Marine Reserves are places in the sea that are left undisturbed so that -
They continue in their natural state.
Or recover towards a more natural state.
Europe has very few marine reserves and they are all small.
There are no official plans to develop systems of highly protected marine reserves.
Europe has many Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)These are areas with some extra regulations.
MPAs aim to make human activities more efficient, more effective or more sustainable.
MPAs are extensions of standard marine planning.
MPAs are people-orientated locality-specific knowledge dependent problem-solving
Marine Reserves are completely different.
All potentially-disturbing activities are prohibited.
The burden of proof is reversed, no evidence of damage or danger is needed
All marine life is protected.
Marine Reserves are :
A simple and practical idea.
New, different and additional to existing management.
Regarded by policy makers as revolutionary.
Four points to note:
1. I am familiar with Europe.
I was born and trained in the U.K. I have often returned
to Europe to work.
2. I speak only for myself
I hold no positions of power or influence.
If you agree with any of these ideas, they become your ideas.
If you do not, there is nothing I can do about it!
3. There is considerable practical experience with marine reserves in New Zealand
The first was established in 1975. There are now 32 reserves, covering a wide range of bioregions and habitats.
Poor Knights
Cape Rodney - Okakari
Long Bay
Pollen Island
Whanganui a Hei
Tuhua
Te Tapuwae o Rongokako
Te Angiangi
Kapiti
Westhaven
Tonga Island
Long Island
PohatuPiopiotahi
Te Awaatu Channel
Tawharanui
200 km
Marine Reserves in New Zealand
12 reserves are more than 10 years old
4. Please do NOT copy what we did in New Zealand.
We were slow and made many mistakes.
DO adopt the principles that we learnt (slowly and painfully).
Why should you promote marine reserves?
What are the benefits to science?
Practical mattersImproved understandingProvision of controls and base linesIncreased scales of time and space
Practical Matters
• Protection of apparatus and experiments• Provision of focus for many studies• Improved support and facilities
And Density manipulationsHabitat alterationsIn-situ samplers, etc.
Marine Reserves provide a safe and practical extension of the laboratory bench or tank.
Reserves provide a reason and a focusfor many scientific investigations such as -
Detailed behavioural and taxonomic studiesProvision of identification guides and summariesDetailed surveys and habitat mappingLong-term physical monitoring
Taxonomic and behavioral studiese.g.13 species of Tripterygidae
each with 3 colour forms (male, female, juvenile)
Improved support
More interactions between workers and more interdisciplinary studies
More sources for equipment, facilities and finance
Multiple opportunities for improved understanding
When a reserve is established, many changes develop – these provide new opportunities for
study.
Ecological changes in marine reserves in NE New Zealand
1st stage Increases in SNAPPER (sparid) ROCK LOBSTER (palinurid)
2nd stage Decreases in SEA URCHINS (echinoid) LARGE CLAMS (bivalves) some CRYPTIC FISH
3rd stage Increases in KELP (laminarian)4th stage Increases in MOBILE EPIFAUNA (small crustacea)
Sessile fauna on fronds Cryptic fauna in holdfasts Canopy-sheltering fish Kelp derived POC and DOC
5th stage Increases in juvenile SPOTTIES (labrid)
These changes:
Are multiple, complex and often ecologically important.They continue to develop (for at least 30 years).They interact with natural variations (e.g. El Nino).
Once the changes are observed, explanations are often clear, but the changes were not predicted or, in most cases, even thought about.
For new reserves, the trends, amplitudes and timing of the changes are not predictable.
New comparisons are possible
Inside marine reserves to outside ++
Inside to outside over time ++ Replicated marine reserves to outside ++ Distances from marine reserve boundary + Different sizes of marine reserves + Inside and outside reactions to severe natural
changes + Different dates of reserve establishment ++ Changes outside with increased size of marine
reserve system++ = several published examples + = one or two examples
Rock lobster at the Te Angiangi reserveInside vs outside over time
year
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
Ro
ck
lob
ste
r 50
0m
-2 (+
/-S
E)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
inside
outside
0
5
10
15
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Area
LeighSurvey areas
Snapper density affected by distance from reserve boundary
i.e. edge effects
Increased scales of space and time
Most manipulative experiments in marine ecology have space scales measured in metres
– marine reserves offer kilometres.
Most research projects are limited by the time scales of grants and individual appointments.
– marine reserves are permanent.
Time lags in trophic cascades
Top predators removed 1975
marine predators
recover1980
(~90%)
5-7 years
kelprecovers
1993(60%)
3 years
grazersdecline
1990(76%)
10 years
Provision of controls and baselines
Controls are essential for scientific understanding.Baselines are important for scientific measurements.
Marine Reserves are controls (for all direct humanexploitation, extraction and disturbance).
but in an form which is unusual.
Normally the scientist arranges the manipulation andmerely selects the control areas. But Marine Reservesneed to be set up, and manipulations continue to occureverywhere else.
Normally, no changes are expected in the controlareas (except natural variation).
But Marine Reserves continue to change in manyways, while the manipulated areas (outside) may not.
Marine Reserves become less disturbed and more natural.
Despite the shifting baseline, marine reserves provide the only objective measures of human-induced impacts and ecosystem health.
Wider benefits of marine reserves
• Advanced training • Education• Public interest and recreation• Conservation• Resource management
Conservation
Standard science – involving detailed facts, careful analysis and
the ‘reduction’ of problems so that precise conclusions can be proven – is not very helpful when we are trying to conserve the FULL RANGE of marine life and its processes (including those little known or even undiscovered).
Marine biological diversity
In particular, it is not helpful to reduce biodiversity to some simple counts of species or groups.
Biodiversity includes many aspects such as –
• Size ranges• Metabolic diversity• Genetic and developmental diversity• Behavioural variation• Mutualisms• Patterns in time
• The primary purpose of Marine Reserves• is conservation.
• Everything is protected, including :
– species not yet described– habitats not yet mapped– processes not yet recognised
Resource management
Most discussion about marine reserves focuseson fishing.This unfortunate in three ways:
First, we need marine reserves whether or not they do anything for fishing.Second, although it is likely that marine reserves will assist fishing, it is not possible to predict this in any useful sense.Third, it is rarely possible to prove such effects even when they have occurred.
The most important use of marine reservesfor marine management is the provision ofbetter information.
In particular they allow us to separatenatural changes from human-induced events
Leigh
0
10
20
30
40
50
1970 1980 1990 2000
year
lob
ster
s 50
0 m
-2
(+/-
SE
)reserve
non reserve
- Rapid increase when reserve established (fishing effect)- Decline across all sites between 1995 and 2001 (non-fish.)- Densities remain ~10 times higher in reserve (resilience)
Data: Ayling 1978, McDiarmid & Breen 1992, Kelly and Haggitt 1996, 2000, 2002
Fishing and non-fishing effects in rock lobster
Habitat change in reserve (most urchin barrens are a human-induced effect)Babcock (1998) MEPS
0
20
40
60
80
100
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
year
urc
hin
bar
ren
s (%
+/-
SE
)
legal size >270mm
2000
Sn
ap
pe
r B
UV-1 (
me
an
± s
.e.)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16 Poor Knights Cape Brett Mokohinau Is.
1998 20011999
au sprspr
2002
au spr au spr au
Reserve established
Even small amounts of fishing can have large effects, but the seasonal variation is natural.
The benefits of marine reserves to science are sufficient to warrant your professional support.
The wider benefits of marine reserves are sufficient to warrant your support as a citizen.
We need systems of marine reserves based on clear and demonstrable principles.
Principles for systems of marine reserves
1. Representation
To maintain the full range of marine life, it is necessary to include in marine reserves examples of -
All regions, all ecosystems, all habitats, all depths, and all substrates.
Not just the well-studied Not just the biodiversity hotspotsNot just the rare or beautifulNot just those considered importantNot just those under threatNot just territorial seas or EEZ
2. Replication
In each region we need at least 3 spatially-separate examples of each ecosystem and major habitat.
There are many reasons for this including:Insurance against local accidents.Inclusion of a variety within ecosystems and habitats.
3. A network arrangement
The reserves should be spaced across the whole region to provide –
Maximal connections (including larval dispersal) between all areas.
An additional range of natural variation (known or unknown).
Spread of benefits (and any inconveniences).
4. A sustainable amount
Each reserve should be as ecologically viable as possible, but the whole system must be capable of sustaining itself.
System size would be measured as % of area at each level
– region, ecosystem and habitat
Some guidelines –
At least 10% is needed for science and education
To ensure conservation we would need at least 20% of the region
To maximise fishery benefits this should rise to 30%
In regions of very intensive use, it would be sensible to aim for at least 50%
The future
When your grandchildren ask you about the continuing decline in marine life and the lack of marine reserves – what will you say?
“It wasn’t my job ….“I was busy …..“I thought the authorities would deal with it…
Do you think they will be satisfied?
Acknowledgements
Thanks to all the research workers and photographers who supplied material for this presentation – especially
Kim Westerskov John WalsbyTony Ayling Geoff JonesRoger Grace Howard ChoatAllie MacDiarmid Chris BattershillShane Kelly Mike KingsfordRuss Babcock Trevor WillisNick Shears Darren ParsonsTim Haggitt Tim Langlois