahi

Te Awaatu Channel

Tawharanui

200 km

Marine Reserves in New Zealand

12 reserves are more than 10 years old

4. Please do NOT copy what we did in New Zealand.

We were slow and made many mistakes.

DO adopt the principles that we learnt (slowly and painfully).

Why should you promote marine reserves?

What are the benefits to science?

Practical mattersImproved understandingProvision of controls and base linesIncreased scales of time and space

Practical Matters

• Protection of apparatus and experiments• Provision of focus for many studies• Improved support and facilities

Protection of apparatusFrom simple temperature data loggers

Through tide gauges

To complex multi-level systems (e.g. for turbidity studies)

And Current meters Wave buoys Microphones Video cameras, etc.

Protection of marked individuals and sites territorial fish

transplanted sporelings

and fixed photographic sites

And Marker buoysAcoustic trackersPermanent quadratsTagged plants and animals, etc

Protection of experiments and manipulationson the shore

and in the sub-tidal

And Density manipulationsHabitat alterationsIn-situ samplers, etc.

Marine Reserves provide a safe and practical extension of the laboratory bench or tank.

Reserves provide a reason and a focusfor many scientific investigations such as -

Detailed behavioural and taxonomic studiesProvision of identification guides and summariesDetailed surveys and habitat mappingLong-term physical monitoring

Taxonomic and behavioral studiese.g.13 species of Tripterygidae

each with 3 colour forms (male, female, juvenile)

Identification guides and summaries

e.g. gastropod molluscs

Detailed surveys and

habitat mapping

e.g. 1976 survey at 1 : 2000

Long term physical

monitoring

e.g. standard climate station

Improved support

More interactions between workers and more interdisciplinary studies

More sources for equipment, facilities and finance

More interactionse.g. free spawning of Trochus viridis recorded by

Dr Kim Westerskov

More supporte.g. for detailed aerial surveys

Multiple opportunities for improved understanding

When a reserve is established, many changes develop – these provide new opportunities for

study.

Ecological changes in marine reserves in NE New Zealand

1st stage Increases in SNAPPER (sparid) ROCK LOBSTER (palinurid)

2nd stage Decreases in SEA URCHINS (echinoid) LARGE CLAMS (bivalves) some CRYPTIC FISH

3rd stage Increases in KELP (laminarian)4th stage Increases in MOBILE EPIFAUNA (small crustacea)

Sessile fauna on fronds Cryptic fauna in holdfasts Canopy-sheltering fish Kelp derived POC and DOC

5th stage Increases in juvenile SPOTTIES (labrid)

Increase in snapper (Pagrus auratus) inside reserve outside reserve

The big changes are to habitats

In 1976 the commonest sub-tidal reef habitat was grazed by sea-urchins (urchin barrens)

But with protection predators not only become commoner, they also grow larger

Large rock lobster can open large sea urchins

‘Urchin barrens’ like this in 1976

are now kelp forest or turf

These changes:

Are multiple, complex and often ecologically important.They continue to develop (for at least 30 years).They interact with natural variations (e.g. El Nino).

Once the changes are observed, explanations are often clear, but the changes were not predicted or, in most cases, even thought about.

For new reserves, the trends, amplitudes and timing of the changes are not predictable.

New comparisons are possible

Inside marine reserves to outside ++

Inside to outside over time ++ Replicated marine reserves to outside ++ Distances from marine reserve boundary + Different sizes of marine reserves + Inside and outside reactions to severe natural

changes + Different dates of reserve establishment ++ Changes outside with increased size of marine

reserve system++ = several published examples + = one or two examples

Rock lobster at the Te Angiangi reserveInside vs outside over time

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Snapper density affected by distance from reserve boundary

i.e. edge effects

Increased scales of space and time

Most manipulative experiments in marine ecology have space scales measured in metres

– marine reserves offer kilometres.

Most research projects are limited by the time scales of grants and individual appointments.

– marine reserves are permanent.

Time lags in trophic cascades

Top predators removed 1975

marine predators

recover1980

(~90%)

5-7 years

kelprecovers

1993(60%)

3 years

grazersdecline

1990(76%)

10 years

Provision of controls and baselines

Controls are essential for scientific understanding.Baselines are important for scientific measurements.

Marine Reserves are controls (for all direct humanexploitation, extraction and disturbance).

but in an form which is unusual.

Normally the scientist arranges the manipulation andmerely selects the control areas. But Marine Reservesneed to be set up, and manipulations continue to occureverywhere else.

Normally, no changes are expected in the controlareas (except natural variation).

But Marine Reserves continue to change in manyways, while the manipulated areas (outside) may not.

Marine Reserves become less disturbed and more natural.

Despite the shifting baseline, marine reserves provide the only objective measures of human-induced impacts and ecosystem health.

Wider benefits of marine reserves

• Advanced training • Education• Public interest and recreation• Conservation• Resource management

Advanced traininge.g. habitat mapping at Mokohinau with RNZAF

Lines are actual dive transects

Educationon shore

and in the water

where they can see a great deal

Public interest and awareness including aesthetics (photo copyright Dr K. Westerskov)

Scenic features (Mayor Island Marine Reserve)

Natural history stories

e.g. Evechinus grazing on Ecklonia

And biodiversity

gorgonians, sponges,

ascidians,etc. at the Poor Knights Marine

Reserve

Conservation

Standard science – involving detailed facts, careful analysis and

the ‘reduction’ of problems so that precise conclusions can be proven – is not very helpful when we are trying to conserve the FULL RANGE of marine life and its processes (including those little known or even undiscovered).

Marine biological diversity

In particular, it is not helpful to reduce biodiversity to some simple counts of species or groups.

Biodiversity includes many aspects such as –

• Size ranges• Metabolic diversity• Genetic and developmental diversity• Behavioural variation• Mutualisms• Patterns in time

Size rangesPhotosynthetic individuals range from <30m

diatoms and coccolithophorids

To >30m (Macrocystis pyrifera)

Metabolic diversitye.g. A sea slug that uses chloroplasts (Styliger)

And a snail that digests nothing (Amphibola)

Genetic and developmental diversitye.g. ray number in Patiriella

BehaviouralVery large (30+ year old) rock lobster out in the open

Mutualismse.g endolithic lichens in barnacles (Arthopyrenia)

Patterns in timee.g. 2 year cycles in Ralfsia ( a black encrusting seaweed)

• The primary purpose of Marine Reserves• is conservation.

• Everything is protected, including :

– species not yet described– habitats not yet mapped– processes not yet recognised

Resource management

Most discussion about marine reserves focuseson fishing.This unfortunate in three ways:

First, we need marine reserves whether or not they do anything for fishing.Second, although it is likely that marine reserves will assist fishing, it is not possible to predict this in any useful sense.Third, it is rarely possible to prove such effects even when they have occurred.

The most important use of marine reservesfor marine management is the provision ofbetter information.

In particular they allow us to separatenatural changes from human-induced events

Leigh

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- Rapid increase when reserve established (fishing effect)- Decline across all sites between 1995 and 2001 (non-fish.)- Densities remain ~10 times higher in reserve (resilience)

Data: Ayling 1978, McDiarmid & Breen 1992, Kelly and Haggitt 1996, 2000, 2002

Fishing and non-fishing effects in rock lobster

Habitat change in reserve (most urchin barrens are a human-induced effect)Babcock (1998) MEPS

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16 Poor Knights Cape Brett Mokohinau Is.

1998 20011999

au sprspr

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Reserve established

Even small amounts of fishing can have large effects, but the seasonal variation is natural.

The benefits of marine reserves to science are sufficient to warrant your professional support.

The wider benefits of marine reserves are sufficient to warrant your support as a citizen.

We need systems of marine reserves based on clear and demonstrable principles.

Scale is important

Principles for systems of marine reserves

1. Representation

To maintain the full range of marine life, it is necessary to include in marine reserves examples of -

All regions, all ecosystems, all habitats, all depths, and all substrates.

Not just the well-studied Not just the biodiversity hotspotsNot just the rare or beautifulNot just those considered importantNot just those under threatNot just territorial seas or EEZ

2. Replication

In each region we need at least 3 spatially-separate examples of each ecosystem and major habitat.

There are many reasons for this including:Insurance against local accidents.Inclusion of a variety within ecosystems and habitats.

3. A network arrangement

The reserves should be spaced across the whole region to provide –

Maximal connections (including larval dispersal) between all areas.

An additional range of natural variation (known or unknown).

Spread of benefits (and any inconveniences).

4. A sustainable amount

Each reserve should be as ecologically viable as possible, but the whole system must be capable of sustaining itself.

System size would be measured as % of area at each level

– region, ecosystem and habitat

Some guidelines –

At least 10% is needed for science and education

To ensure conservation we would need at least 20% of the region

To maximise fishery benefits this should rise to 30%

In regions of very intensive use, it would be sensible to aim for at least 50%

The future

When your grandchildren ask you about the continuing decline in marine life and the lack of marine reserves – what will you say?

“It wasn’t my job ….“I was busy …..“I thought the authorities would deal with it…

Do you think they will be satisfied?

Acknowledgements

Thanks to all the research workers and photographers who supplied material for this presentation – especially

Kim Westerskov John WalsbyTony Ayling Geoff JonesRoger Grace Howard ChoatAllie MacDiarmid Chris BattershillShane Kelly Mike KingsfordRuss Babcock Trevor WillisNick Shears Darren ParsonsTim Haggitt Tim Langlois

This review covers 30+ years and the work ofmany people.

More details and references are available atthis web site -

www.marine-reserves.org.nz