Weber, Max. (1922) 1954. “On Law.” In Economy and Society, edited by R. Rheinstein.New York: Simon and Schuster. Pp. 1-60.
“This material has been provided for research, private study or education. Copying this material for furtherdistribution (e.g. uploading material to a commercial third-party website) can lead to a violation ofCopyright law. Find out more about copyright here: http:lllibrarv.gueensu.calcopyripht.”
20TH CENTURY LEGAL PHILOSOPHY SERIES: VOL. VI.
MAX WEBER/“/
onLaw in Economy and Society
EDITED WITH INTRODUCTION AND ANNOTATIONS BY
MAX RHEINSTEINMax Pam Professor of Comparative Law
University of Chicago Law School
TRANSLATION FROM
Max Weber, Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft, Second Edition (2925)
BY
EDWARD SHILS
Professor of Sociology
Committee on Social Thought, University of Chicago
AND
MAX RHEINSTEIN
CAMBRIDGE MASSACHUSETTS
HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1966
CH
AP
TE
RI
BA
SIC
CO
NC
EP
TS
OF
SO
CIO
LO
GY
2
Sect
ion
x.T
hew
ord
isus
edin
man
ydi
ffer
ent
sens
es.
Inour
cont
ext
itat
the
inte
rpre
tati
veun
ders
tand
mg
ofso
cial
cond
uct
and
thus
atth
eei
plan
atiö
ffof
its
s,itçandJts
effe
cts.
Hum
anbe
havi
orsh
all
beca
lled
’co
nduc”
(Han
dein
)w
hen,
and
inso
far
as,
the
pers
onor
pers
ons
acti
ngc
me
wit
hth
eir
beha
vior
som
esu
bjec
tive
mea
ning
.T
hebe
havi
orm
aybe
men
tal
orex
tern
al;
itco
nsis
tin
acti
onor
inom
issi
onto
act.
Con
duct
will
beca
lled
ocia
lco
ndu
“whe
reit
sin
tent
ion
isre
late
dby
the
acto
ror
acto
rsto
the
cond
uct
ofot
hers
and
orie
nted
acco
rdin
gly
init
sco
urse
.3
Sect
ion
2.
Lik
ean
yot
her
cond
uct,
soci
alco
nduc
tm
aybe
dete
rmin
edin
any
one
ofth
efo
llow
ing
four
way
s:It
may
,fi
rst,
bede
term
ined
rati
onal
lyan
dor
ient
edto
war
dan
end.
Inth
atca
seit
isde
term
ined
byth
eex
pect
atio
nth
atob
ject
sin
the
wor
ldou
tsid
eor
othe
rhu
man
bein
gsw
illbe
have
ina
cert
ain
way
,an
dby
the
use
ofsu
chex
pect
atio
nsas
cond
itio
nsof
,or
asm
eans
tow
ard,
the
achi
evem
ent
ofth
eac
tor’
sou
oes
ired
and
cons
ider
ed,
aim
s.T
his
case
will
beca
lleos
e-ra
tion
alco
ndO
r,so
cial
cond
uct
may
bede
term
me
,se
cond
,by
the
cons
ciou
sfa
ith
inth
eab
solu
tew
orth
ofth
eco
nduc
tas
such
,in
depe
nden
tof
any
aim
,an
dm
easu
red
byso
me
such
stan
dard
set
hics
,ae
sthe
tics
,or
relig
ion.
Thi
sca
sew
illbe
calle
dioal
cou
The
follo
win
gte
xtco
nsti
tute
sa
part
ofth
efi
rst
chap
ter
ofP
art
Iof
Econ
omy
and
Soci
ety.
Thi
sen
tire
Par
tI
isav
aila
ble
inE
ngli
shin
.the
tran
slat
ion
byA
.M
.H
ende
rson
and
T.
Par
sons
,ed
ited
byP
arso
nss.
t.M
.xW
EB
ER
:T
xT
xoav
oFS
ocii
AN
DE
coN
oMIc
ORG
AN
IZA
TIoN
(1947).
Cer
tain
pass
ages
ofth
isP
art
are
esse
ntia
lw
ithi
nth
efr
amew
ork
ofW
eber
’sth
ought
onso
ciol
ogy
ofla
w.
The
yar
eth
eref
ore
publ
ishe
din
this
pres
ent
book
.O
urtr
ansl
atio
n,it
will
beob
serv
ed,
isdi
ffer
ent
from
that
ofH
ende
rson
and
Par
sons
.T
hela
tter
isun
doub
tedl
yco
rrec
t,an
dso
,it
isho
ped,
isth
ison
e.T
hedi
verg
ence
ofth
etw
otr
ansl
atio
nsm
ayse
rve,
how
ever
,as
anil
lust
rati
onof
the
impo
ssib
ilit
yof
ali
tera
lre
nder
ing
ofW
eber
’sG
erm
ante
xt.
SW
UG
i.
2L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YB
ASI
CC
ON
CE
PT
SO
FS
OC
IOL
OG
Y3
Or,
thir
d,so
cial
cond
uct
may
bede
term
ined
affe
ctua
lly,
espe
cial
lyem
otio
nall
y,by
actu
alco
nste
llat
ions
offe
elin
gsan
dem
otio
ns.
Or,
itm
ay,
four
th,
bede
term
ined
trad
itio
nali
stic
ally
.4
Sect
ion
3.T
hete
rm/i
al
rela
thi’
will
beus
edto
mea
nth
eca
sew
here
two
orm
oreio
ns
are’
ëiij
ied
inco
nduc
tth
em
eani
ngof
whi
chis
dire
cted
and
thus
orie
nted
from
one
pers
onto
the
othe
r.H
ence
aso
cial
rela
tion
ship
sim
ply
cons
ists
inth
epr
obab
ilit
yth
athu
man
be
ings
will
act
inso
me
(sen
sibl
y)de
term
inab
lew
ay;
itis
com
plet
ely
irre
leva
ntw
hysu
cha
prob
abil
ity
exis
ts.
Whe
reit
exis
tsth
ere
isa
soci
alre
lati
onsh
ip,
and
abso
lute
lyno
mor
eis
requ
ired
for
itsex
iste
nce.
5
Sect
ion
4.W
ithi
nth
ere
alm
ofso
cial
cond
uct
one
find
sfa
ctua
lre
gu
lari
ties
,th
atis
,co
urse
sof
acti
onw
hich
,w
ith
aty
pica
lly
iden
tica
lm
ean
ing,
are
repe
ated
byth
eac
tors
orsi
mul
tane
ohsl
yoc
cur
amon
gnu
mer
ous
acto
rs.
Itis
wit
hsu
chty
pes
ofco
nduc
tth
atso
ciol
ogy
isco
ncer
ned,
inco
ntra
stto
hist
ory,
whi
chis
inte
rest
edin
the
caus
alco
nnec
tion
sof
impor
tant
,i.e
.,fa
tefu
l,si
ngle
even
ts.
An
actu
ally
exis
ting
prob
abil
ito
are
gula
rity
ofan
orie
ntat
ion
ofso
cial
cond
uct
will
beca
lled
‘us
age”
(Bra
uch)
whe
re,
and
inso
far
as,
the
prob
abil
ity
ofit
sex
iste
nce
ina
grou
pof
peop
leis
onno
thin
gbu
tac
tual
habi
t(U
bung
).A
usag
ew
illbe
calle
d“c
us“if
the
actu
alha
bit
isba
sed
upon
long
stan
ding
.W
here
,on
the
othe
rha
nd,
aus
age
isde
term
ined
excl
usiv
ely
byth
efa
ctth
atal
lth
eac
tors
’co
nduc
tis
aim
-rat
iona
lly
orie
nted
tow
aJden
&aL
epec
tati
ons,
itw
illbe
calle
dasage
dete
rmin
ed13y
the
inte
rest
s1tu
atjo
nVF
asio
nconti
tiit
èsi
spec
ial
case
Rf
usag
e.In
cont
rast
tocu
stom
we
shal
lsp
eak
offa
shio
nw
here
the
cond
uct
inqu
esti
onis
mot
ivat
edby
itsno
velt
yra
ther
than
long
stan
ding
asin
the
case
ofcu
stom
.
Inco
ntra
st‘andta
we
shal
lsp
eak
ofw
here
the
rule
isno
tex
tern
ally
guar
ante
edbu
tw
here
the
acto
rco
nfor
ms
toit
“wit
hout
thin
king
”or
for
such
reas
ons
assi
mpl
eco
nven
ienc
e,an
dw
here
othe
rsbe
long
ing
toth
esa
me
grou
pof
peop
leca
nbe
expe
cted
toac
tin
the
sam
ew
ayfo
rth
esa
me
reas
ons.
Inth
ism
eani
ngcu
stom
thus
W.u
.G.
12.
‘W.u
.G.
13.
does
not
clai
man
y“v
alid
ity”
;no
body
isin
any
way
requ
ired
toab
ide
byit.
How
ever
,th
etr
ansi
tion
from
this
case
toth
ose
ofco
nven
tion
orla
wis
inde
fini
te.
Fac
tual
cust
omev
eryw
here
has
bego
tten
afe
elin
gof
ough
tnes
s.A
tpr
esen
tit
isa
cust
omth
atin
the
mor
ning
we
eat
abre
akfa
stof
som
ede
fina
ble
cont
ent.
How
ever
,no
body
(exc
ept
aho
tel
gues
t)“o
ught
”to
doso
.B
esid
es,
the
cust
omha
sno
tpr
evai
led
atal
ltim
es.
On
the
othe
rha
nd,
the
way
sin
whi
chw
edr
ess
are,
toda
yat
leas
t,no
long
erm
ere
cust
om.
The
yha
vebe
com
eco
nven
tion
.0
Sect
ion
5.C
ondu
ct,
espe
cial
lyso
cial
cond
uct,
and
quit
epa
rtic
ular
lya
soci
alre
lati
onsh
ip,
can
beor
ient
edon
the
art
ofth
eac
tors
tow
ard
thei
rid
ea(V
orst
ellu
ng)
ofth
eex
iste
nce
ofeg
itim
ate
or.T
hepro
ba
bili
tyof
such
anor
ient
atio
nsh
all
beca
lled
the
vali
ity
ofth
eor
der
in
thus
tom
ean
mor
eth
anth
em
ere
regu
lari
tyof
thours
eof
soci
alco
nduc
tas
dete
rmin
edby
cust
omor
inte
rest
situ
atio
ns.
The
fact
that
mov
ers
regu
larl
yad
vert
ise
near
the
date
spe
ople
are
mov
ing
from
one
apar
tmen
tto
anot
her
isca
used
excl
usiv
ely
byth
eir
inte
rest
situ
atio
n.T
hefa
ctth
ata
sale
sman
regu
larl
yvi
sits
ace
rtai
ncu
stom
eron
ace
rtai
nda
yof
the
wee
kor
mon
this
eith
erha
bit
oflo
ngst
andi
ngor
also
caus
edby
his
inte
rest
s(h
em
ayfo
llow
are
gula
rtu
rn).
But
the
fact
that
apu
blic
offi
cer
show
sup
athi
sof
fice
ever
yda
yat
the
sam
eho
uris
dete
rmin
edno
ton
lyby
rout
ine
(cus
tom
)or
his
inte
rest
situ
atio
nbu
tre
gula
rly
also
bth
eva
lidi
tyof
anor
der
(viz
.,th
eci
vil
serv
ice
rule
s)as
aco
mm
and
the
vio
aio
no
wi
11no
ton
lyin
volv
ede
trim
ents
but
will
also
,at
leas
tno
rmal
ly,
beab
horr
ent
tohi
sse
nse
ofdu
tyin
the
valu
e-ra
tion
alm
anne
r.2.
Qnl
yth
enw
illth
eco
nten
tof
aso
cial
rela
tion
ship
beca
lled
aso
cial
orde
iif
the
cond
uct
is,
appr
oxim
atel
yan
don
the
aver
age,
orie
nted
tOw
ard
dete
rmin
able
“max
ims.
”O
nly
then
will
anor
der
beca
lled
“val
id”
ifth
eor
ient
atio
nto
war
dth
ose
max
ims
occu
rs,
amon
got
her
reas
ons,
also
beca
use
itis
inso
me
appr
ecia
ble
way
rega
rded
byth
eac
tor
asin
som
ew
ayob
liga
tory
orex
empl
ary
for
him
.In
actu
allif
e,co
nduc
tm
ay8W
.u.G
.14.
The
chap
ters
onus
age
and
cust
omin
the
seco
ndvo
lum
eof
JH1.R
nrG
’sL
Aw
AS
AM
EAN
STO
.uEN
Dar
est
ill
wor
thw
hile
read
ing.
See
also
P.
OE
RT
MA
NN
,R
EC
HT
SR
EG
EL
UN
GU
ND
VE
RK
EE
RS
SIT
TE
(1914)
and,
mor
ere
cent
ly,
E.
Waz
oai
n,
Srr
rx;
REC
HT
UN
DM
ORA
L(i
gig
),w
hose
opin
ions
agre
ew
ith
min
ean
ddi
sagr
eew
ith
thos
eof
Sta
mm
ier
[WIR
Tsc
aiur
TJN
DR
EC
ET
(589
6)]
[Web
er’s
note
.]
i.
4L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
Ybe
orie
nted
tow
ard
anor
1er
for
agr
eat
vari
ety
ofm
otiv
es.
But
the
fact
that
,am
ong
othe
rm
otiv
es,
the
orde
rap
pear
sto
atle
ast
som
eof
the
acto
rsas
exem
plar
yor
obli
gato
ryan
dth
usas
bind
ing,
incr
ease
s,of
ten
cons
ider
ably
,th
epr
obab
ilit
yth
atco
nduc
tw
illre
ally
beor
ient
edto
vard
the
orde
r.A
nor
der
whi
chis
obey
edfo
rth
eso
lere
ason
ofai
mçj
rati
onal
ity
isge
nera
lly
less
stab
leth
anco
nduc
tw
hich
,be
caus
eof
its\JI
Jlo
ngst
andi
ng,
isor
ient
edto
war
da
cust
om.
Inde
ed,
that
latt
erat
titu
deiis
the
muc
hm
ore
freq
uent
.B
utev
enm
ore
stab
leis
the
cond
uct
orie
nted
tow
ard
acu
stom
whi
chis
endo
wed
with
thprs
+ig
çof
exem
plar
ines
sor
obli
gato
rine
ssor
,in
othe
rw
ords
,of
egit
imjy
?”B
ut,
ofco
urse
,th
etr
ansi
tion
sfr
omth
eor
ient
atio
nof
coñT
hit
tow
ard
anor
der
byvi
rtue
ofm
ere
trad
itio
nor
mer
eai
m-r
atio
nali
tyto
the
belie
fin
legit
im
acy
are
inde
term
inat
ein
actu
allif
e.3.
The
reca
nbe
orie
ntat
ion
tow
ard
anor
der
even
whe
reits
mea
ning
(as
gene
rall
yun
ders
tood
)is
not
nece
ssar
ilyob
eyed
.T
hepr
obab
ilit
yth
atth
eor
der
beto
som
eex
tent
valid
(as
anob
liga
tory
norm
)ca
nal
sooc
cur
whe
reits
mea
ning
is“e
vade
d”or
“iola
ted.”
Such
orie
ntat
ion
may
beof
am
erel
yai
m-r
atio
nal
kind
:T
heth
ief
orie
nts
his
cond
uct
tow
ard
the
vali
dity
ofth
ecr
imin
alla
w,
viz.
,by
tryi
ngto
conc
eal
it.T
heve
ryfa
ctth
atth
eor
der
isva
lidw
ithin
agr
oup
ofpe
ople
mak
esit
nec
essa
ryfo
rhi
mto
conc
eal
its
viol
atio
n.T
his
case
is,
ofco
urse
,m
argi
nal.
Ver
yfr
eque
ntly
the
orde
ris
viol
ated
only
inon
eor
anot
her
part
ial
resp
ect,
orits
viol
atio
nis
soug
htto
bepa
ssed
off
asle
giti
mat
e,w
itha
vary
ing
mea
sure
ofgo
odfa
ith.
Or
seve
ral
diff
eren
tin
terp
reta
tion
sof
the
mea
ning
ofth
eor
der
coex
ist
alon
gsid
eea
chot
her.
Inth
atca
seth
eso
ciol
ogis
tw
illre
gard
each
one
asva
lidin
exac
tlyso
far
asit
isac
tual
lyde
term
inat
ive
ofco
nduc
t.It
is,
inde
ed,
inno
way
diff
icul
tfo
rth
eso
ciol
ogis
tto
reco
gniz
eth
atse
vera
l,po
ssib
lym
utua
lly
cont
radi
ctor
y,or
ders
are
valid
with
inth
esa
me
grou
p.E
ven
one
and
the
sam
ein
divi
dua
lm
ayor
ient
his
cond
uct
tow
ard
mut
uall
yco
ntra
dict
ory
orde
rs.
He
can
doso
succ
essi
vely
;su
chca
ses
can,
inde
ed,
beob
serv
edal
lth
eti
me;
but
orie
ntat
ion
ofco
nduc
tto
war
dm
utua
lly
cont
radi
ctor
yor
ders
can
occu
rw
ith
resp
ect
toon
ean
dth
esa
me
cond
uct.
One
who
enga
ges
ina
duel
orie
nts
his
cond
uct
tow
ard
the
hono
rco
de;
but
heal
soor
ient
sit
ôard
the
crim
inal
law
[by
whi
chdu
ellin
gis
proh
ibit
ed]
byke
epin
gth
edu
else
cret
or,
inth
eop
posi
tem
anne
r,by
volu
ntar
ily
appe
arin
gin
cour
t.W
here
,ho
wev
er,
evas
ion
orvi
olat
ion
ofth
eor
der
(i.e
.,of
the
mea
ning
gene
rall
yas
crib
edto
it)
has
beco
me
the
rule
,th
eor
der
has
com
eto
beva
lidin
but
alim
ited
sens
eor
has
ceas
edto
beva
lid
alto
geth
er.
For
the
law
yer
anor
der
isei
ther
valid
orno
t;bu
tno
such
alte
rna
tive
exis
tsfo
rth
eso
ciol
ogis
t.F
luid
tran
siti
ons
exis
tbe
twee
nva
lidi
ty
-—
Sect
ion
6.be
guar
ante
edin
seve
ral
ays: It
may
begu
aran
teed
pure
lysujç
qiv
land
such
subj
ecti
veguar
ànty
may
beei
ther
i.m
erel
yaf
fect
ual,
i.e.,
thro
ugh
emot
iona
lsu
rren
der;
or2.
valu
e-ra
tion
al,
i.e.,
dete
rmin
edby
the
fait
hin
the
abso
lute
vali
dity
ofth
eor
der
asth
eex
pres
sion
oful
tim
ate,
bind
ing
valu
esof
anet
hica
l,ae
sthe
tica
l,or
othe
rki
nd;
or3.
relig
ious
,i.e
.,de
term
ined
byth
ebe
lief
that
salv
atio
nde
pend
sup
onob
edie
nce
toth
eor
der.
II.
The
legi
tim
acy
ofan
orde
rm
ay,
how
ever
,be
guar
ante
edal
soby
the
expe
ctat
ion
ofce
rtai
nex
tern
ects
,i.e
.,by
intr
est
citu
atjc
ns.
An
orde
rw
illbe
calle
dco
nven
tiw
here
itsva
lidi
tyis
exte
rnal
lygu
aran
teed
byth
epr
obab
ilit
yth
ata
viol
atio
nw
illm
eet
wit
hth
e(r
ela
tive
ly)
gene
ral
and
prac
tica
lly
sign
ific
ant
disa
ppro
val
ofa
dete
rmin
able
roup
ofpe
ople
.8
An
orde
rff
l‘,
L’e
xix
nall
3r
guara
eeiy
epro
b-T
hbil
iLt
coer
cion
(physi
alor
psyc
holo
gica
l),
tobr
ing
abou
tco
nfo
rmit
yor
aven
gevi
olat
ion,
will
beap
plie
dby
ast
aff o
fpe
ople
hold
ing
e9ally
read
yfo
rth
atpu
rpos
eL
___-
1-U
nder
con7
ient
iön
wi
shal
lth
usun
ders
tand
that
cust
omw
hich
,w
ithin
agi
ven
grou
p,is
appr
oved
as“v
alid
”an
dgu
aran
teed
agai
nst
devi
atio
nby
disa
ppro
val.
ILdi
ffs1
mrn
”lw
,’as
abse
nce
ofa
stff
bold
i‘s
dis
tin
tiii
ruti
vfi
imrf
roi
law
acco
rdin
gto
whe
ther
orno
sum
issi
onis
“ii
Iiar
y,ne
ithe
rco
rres
pond
sto
com
mon
ling
uist
icus
age
nor
does
it’h
illu
stra
tion
s.E
very
body
isse
riou
sly
expe
cted
and
rega
rded
asob
liged
toco
nfor
mto
such
conv
entio
nsas
thos
eof
the
usua
lm
odes
ofsa
luta
tion
,of
dece
ntdr
ess,
orof
the
gene
ral
mod
esof
soci
alin
ter
cour
se.
Con
form
ance
tosu
chco
nven
tions
isin
now
ayso
volu
ntar
yas
,fo
rex
ampl
e,th
ech
oice
ofth
em
anne
rof
cook
ing.
Avi
olat
ion
ofco
nTW
.u.G
.16
/17.
On
conven
tion
see
JEE
RIN
G,
op.
cit.,
Wsic
n.,
op.
cit.,
and
TöN
NIE
S,
DIE
SIn
E(i
gog).
[Web
er’s
note
.]O
p.ci
t..c
upra
n.6.
[Web
er’s
note
.]
BA
SIC
CO
NC
EP
TS
OF
SOC
IOL
OG
Y5
and
nonv
alid
ity,
and
mut
uall
ycon
trad
icto
ryor
ders
can
beva
Ij_a
1nng
side
each
othe
r—
_
that
cond
uct
will
actu
ally
beor
ient
edto
war
dit
.7
-----
I
6L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
Yve
ntio
n,es
peci
ally
inth
e-fr
ame
ofso
-cal
led
prof
essi
onal
ethi
cs,
ofte
nm
eets
wit
hm
ost
effe
ctiv
ean
dse
riou
sre
trib
utio
nin
the
form
ofso
cial
boyc
ott
byth
em
embe
rsof
the
prof
essi
on,
are
trib
utio
nw
hich
may
bem
ore
effe
ctiv
eth
anan
yle
gal
coer
cion
.N
hin
gis
lack
ing
but
the
stff
whi
chuJd
iJts
elf
pcif
icall
yre
ady
for
acti
onm
eant
toguar
ante
eoben
ce,
such
asju
dges
,pr
osec
utor
s,po
licem
en,
orsh
erif
fs.
Aga
in,
isa
mar
gina
lca
se,
/1
cons
isti
ngin
the
form
ally
thre
aten
edan
dor
gani
zed
boyc
ott.
Inou
rte
rmin
olog
yth
isal
read
yco
nsti
tute
sa
mea
nsof
lega
lco
erci
on.
Itis
irre
leva
ntin
the
pres
ent
cont
ext
that
ince
rtai
nca
ses
aco
nven
tion
may
,in
addi
tion
toge
nera
ldi
sapp
rova
l,be
prot
ecte
dby
othe
rm
eans
.A
nil
lust
rati
onof
this
situ
atio
nis
pres
ente
dby
the
case
ofth
evi
sito
rw
hore
fuse
sto
leav
ean
othe
r’s
hous
ew
hen
aske
dto
doso
.H
evi
olat
esa
conv
enti
on;
but
the
mas
ter
ofth
eho
use
may
also
expe
lhi
mbo
dily
.In
such
aca
seco
erci
onis
appl
ied
not
bya
spec
ial
staf
f,bu
tby
som
epar
ticu
lar
indi
vidu
alw
hois
able
todo
soju
stin
cons
eque
nce
ofth
ege
nera
ldi
sapp
rova
lof
the
vio
lato
nJi
i_th
ciyen
tjonio
2.
Tnou
rco
ntex
tth
donc
ept
ofla
w)’
ill
bede
fine
das
anor
der
whi
ch—
—--
&L
dep
çp
upon
anenfo
rcem
eIr
if.In
othe
rco
nnec
tions
diff
eren
tde
fini
no
t_necesl
hay
.c,b
oLth
ekin
dw
ekn
owto
day.
Itis
unne
cess
ary,
inpa
rtic
ular
,th
atth
ere
bean
yju
dic
iaio
rgan
:In
the
case
ofbl
ood
veng
ean
cean
dfe
udth
een
forc
emen
tst
aff
cons
ists
inth
ecl
an,
prov
ided
that
itsre
acti
onis
actu
ally
dete
rmin
edby
som
eki
ndof
regu
lato
ryor
der.
We
mus
tre
cogn
ize,
how
ever
,th
this
casç
repr
esen
tsth
eve
ryli
mit
ofw
hat
can
stil
lbe
rega
rded
a(”l
egal
coer
cio’T
ngjJerna
tion
alla
wha
sbe
ensa
idno
tto
be“l
aw,’
beca
use
itIa
asii
pra
nati
onal
enfo
Icem
iFeic
yIn
deed
,ou
rde
fini
tion
ofla
w,
too,
wou
ldno
tap
ply
toan
orde
rw
hich
isgu
aran
teed
mer
ely
byth
eex
pect
atio
nof
disa
ppro
val
and
repr
isal
son
the
par
tof
thos
ew
hoar
eha
rmed
byits
viol
atio
n,i.e
.,m
erel
yby
con
ion
and
seIj
jtre
stra
ther
than
bya
staf
fof
pers
ons
who
seco
nduc
tij
pia
1ly
orie
nted
tow
ard
the
obse
rvat
ion
ofth
ere
gu
lato
rvQ
rdez.Y
ejç
gl
term
irio
lngy
mae
quit
edi
ffer
ent.
Irre
leva
nt,
too,
are
asit
coul
dbe
foun
din
mé
sect
saI
firs
tde
gree
ofm
ildco
erci
on-
/of
the
sinn
er,
cons
titu
tes
coer
cion
inou
rse
nse,
‘b
yp
j,d
er
and
appli
cL
ba
taff
.T
hesa
me
isto
besa
idab
out
the
cens
oria
l‘r
epri
man
d”as
ani
eans
togu
aran
tee
the
obse
rvan
ceof
“eth
ica
l”du
ties
and,
even
mor
eso
,ab
out
psyc
holo
gica
lco
erci
onth
roug
h
BA
SIC
CO
NC
EP
TS
OF
SO
CIO
LO
GY
eccl
esia
jtica
Ldis_
isci
line.
ait
hori
trii
isasi
tm
aybe
guar
ante
edpo
liti
call
y,or
thro
uJe_tu
teof
anas
soci
atio
n,or
dom
estic
auth
o.h
rnugh
asothh.e
oth
eLas
sIai
n1t
The
[p
li]
rule
sof
[Ger
man
stud
ents
’fr
ater
niti
es,
know
nas
]th
eco
mm
ent
[and
regu
latin
gsu
chm
atte
rsas
conv
ivia
ldri
nk
ing
orsi
ngin
g]ar
eal
so“l
aw”
inou
rse
nse,
just
asth
eca
seof
thos
e-
[leg
ally
regu
late
dbu
tun
enfo
rcea
ble]
duti
esw
hich
are
men
tion
edin
Sect
ion
888,
par.
2of
the
[Ger
man
]C
ode
ofC
ivil
Pro
cedu
re[f
orin
stan
ce,
the
duty
aris
ing
from
anen
gage
men
tto
mar
ry].
Not
ever
yva
lid
orde
ris
nece
ssar
ily
ofan
abst
ract
,ge
nera
lch
arac
ter.
Now
aday
sw
est
rict
lydi
stin
guis
hbe
twee
nth
ege
nera
l“n
orm
ofla
w”
and
the
conc
rete
“jud
icia
lde
cisi
on.”
Such
adi
stin
ctio
nw
asna
tm
ade
atal
ltim
es.
An
“ord
er”
may
thus
cons
ist
inth
eor
deri
ngof
one
sing
leco
ncre
tesi
tuat
ion.
An
“ext
erna
lly”
guar
ante
edor
der
may
also
begu
aran
teed
“inte
rna
lly.
”T
here
lati
onsh
ipbe
twee
nla
w,
conv
enti
on,
and
thcs
does
not
pres
ent
any
prob
lem
toth
eso
ciol
ogis
t.T
ohi
man
ethi
cal”
stan
dar
one
whi
chap
plie
sto
hum
anco
nduc
tth
atsp
ecif
icm
dof
eval
uati
ngfa
ith
whi
chcl
aim
sto
dete
rmin
ew
hat
is“e
thic
ally
good
,”ju
stas
any
cond
uct
whi
chcl
aim
sto
be“b
eaut
iful
,”by
sodo
ing,
subj
ects
itse
lfto
the
stan
dard
ofae
sthe
tics
.N
orm
ativ
eid
eas
ofth
iski
ndca
nha
vea
pow
erfu
lin
flue
nce
upon
cond
uct
even
thou
ghth
eym
ayla
ckan
yex
tern
algu
aran
ty.
Ext
erna
lgu
aran
ties
will
beus
uall
yla
ckin
gw
here
the
viol
atio
nof
the
stan
dard
does
not
appr
ecia
bly
affe
ctth
ein
tere
sts
ofot
hers
.O
nth
eot
her
hand
,th
eyar
efr
eque
ntly
guar
ante
edre
ligio
usly
.Po
ssib
ly,
they
may
also
begu
aran
teed
byco
nven
tion
(in
our
sens
eof
the
term
),i.e
.,th
roug
hdi
sapp
rova
lor
boyc
ott;
inad
diti
on,
ther
em
aybe
the
lega
lgu
aran
tyth
roug
hth
epo
lice
orth
em
eans
ofcr
imin
alor
priv
ate
law
.‘E
thic
s,’
whi
chis
vali
din
the
soci
olog
ical
sens
e,us
uall
y
isgu
aran
tee
-con
vent
ion,
i.e.,
byth
epr
obab
ilit
yof
its
viol
atio
nm
eeti
ngw
ith
disa
ppro
val.
Not
ever
yco
nven
tion
ally
orjg
ail
gu
ara
nte
edno
rm,
how
ever
,cl
aim
sal
soto
beon
eof
eth
ic.l
eg
al
nm
sar
efr
eque
ntly
mot
ivat
edby
mer
eex
pedi
ency
and
thus
cli
mtl
iiäl
char
acte
rev
enle
ssth
anth
eno
rms
ofco
nven
tion.
Whe
ther
orno
ta
norm
ativ
e
idea
whi
chis
actu
ally
held
byhu
man
bein
gsbe
long
sto
the
real
mof
ethi
csor
,in
othe
rw
ords
,w
heth
eror
not
agi
ven
norm
ison
eof
“mer
e”la
wor
conv
entio
nm
ust
bede
cide
dby
the
soci
olog
ist
excl
usiv
ely
inac
cord
ance
wit
hth
atno
tion
ofth
e“e
thic
al”
whi
chis
actu
ally
held
byth
e7
‘°W
.u.G
.i7
—ig
.
8L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
Ype
ople
inqu
esti
on.
Itis
not
poss
ible
,ho
wev
er,
tost
ate
any
gene
ral
prop
osit
ions
inth
isre
spec
t.”
Sect
ion
7.T
heac
tors
can’
ascr
ibe
legi
tim
ate
ina
vari
ety
ofw
ays.
--
The
orde
rca
nbe
reco
gniz
edas
legi
tim
at,fi
rst
byvi
rtue
oftr
adit
ion?
valid
isth
atw
hich
has
alw
ays
been
.-.
Seco
nd,
the
orde
rm
aybe
trea
ted
asle
giti
mat
eby
virt
ueof
;aff
ectj
n}-’
espe
cial
lyem
otio
nal,
fait
h;th
issi
tuat
ion
occu
rses
peci
ally
inth
eca
seof
the
new
lyre
veal
edor
the
exem
plar
y.or
der
may
betr
eate
das
legi
tim
ate
byvi
rtue
ova
l-
(3Ia
tia]
.:
vali
dis
that
whi
chha
sbe
ende
duce
das
abso
lute
yd
em
ande
d.F
ourt
h,le
giti
mac
ycan
scri
bed
toan
orde
rby
virt
ueof
posi
tive
enac
tmen
tof
reco
gniz
ele
gali
tSu
chle
gali
tyca
nbe
ded
asle
giti
mat
eei
ther
(a)
beca
use
the
enac
tmen
tha
sbe
enag
reed
upon
byal
lth
ose
who
are
conc
erne
d;or
(b)
byvi
rtue
ofim
posi
tion
bya
dom
inat
ion
ofhu
man
bein
gsov
erhu
man
bein
gsw
hich
istr
eate
das
legi
tim
ate
and
mee
tsw
ithac
quie
scen
ce.
The
deta
ils
will
bedi
scus
sed
inth
ech
apte
rsde
alin
gw
ith
the
soci
olog
yof
dom
inat
ion
and
ofla
w.
At
pres
ent
the
follo
win
gbr
ief
rem
arks
will
suff
ice.
(x)
The
olde
stan
dm
ost
univ
ersa
lly
foun
dty
pfa
lidit
yof
orde
rsis
that
whi
chis
base
dup
onth
esa
cred
ness
ottr
aditi
on.’
The
psyc
holo
gica
lbl
ocks
toan
ych
ange
ofan
inve
tera
teus
age
are
stre
ngth
ened
byth
eap
preh
ensi
onof
mag
ical
detr
imen
ts.
An
orde
rw
hich
has
once
beco
me
valid
isfu
rthe
rmor
epe
rpet
uate
dby
thos
em
anif
old
inte
rest
sw
hich
aris
ew
ith
resp
ect
toth
eco
ntin
uati
onof
acqu
iesc
ence
init
sex
iste
nce.
(2)
inea
rly
soci
ety,
dow
nto
the
stat
utes
ofth
eH
elle
nic
aisy
mne
tes,
cons
ciou
scr
eati
onof
new
orde
rsap
pear
edal
mos
tex
clus
ivel
yas
pro-
3ph
etic
Ora
cle
orat
leas
tas
ieve
Iati
onen
joyi
ngpr
ophe
tica
lsa
ncti
onan
dth
ushe
ldsa
cred
.A
cqui
esce
nce
thus
depe
nded
upon
the
fait
hin
the
legi
tim
acy
ofth
epr
ophe
t.In
peri
ods
ofst
rict
trad
itio
nali
smno
new
orde
rco
uld
thus
aris
ew
itho
utne
wre
vela
tion
unle
ssth
ene
wor
der
was
not
look
edup
onas
such
but
was
rega
rded
asa
trut
hth
atha
dal
read
ybe
enva
lid
alth
ough
itha
dbe
ente
mpo
rari
lyob
scur
edan
dha
dth
usbe
enin
need
ofre
disc
over
y.()
The
pure
stty
peof
valu
e-ra
tion
alv
a1ij
tyis
repr
esen
ted
byfl
at-
A
BA
SIC
CO
NC
EP
TS
OF
SO
CIO
LO
GY
ural
law
.T
hein
flue
nce
ofits
logi
cally
dedu
ced
prop
osit
ions
upon
actu
alco
nduc
tm
ayla
gfa
rbe
hind
thei
rth
eore
tica
lcl
aim
s;th
atth
eyha
veha
dso
me
infl
uenc
eca
nnot
bede
nied
,ho
wev
er.
Its
prop
osit
ions
mus
tbe
dis
ting
uish
edfr
omth
ose
ofre
veal
ed,
ofen
acte
d,an
dof
trad
itio
nal
law
.4jf
oday
the
mos
tco
mm
onfo
rmof
legi
tim
acy
isth
ebe
lief
in‘l
egal
ity;
i.e.,
the
acqu
iesc
ence
inen
actm
ents
whi
char
efo
rmal
lyco
rrec
tan
dw
hich
have
been
mad
ein
the
accu
stom
edm
anne
r.T
heco
ntra
stbe
twee
nag
reed
and
impo
sed
enac
tmen
tsis
not
anab
solu
teot
ie.
Inth
epa
stit
was
ofte
nne
cess
ary
for
anor
der
tobe
agre
edup
onun
anim
ousl
y•
ifit
was
tobe
trea
ted
asle
giti
mat
e.T
oday
,ho
wev
er,
itfr
eque
ntly
hap-
pens
that
anor
der
isag
reed
upon
only
bya
maj
orit
yof
the
mem
bers
ofth
egr
oup
inqu
estio
n,w
ith
the
acqu
iesc
ence
,ho
wev
er,
ofth
ose
who
hold
diff
eren
top
inio
ns.
Insu
chca
ses
the
orde
ris
actu
ally
impo
sed
byth
em
ajor
ity
upon
the
min
orit
y.V
ery
freq
uent
also
isth
eca
seth
ata
•vi
olen
t,or
ruth
less
,or
sim
ply
ener
getic
min
orit
yim
pose
san
orde
rw
hich
isal
sore
gard
edas
legi
tim
ate
byth
ose
who
wer
eor
igin
ally
oppo
sed.
Whe
revo
ting
isth
ele
gal
met
hod
ofcr
eati
ngor
chan
ging
anor
der,
it
happ
ens
very
ofte
nth
ata
min
orit
yac
hiev
esfo
rmal
maj
orit
y,bu
tw
ith
the
acqu
iesc
ence
ofth
eac
tual
maj
orit
y,so
that
maj
orit
yru
leis
am
ere
appe
aran
ce.
The
fait
hin
the
lega
lity
ofan
agre
edor
der
can
betr
aced
tofa
irly
earl
ype
riod
san
dca
nal
sobe
foun
dam
ong
so-c
alle
dpr
imit
ive
peop
les;
alm
ost
alw
ays
isit
supp
lem
ente
d,ho
wev
er,
insu
chca
ses,
byth
eau
thor
ity
of()
cqüi
esce
inan
impo
sed
orde
r,in
sofa
ras
itdo
esno
tde
pend
upon
rup
onco
nsid
erat
ions
ofpu
rpos
e-ra
tion
alit
y,pre
sup
pose
sth
ebe
lief
that
the
pow
erof
dom
inat
ion
ofhi
mor
thos
eby
who
mth
eor
der
isim
pose
dis
inso
me
sens
ele
giti
mat
e.T
his
phen
omen
onw
ill
bedi
scus
sed
inIr
a.(6
)U
nles
sth
eor
der
isan
enti
rely
new
one,
acqu
iesc
ence
init
is
gene
rall
yba
sed
upon
aco
mbi
nati
onof
cons
ider
atio
nsof
self
-int
eres
t,
oftr
adit
ion,
and
ofbe
lief
inle
galit
y.V
ery
ofte
nth
ose
who
thus
acqu
iesc
e
are
inno
way
awar
eof
whe
ther
the
case
ison
eof
cust
om,
conv
enti
on,
orla
w.
Itis
then
the
soci
olog
ist’
sta
skto
find
out
whi
chki
ndof
vali
dity
isth
ety
pica
lo
ne.
’2
Sect
ion
8.A
soci
alre
lati
onsh
ipw
illbe
call
eg
gl
inso
far
asth
e
cond
uct
ofa
part
yis
orie
nted
tow
ard
the
inte
nti
nof
mak
ing
his
own
will
prev
ail
agai
nst
the
resi
stan
ceof
the
othe
rpa
rty
orpa
rtie
s.Su
ch9
UW
UG
z8/1
9.
‘2W.u
.G.
1g.
xoL
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
D.
SO
CIE
TY
mea
nsof
stru
ggle
asdo
not
cons
ist
inac
tual
phys
ical
viol
ence
shal
lbe
calle
dpe
acef
ulm
eans
ofst
rugg
le.
The
peac
eful
stru
ggle
will
beca
lled
corn
peti
tson
ifit
isca
rrie
don
asfo
rmal
lype
acef
ulen
deav
orto
obta
inth
epo
wer
ofdi
spos
ition
over
oppo
rtun
itie
sw
hich
are
cove
ted
also
byot
hers
.
‘3W.u
.G.
20.
CH
AP
TE
RH
TH
EE
CO
NO
MIC
SY
ST
EM
AN
DT
HE
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
1
Sect
ion
i.L
egal
Ord
eran
dE
cono
mic
Ord
er
i.T
heSo
ciol
ogic
alC
once
ptof
Law
.W
hen
we
spea
kof
“law
,”“l
egal
orde
r,”
or“l
egal
prop
osit
ion”
(Rr*
Lss
at),
clos
ebe
paid
toth
edi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
n4
leal
ndth
eof
view
.T
akin
gth
efo
rmer
,w
eas
k:T
hat
isto
say:
Wha
tsi
gnif
ican
ceor
,in
othe
rw
ords
,w
hat
norm
ativ
em
eani
ngou
ght
tobe
attr
ibut
edin
corr
ect
logi
cto
ave
rbal
patt
ern
hav
ing
the
form
ofa
lega
lpr
opos
itio
n.B
utif
we
take
the
latt
erpo
int
ofvi
ew,
we
ask:
Wha
tac
tual
lyha
ppen
sin
aco
mm
unit
yow
gçe
prob
ablit
-vth
at_p
erso
nspaii
tig
ecm
mm
iaac
iyjy
(Gem
ein
scha
ftsh
ande
ln),
especfl
lfh
edaiIly
rele
vant
amou
ntof
pow
erov
erth
eco
mm
unal
acti
vity
,su
bjec
tive
lyco
nsid
erce
rtai
nno
rms
asva
lidan
d_pr
acti
call
yac
tac
cord
mg
tth
en
iZm
i3tb
er_w
Grd
_or1
eien
tth
eii
iiid
uct
Theë
iiom
s?T
his
dist
inct
ion
also
dete
rmm
es,
inpr
inci
ple,
the
rela
tion
ship
betw
een
law
and
econ
omy.
The
juri
dica
lpo
int
ofvi
ew,
or,
mor
epr
ecis
ely,
that
ofle
gal
dogm
atic
s2
aim
sat
the
corr
ect
mea
ning
ofpr
opos
itio
nsth
eco
nten
tof
whi
chco
nst
itiT
Iàii
orde
rsu
ppos
edly
dete
rmin
ativ
efo
rth
eco
nduc
tof
ade
fiio
üof
pers
ons:
inot
her
wor
ds,
ittr
ies
tode
fine
the
fact
sto
whi
chth
isor
der
appl
ies
and
the
way
inw
hich
itbe
ars
upon
them
.T
owar
dth
isen
d,th
eju
rist
,ta
king
for
gran
ted
the
empi
ncal
vali
dity
ofth
ele
gal
prop
osit
ions
,ex
amin
esea
chof
them
and
trie
sto
dete
rmin
eit
slo
gica
llyco
rrec
tm
eani
ngin
such
aw
ayth
atal
lof
them
can
beco
mbi
ned
ina
syst
emw
hich
islo
gica
llyco
here
nt,
i.e.,
free
from
inte
rnal
cont
radi
ctio
ns.
Soci
olog
ical
econ
omic
s,3
onth
eot
her
hand
,co
ntem
plat
esth
ein
ter-
1W
.u.G
.36
8—38
5.2
Leg
aldo
gmat
ics
(dog
mat
isoh
eR
echt
swis
sens
chaf
t)—
the
term
freq
uent
lyus
edin
Ger
man
tom
ean
the
lega
lsc
iern
eof
the
law
itse
lfas
dist
ingu
ishe
dfr
omsu
chw
ays
oflo
okin
gup
onla
wfr
omth
eou
tsid
eas
phil
osop
hy,
hist
ory,
orso
ciol
ogy
ofla
w.
‘Soz
jajö
kono
rnie
—th
ete
rmus
edin
the
titl
eof
the
ency
clop
edic
seri
esof
whi
chW
ana’
sEC
ON
OM
Yxn
Soasi
form
sp
art,
and
mea
ntto
indi
cate
the
auth
or’s
12
LA
W,
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YE
CO
NO
MIC
SY
ST
EM
AN
DN
OR
MA
TIV
EO
RD
ER
Sco
nnec
tions
ofhu
man
acti
viti
esas
they
actu
ally
take
plac
ean
das
they
are
cond
itio
ned
byth
eir
nece
ssar
yori
enta
tionL
th.’
econom
icsi
tuat
ion
offa
cts.
”W
esh
all
thus
use
the
term
conojco”
for
the
situ
atio
nw
hich
aris
esfr
omth
eco
mbi
nati
onof
the
follo
win
gtw
ofa
ctor
s,vi
z.,
firs
t,th
em
ode
ofdi
stri
buti
onof
fact
ual
pow
erov
ergo
ods
and
eco
nom
icse
rvic
esas
item
erge
sco
nsen
sual
lyfr
omth
epr
oces
sof
bala
ncin
gco
nflic
ting
inte
rest
s;an
d,se
cond
,th
em
ode
inw
hich
both
good
san
dse
rvic
esar
eac
tual
lyus
edby
virt
ueof
that
pow
eran
dth
eun
derl
ying
inte
ntio
ns.
Itis
obvi
ous
that
thes
etw
oap
proa
ches
deal
wit
hen
tire
lydi
ffer
ent
prob
lem
san
dth
atth
eir
“obj
ççtj
v“
anno
tco
me
dire
ctly
into
cont
act
with
one
anot
her.
Te
idea
leg
alor
“of
lega
lth
eory
has
noth
ing
dire
ctly
todo
wit
hth
wurl
d61
eal
econ
omic
cond
uct,
sinc
both
exis
ton
diff
eren
tle
vels
.O
neex
ists
inth
eid
eal
ofth
e•ou
htw
hile
the
othe
rde
als
wit
hth
ere
alw
orld
ofth
e‘i
s.”
itis
neve
rel
ess
said
that
the
econ
omic
and
the
lega
lor
der
are
inim
atel
yre
late
dto
one
an
othe
r,th
ela
tter
isun
ders
tood
,no
tin
the
lega
l,bu
tin
the
soci
olog
ical
se
i.e.,s.
bein
gem
piri
call
yva
lid.
Inth
isco
ntex
t“l
egal
orde
r”th
usas
sum
esa
tota
lly
diff
eren
tm
eani
ng.
Itre
fers
,no
tto
ase
tof
norm
sof
logi
cally
dem
onst
rabl
eco
rrec
tnes
s,bu
tra
ther
toa
com
plex
ofac
tual
dete
rmin
ants
(Bes
tim
mun
gsgr
iind
e)of
actu
alhu
man
cond
uct.
Thi
spo
int
requ
ires
furt
her
elab
orat
ion.
The
fact
that
som
epe
rson
sac
tin
ace
rtai
nw
aybe
cans
e.lh
eyre
gard
.&!!
.pre
scri
bed
byL
ppit
ions
(ER
echt
ssae
lze)
is,
ofco
urse
,an
esse
ntia
lel
emen
tin
the
actu
alem
erge
nce
and
cont
inue
dop
erat
ion
ofa
‘eal
o“
But
,as
we
have
seen
alre
ady
indi
scis
sing
-the
sigá
ific
ance
ofe
“exi
sten
ce”
ofso
cial
norm
s,4
itis
byno
mea
nsne
cess
ary
that
all,
orev
ena
maj
orit
y,of
thos
ew
hoen
gage
insu
chco
nduc
t,do
sofr
omth
ism
otiv
atio
n.A
sa
mat
ter
offa
ct,
such
asi
tuat
ion
has
neve
roc
curr
ed.
The
broa
dm
ass
ofth
epa
rtic
ipan
tsac
ti
wafo
indin
To
Tega
lnorr
ns,
nnt
ant
ofobnce
regard
edj
legala
tion,
but
eith
erbiiite
envi
ronm
entapjV
sft
hôiI
duct
and
disa
ppro
ves
ofits
oppo
site
,or
mer
ely
asa
resu
ltof
unre
flec
tive
habi
tuat
ion
toa
regu
lari
tyof
life
that
has
engr
aved
itse
lfas
acu
stom
.If
the
latt
erat
titu
dew
ere
univ
ersa
l,th
ela
ww
ould
nolo
nger
“sub
ject
ivel
y”be
rega
rded
assu
ch,
but
wou
ldbe
obse
rved
ascu
stom
.H
owev
ersl
ight
,ob
ject
ivel
y,m
aybe
the
chan
ceof
the
coer
cive
appa
ratu
s[i
nth
ese
nse
defi
ned
else
whe
re1
ende
avor
topr
esen
tth
eec
onom
icor
der
asa
cons
titu
ent
part
ofth
eph
enom
ena
ofso
cial
life.
Cf.
supr
aIn
trod
ucti
on,
p.IX
.‘S
upra
p.3
etse
q.‘m
ire
p.i6
etse
q.
enfo
rcin
g,in
agi
ven
situ
atio
n,coja
nce
wit
hth
ose
norm
s,w
enev
erth
eles
sha
veto
cons
ider
them
asrl
aw.’
Nei
ther
isit
nece
ssar
y—
acco
rdin
gto
wha
tw
assa
idab
ove
—th
tal
lth
ose
who
shar
ea
belie
fin
cert
ain
norm
sof
beha
vior
,ac
tual
lyliv
ein
acco
rdan
cew
ith
that
belie
fat
all
times
.Su
cha
situ
atio
n,lik
ewis
e,ha
sne
ver
obta
ined
,no
rne
edit
obta
in,
sinc
e,ac
cord
ing
toou
rge
nera
lde
fini
tion,
itis
the
“ori
enta
tion
”of
anac
tion
tow
ard
ano
rm,
rth
anth
e“s
ucce
ss”
ofth
atno
rmth
atis
deci
sive
for
its
vali
dity
.‘L
aw‘a
sun
ders
tood
byus
issi
mnl
yan
“ord
eryst
ern
endow
e&
r.Ce
insp
ecc
guar
ante
esof
the
Wob
ablh
tyof
itse
rnpi
rica
lja
lidt
ete
rm‘á
iantç
dla
“shal
lbe
unde
rsto
odto
mea
nth
at’
ther
eex
ists
a“c
oerc
ive
appa
ratu
s,”
i.e.,
that
ther
ear
eon
eor
mor
epe
rson
sw
hose
spec
ial
task
itis
toh
esre
ady
toap
ply
spec
iall
ypro
vide
dm
eans
ofco
erci
onga
l6
for
the
purp
ose
ofno
rmen
forc
emen
t.T
hem
eans
ofco
erc
yj
phys
icaL
or..
psyc
hc1o
gica
,th
eym
aybe
dire
ctor
indi
rect
inth
eir
oper
atio
n,an
dth
eym
aybe
di
rect
ed,
asth
eca
sein
ireq
üire
,aai
sfU
iepar
fiip
ants
iñth
eco
nsen
Foii
iiii
nit
y(E
:nver
stae
ndrn
mei
nsc
Iiaf
t),
the
concit
ipp,
the
corä
iebo
dyor
the
inst
itut
ion
wit
hin
whi
chth
eor
der
syst
emis
(em
beai
med
atth
ose
outs
ide.
The
yar
eth
e‘a
L.f
l2rn
s?)o
fth
eco
mm
unit
yin
ques
tion
.B
yno
mea
nsal
lno
rms
whi
char
eco
nsen
sual
lyva
lid
ina
com
mun
ity
—as
we
shal
lse
ela
ter
—ar
e“l
egal
norm
s.”
Nor
are
all
offi
cial
func
tions
ofth
epe
rson
sco
nsti
tuti
ngth
eco
erci
ve6ii
EeT
h[
wit
hle
alç
ion,
weIf
lath
er
cofi
idë
egat
coer
cn
ojy
...t
hnse
..ct
ios
w1i
psin
tent
ioli
istl
.ççn
fórc
emen
tof
cöii
lou
yt6
ano
rmas
such
ie
beca
ute
das
bind
ing
Tlim
will
not
beap
pie
d,ho
wev
er,
whe
reco
nfor
mit
yof
con
uct
oa
norm
isso
ught
tobe
prod
uced
beca
use
ofco
nsid
erat
ions
ofex
pedi
ency
orot
her
mat
eria
lci
rcum
stan
ces.
Itis
obvi
ous
that
the
effe
ctua
tion
ofth
eva
lidi
tyof
ano
rmm
ayin
fact
bepu
rsue
dos
tdi
vers
em
otiv
es.
How
ever
,w
esh
all
desi
gnat
eit
asar
ante
ed“
oly
Jq
tose
case
sw
here
ther
eex
ists
the
prob
abil
ity
tha
cion
,th
atis
,le
gal
coerc
iwil
II
appl
ied
“for
its
own
sake
Aw
esh
allh
ave
oppo
rtun
ity
*
tose
e,no
tal
lla
wis
guar
ante
edla
w.
We
shal
l—
albe
itin
the
sens
eof
“ind
irec
tly
guar
ante
ed”
or‘ne”la.
also
inal
lth
ose
case
sw
here
the
vali
dity
ofa
noe
fact
that
the
mod
eof
orie
ntat
ion
ofan
acti
onto
war
dit
has
som
e“l
egal
cons
equ
ence
s”;
i.e.,
that
ther
ear
eot
her
norm
sw
hich
asso
ciat
ew
ith
the
“obs
erva
nce
5’1’
“inf
ring
emen
t”of
the
prim
ary
norm
cert
ain
pro
ba
bilit
ies
ofco
nsen
sual
acti
ongu
aran
teed
,in
thei
rtu
rn,
byle
gal
coer
cion
.
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
‘4
We
shal
lha
veoc
casi
onto
illu
stra
teth
isca
se,
whi
choc
curs
ina
larg
ear
eaof
lega
llif
e.H
owev
er,
inrd
erto
avoi
dfu
rthe
rco
mpl
icat
ion,
when
ever
we
shal
lus
eth
ete
rml’a
ww
itho
utqu
alif
icat
ion,
we
shal
lm
ean
orin
sw
ire
byle
galcio
nSu
ch“g
uara
ntee
dL—
aw”
isby
nom
eans
inal
lca
ses
guart
dy
“vio
lenc
e”in
the
sens
eof
the
pros
pect
ofph
ysic
alco
erci
on,
Inou
rte
rmin
olog
y,la
w,
incl
udin
g“g
uara
ntee
dla
w”
isno
tch
arac
teri
zed
soci
olog
ical
lyby
viol
ence
or,
even
less
,by
that
mod
ern
tech
niqu
eof
effe
ctua
ting
clai
ms
ofpr
ivat
ela
wth
roug
hbr
ingi
ng“s
uit”
ina
“cou
rt,”
follo
wed
byco
erci
veex
ecut
ion
ofth
eju
dgm
ent
obta
ined
.T
hesp
here
of“p
ubli
c”la
w,
i.e.,
the
norm
sgo
vern
ing
the
cond
uct
ofth
eor
gans
ofth
est
ate
and
the
acti
viti
escar
ried
onw
ithi
nth
efr
amew
ork
ofpu
blic
adm
inis
trat
ion
and
inre
lati
onto
itse
lf0
reco
gniz
esnu
mer
ous
righ
tsan
dle
gal
norm
s,up
onth
ein
frin
gem
ent
ofw
hich
aco
erci
veap
para
tus
can
bese
tin
mot
ion
only
thro
ugh
the
“rem
onst
ranc
e”by
mem
bers
ofa
lim
ited
grou
pof
pers
ons,
and
ofte
nw
itho
utan
ym
eans
ofph
ysic
alco
erci
on.
Soci
olog
ical
ly,
the
ques
tion
ofw
heth
eror
not
guar
ante
edla
wex
ists
insu
cha
situ
atio
nde
pend
son
the
avai
labi
lity
ofan
orga
nize
dco
erci
veap
para
tus
for
the
nonv
iole
ntex
erci
seof
lega
lco
erci
on.
Thi
sap
para
tus
mus
tal
sopo
sses
ssu
chpo
wer
that
ther
eis
infa
cta
sign
ific
ant
prob
abil
ity
that
the
norm
will
bere
spec
ted
beca
use
of11
ssii
tyof
reco
urse
tosu
chle
gal
coer
cion
.T
oday
(reg
alcoerc
io)I
viol
ence
isth
em
onop
oly
ofth
est
ate
All
othe
rconij
side
red
ashe
tero
nom
ous
and
mos
tly
also
ashe
tero
ceph
alou
s.7
Thi
svi
ewis
char
acte
rist
ic,w
yer
only
ofce
rtai
nst
ages
ofde
velo
pmen
t.W
esh
all
spea
kof
‘e”
I•
i.e.,
ofj
wguar
ante
edby
the
stat
e,on
lyen,a
nd
toth
eex
teii
ith
at,
theg
uar
anty
forL
that
is,
lega
lco
erci
on,
isex
erci
sed
thro
ugh
the
spif
ici
e,no
rmal
lydi
rect
andca,i
iijs
bfco
erci
onof
the
poli
tica
lco
mm
Tty
.’l’
hus,
the
exis
tenc
eof
a“l
egal
1i’
tiJth
eE
sens
eof
“els
t2-
mea
nsth
atth
efo
llow
ing
situ
atio
nob
tain
s:In
the
case
ofce
’tai
nev
ents
occu
rrin
gth
ere
isge
nera
lag
ree
men
tth
atce
rtai
nor
gans
ofth
eco
mm
unit
yca
nbe
expe
cted
togo
into
offi
cial
acti
on,
and
the
very
expe
ctat
ion
ofsu
chac
tion
isap
tto
indu
ceco
nfor
mit
yw
ith
the
com
man
dsde
rive
dfr
omth
ege
nera
lly
acce
pted
inte
rpre
tati
onof
that
lega
lno
rm;
or,
whe
resu
chco
nfor
mit
yha
sbe
com
eun
atta
inab
le,
atle
ast
toef
fect
repa
rati
onor
“ind
emni
fica
tion
.”T
hep.
41.
‘Het
eron
omou
s—
rece
ivin
git
sor
der
from
the
outs
ide;
oppo
site
—au
tono
mou
s;he
tero
ceph
ajou
she
aded
byon
ew
hois
not
chos
enby
the
mem
bers
ofth
egr
oup
inqu
esti
on,
as,
for
inst
ance
,th
eG
over
nor
ofth
eT
erri
tory
ofH
awai
i,w
hois
appo
inte
dby
the
Pre
side
ntof
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes.
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
xev
ent
indu
cing
this
cons
eque
nce,
the
egal
coer
cion
bth
est
ate,
may
cons
ist
ince
rtai
nhu
man
acts
,fo
rin
stan
ce,
the
conc
lusi
onor
each
ofa
cont
ract
,or
the
com
mis
sion
ofa
tort
.B
utth
isty
peof
occu
rren
ceco
nsti
tute
son
lya
spec
ial
inst
ance
,si
nce,
upon
the
basi
sof
som
eem
pir
ica
llyva
lidle
gal
prop
osit
ion,
the
coer
cive
inst
rum
ents
ofth
epo
liti
cal
pow
ers
agai
nst
pers
ons
and
thin
gsm
ayal
sobe
appl
ied
whe
re,
for
ex
ampl
e,a
rive
rha
sri
sen
abov
ea
cert
ain
leve
l.It
isin
now
ayin
here
nt,
how
ever
,in
the
vali
dity
ofa
lega
lno
rmas
norm
ally
conc
eive
d,th
atth
ose
who
obey
doso
,pr
edom
inan
tly
orin
any
way
,be
caus
eof
the
avai
labi
lity
ofsu
cha
coer
cive
appa
ratu
sas
defi
ned
abov
e.,.
em
otiv
esfo
rob
edie
nce
may
rath
erbe
ofan
ydi
ffer
eat
kind
s.In
the
maj
onoT
s,e
TIé
pred
omin
antl
yut
ilit
aria
nor
ethi
cal
orsu
bjec
tive
lyco
nven
tion
al,
i.e.,
cons
istin
gof
the
fear
ofdi
sapp
rova
lby
the
envir
on
men
t.T
hena
ture
ofth
ese
mot
ives
ishi
ghly
rele
vant
inde
term
inin
gth
eki
ndan
dth
ede
gree
ofva
lidi
tyof
the
law
itsel
f.B
utin
sofa
ras
the
form
also
çg1
gica
lco
ncep
tof
guar
ante
edla
w,
asw
ein
tend
tous
eit,
isE
rne,e
sycholo
gi&
rfacts
ar’
irre
levant.
Inth
isco
nnec
tion
noth
ing
mat
ters
exce
ptth
atth
ere
bea
suff
icie
ntly
high
prob
abil
ity
ofin
terv
enti
onon
the
par
tof
asp
ecia
lly
desi
gnat
edgr
oup
ofpe
rson
s,ev
enin
thos
eca
ses
whe
reno
thin
gha
soc
curr
edbu
tth
esh
eer
fact
ofa
norm
infr
inge
men
t,i.e
.,on
pure
lyfo
rmal
grou
nds.
The
empi
rica
lva
lidi
tyof
ano
rmas
ale
gal
norm
affe
cts
the
inte
rest
sof
anin
divi
dual
inm
any
resp
ects
.In
part
icul
ar,
itm
ayco
nvey
toan
indi
vidu
alce
rtai
nca
lcul
able
chan
ces
ofha
ving
econ
omic
good
sav
aila
ble
orof
acqu
irin
gth
emun
der
cert
ain
cond
itio
nsin
the
futu
re.
Obv
ious
ly,
the
crea
tion
orpr
otec
tion
ofsu
chch
ance
sis
norm
ally
one
ofth
eai
ms
ofla
wen
actm
ent
byth
ose
who
agre
eup
ona
norm
orim
pose
itup
onot
hers
.T
here
are
two
way
sin
whi
chsu
cha
“cha
nce”
may
beat
trib
uted
.T
heat
trib
utio
nm
aybe
am
ere
by-p
rodu
ctof
the
empi
rica
lva
lidi
tyof
the
norm
;in
that
case
the
norm
isno
tm
eant
togu
aran
tee
toan
indiv
idua
lth
ech
ance
whi
chha
ppen
sto
fall
tohi
m.
Itm
ayal
sobe
,ho
wev
er,
that
the
norm
issp
ecif
ical
lym
eant
topr
ovid
eto
the
indi
vidu
alsu
cha
guar
anty
,in
othe
rw
ords
,to
gran
thi
ma
“rig
ht.”
Slo
gic
lth
est
atem
ent
that
som
eone
hasa
rjght
byst
ate
thus
norm
ally
mea
nsth
efo
llow
ing
He
has
ach
ance
,fa
ctua
lly
guar
ante
edto
him
byth
eco
nsen
sual
lyac
cept
edin
terp
reta
tion
ofa
lega
lno
rm,
ofin
voki
ngin
favo
rof
his
idea
lor
mat
eria
lin
tere
sts
the
aid
ofa
“cjy
ç._
patu
s”w
hich
isin
spec
ial
read
ines
sfo
rth
ispu
rpos
e.T
his
aid
cons
ists
,at
leas
tno
rmal
ly,
inth
ere
adin
ess
ofce
rtai
npe
rson
sto
com
eto
his
supp
ort
inth
eev
ent
that
they
are
appr
oach
edin
the
prop
erw
ay,
and
that
itis
show
nth
atth
ere
cour
seto
such
aid
isac
i6L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YE
CO
NO
MIC
SY
ST
EM
AN
DN
OR
MA
TIV
EO
RD
ER
Si
tual
lygu
aran
teed
tohi
mby
a“l
egal
norm
.”Su
chgu
aran
tyis
base
dsi
mpl
yup
onth
e“v
alid
ity”
ofth
ele
gal
prop
osit
ion,
and
does
not
de
pend
upon
ques
tion
sof
expe
dien
cy,
disc
retio
n,gr
ace,
orar
bitr
ary
plea
sure
.‘./
ssvali
dye
eglithi
seucan
beob
tain
ed,1/i
n_a
rele
vant
mea
sure
,ev
enth
ough
othe
r_T
icèoerc
ive
mñ-X
]a:W
can
(fin
the
case
ofun
guar
ante
edla
w,
ifit
svi
olat
ion,
as,
for
inst
ance
,th
atof
anel
ecto
ral
law
,in
duce
s,on
the
grou
ndof
som
eem
piri
call
yva
lidno
rm,
lega
lco
nseq
uenc
es,
for
inst
ance
,th
ein
vali
dati
onof
the
elec
)\ti
on,
for
the
exec
utio
nof
whi
chan
agen
cyw
ithco
erci
vepo
wer
sha
sLb
een
esta
blis
hed.
For
purp
oses
ofsi
mpl
ific
atio
nw
esh
all
pass
hose
“cha
nces
”w
hich
are
duce
das
mer
e“b
y-pr
oduc
ts.”
A“r
igh
inth
eco
ntex
tof
the
stat
e’is
guar
ante
edby
the
coer
ciit
ical
r.tJ
.t,_
Where
ver
the
mea
nsof
coer
cion
whi
chco
nsti
tute
the
guar
anty
ofa
“rig
ht”
belo
ngto
som
eau
thor
ity
anth
epo
liti
cal,
for
,.4ns
tanc
e,a
hier
ocra
cy,
we
shal
lsp
eak
of‘
tra-
stat
ela
‘%
beou
ofpl
ace
inth
epr
esen
tco
nx
We
nee
cals
ther
el.ertain
coñi
gre
ater
-eff
tiven
ess
than
evi
oen
ton
esre
quen
tl,
and
infa
irly
larg
ear
eäce
ven
such
mea
sure
sas
the
excl
usio
nfr
oman
orga
niza
tion
ora
boyc
ott,
orth
epr
ospe
ctof
ith
saai
1gei
1iJ
this
wor
ldor
ofre
war
dan
nish
men
tin
the
next
,ar
eun
dercçrt
iltt
iral—
cdndm
os
mor
eef
fect
ive
inpr
oduc
ing
cert
aia
yin
han.
apo
liti
cal
appa
ratu
sw
hose
coer
cive
func
tion
ing
isno
tal
way
spre
dic
tabth
cert
aint
y.L
egal
forc
ible
coer
cion
exer
cise
dby
the
coër
ive
appa
ratu
sof
the
poli
tica
lco
mm
unit
yha
sof
ten
com
eof
fba
dly
asco
mpa
red
wit
hth
eco
erci
vepo
wer
ofot
her,
eg.,
relig
ious
,au
thor
itie
s.In
gene
ral,
the
actu
alsc
ope
ofit
sef
fici
ency
depe
nds
onth
eci
rcum
stan
ces
ofea
chco
ncre
teca
se.
Wit
hin
the
real
mof
soci
olog
ical
real
ity,
lega
lco
erci
onco
ntin
ues
toex
ist,
how
ever
,as
long
asso
me
soci
ally
rele
vant
effe
cts
are
prod
uced
byits
pow
erm
achi
nery
.
2( S
taa
w.a
dE
xrr
adle
tau
The
assu
mpt
ion
that
ast
ate
exis
ts”
only
ifan
dw
hen
the
coer
cive
mea
nsof
thnkti
cal
cnm
niun
ity
rar
esu
peri
orto
all
othe
rs,
isan
ti-so
ciol
ogic
al.
“Ecc
lesi
asti
cal
law
”is
still
law
even
whe
reit
com
esin
toco
nflic
tw
ith
“sta
te”
law
, as
itha
sha
ppen
edm
any
times
and
asit
isbo
und
toha
ppen
agai
nin
the
case
ofth
ere
lati
ons
betw
een
the
mod
ern
stat
ean
dce
rtai
nch
urch
es,
for
inst
ance
,th
eR
oman
-C
atho
lic.
Inim
peri
alA
ustr
ia,
the
Slav
icZ
adru
gano
ton
lyla
cked
any
kind
ofle
gal
guar
anty
byth
est
ate,
but
som
eof
its
norm
sw
ere
outr
ight
cont
radi
ctor
yto
the
offic
ialla
w.
8Si
nce
the
cons
ensu
alac
tion
cons
titu
ting
aZ
adru
gaha
sat
itsdi
spos
alit
sow
nco
erci
veap
para
tus
for
the
enfo
rce
men
tof
itsno
rms,
thes
eno
rms
are
tobe
cons
ider
edas
“law
.”O
nly
the
stat
e,if
invo
ked,
wou
ldre
fuse
reco
gniti
onan
dpr
ocee
d,th
roug
hit
sco
erci
vepo
wer
,to
brea
kit
up.
Out
side
the
sphe
reof
the
Eur
opea
n-C
onti
nent
alle
gal
syst
em,
itis
nora
reoc
curr
ence
atal
lth
atm
oder
nst
ate
law
expl
icit
lytr
eats
as“v
alid
”th
eno
rms
ofot
her
corp
orat
egr
oups
and
revi
ews
thei
rco
ncre
tedec
isi
ons.
Am
eric
anla
wth
uspr
otec
tsla
bor
unio
nla
bels
orre
gula
tes
the
cond
ition
sun
der
whi
cha
cand
idat
eis
tobe
rega
rded
as“v
alid
ly”
nom
ina
ted
bya
part
y.E
ngli
shju
dges
inte
rven
e,on
appe
al,
inth
eju
dici
alpr
ocee
ding
sof
acl
ub.
Eve
non
the
cont
inen
tG
erm
anju
dges
inve
stig
ate,
inde
fam
atio
nca
ses,
the
prop
riet
yof
the
reje
ctio
nof
ach
alle
nge
toa
duel
,ev
enth
ough
duel
ling
isfo
rbid
den
byla
w.
9W
esh
all
not
ente
rin
toa
casu
istic
inqu
iry
into
the
exte
ntto
whi
chsu
chno
rms
thus
beco
me
“sta
tela
w.”
For
all
the
reas
ons
give
nab
ove
and,
inpa
rtic
ular
,fo
rth
esa
keof
term
inol
ogic
alco
nsis
tenc
y,w
eca
tego
rica
lly
deny
th”la’
cis
tson
]ie
rele
gal
coer
ciQ
niS
The
reis
nopr
acti
cal
reas
onfo
rsu
cha
teE
!4o
.A
Talor’
shalf
—’
rath
er
be
said
toex
ist
wbeje
ycL
cO
erC
iVem
eafl
QL
&P
.hS
Yth
0lq
gica
lki
nd,
are
pvaj
labl
e:i.
çon
e.ot
.mor
epe
rson
sw
hoho
ldth
emse
lves
read
yto
use
them
for
this
ros
ein
the
case
ofce
rtai
nev
ents
;ia
erw
ords
,w
here
ver
we
find
aco
nsoc
os
ecifi
dedi
cate
fthè
purp
ose
nci
on”
sess
ion
ofpara
tuso
re
ex-
has
nott
hyys
As
far
asps
ycho
logi
cal
coer
cion
isco
ncer
ned,
ther
eis
nosu
chm
onop
oly
even
toda
y,as
dem
onst
rate
dby
the
impo
rtan
ceof
law
guar
ante
edon
lyby
the
chur
ch.
We
have
also
indi
cate
dal
read
yth
atdi
rect
guar
anty
ofla
wan
dof
righ
tsby
aco
erci
veap
para
tus
cons
titu
tes
only
one
inst
ance
ofth
eex
ist
ence
of‘l
aw”
and
of“r
ight
s.”
Eve
nw
ithi
nth
isli
mit
edsp
here
the
coer
cive
appa
ratu
sca
nta
keon
agr
eat
vari
ety
offo
rms.
Inm
argi
nal
case
s,
But
see
infr
ap.
69.
Web
erw
ashi
mse
lfin
volv
edin
asu
itof
this
kind
whe
n,in
1911,
bebr
ough
tac
tion
agai
nst
afa
cult
yco
llea
gue
atth
eU
nive
rsit
yof
Hei
delb
erg
who
had
spre
adth
e—
fals
e—
rum
orth
atW
eber
,w
hen
insu
lted
,ha
dre
ject
eda
chal
leng
eto
adu
el;
see
MA
RIA
NN
EW
EB
ER
,M
AX
WE
BE
R,E
nL
EB
EN
SB
IL.D
(2nd
ed.
1951)
472.
i8L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YE
CO
NO
MIC
SY
ST
EM
AN
DN
OR
MA
TIV
EO
RD
ER
Si
itm
ayco
nsis
tin
the
cons
ensu
ally
vali
dch
ance
ofco
erci
vein
terv
enti
onby
all
the
mem
bers
ofth
eco
mm
unit
yin
the
even
tof
anin
frin
gem
ent
ofa
vali
dno
rm.
How
ever
,in
that
case
one
cann
otpr
oper
lysp
eak
ofa
“coe
rciv
eap
para
tus”
unle
ssth
eco
ndit
ions
unde
rw
hich
part
icip
atio
nin
such
coer
cive
inte
rven
tion
isto
beob
liga
tory
,ar
efi
rmly
fixe
d.In
thos
ecasesjh
jjte
ct-io
n.f
dghts
igu
aran
teec
Lbth
e.o
zgns
ofth
epo
liti
cal
auth
mit
y!th
eco
erci
veap
para
tu&
may
.be
rein
larc
edy
pres
sure
grou
ps:
the
stri
ctre
gula
tion
sof
asso
ciat
ions
ofcr
edit
ors
and
land
lord
s,es
peci
ally
thei
rbl
ackl
ists
ofun
reli
able
debt
ors
orte
nant
s,of
ten
oper
ate
mor
eef
fect
ivel
yth
anth
epr
ospe
ctof
ala
wsu
it.
Itgo
esw
itho
utsa
ying
that
this
kind
ofco
erci
onm
aybe
exte
nded
tocl
aim
sw
hich
the
stat
edo
esno
tgu
aran
tee
atal
l;su
chcl
aim
sar
ene
vert
hele
ssba
sed
onri
ghts
even
thou
ghth
eyar
egu
aran
teed
byau
thor
itie
sot
her
than
the
stat
e.T
hela
wof
the
stat
eof
ten
trie
s_1ao
hs±
rucL
theo
cive
mea
nsof
othe
rco
nsoc
lati
ons,
ihe
EiiE
glis
hL
ibel
Act
thus
trie
stoji
dude
blak
1ist
ing
byex
clud
ing
the
defe
nse
oftr
uth.
alw
ays
succ
essf
ul.
The
rear
egr
oups
stro
nger
than
the
stat
ein
this
res5
ect,
f1fi
sXan
ce,
thos
egr
oups
and
asso
ciat
ions
,us
uall
yba
sed
onso
cial
cla
ss,
whi
chre
lyon
the
“hon
orco
de”
ofth
edu
elas
the
mea
nsof
reso
lv-
ing
conf
licts
.W
ith
cour
tsof
hono
ran
dbo
ycot
tas
the
coer
cive
mea
nsat
thei
rdi
spos
al,
they
usua
lly
succ
eed
inco
mpe
lling
,w
ith
part
icul
arem
pha
sis,
the
fulf
illm
ent
ofob
liga
tion
sas
“deb
tsof
hono
r,”
for
inst
ance
,gam
blin
gde
bts
orth
edu
tyto
enga
gein
adu
el;
such
debt
sar
ein
trin
sica
lly
conn
ecte
dw
ith
the
spec
ific
purp
oses
ofth
egr
oup
inqu
esti
on,
but,
asfa
ras
the
stat
eis
conc
erne
d,th
eyar
eno
tre
cogn
ized
,or
are
even
pro
scri
bed.
But
the
stat
eha
sbe
enfo
rced
,at
leas
tpa
rtia
lly,
totr
imit
ssa
ils.
Itw
ould
inde
edbe
bad
lega
lre
ason
ing
tode
man
dth
atsu
cha
spec
ific
deli
ctas
duel
ling
bepu
nish
edas
“att
empt
edm
urde
r”or
assa
ult
and
batt
ery.
Tho
secr
imes
are
ofa
quit
edi
ffer
ent
char
acte
r.B
utit
rem
ains
afa
ctth
atin
Ger
man
yth
ere
adin
ess
topa
rtic
ipat
ein
adu
elis
still
ale
gal
obli
gati
onim
pose
dby
the
stat
eup
onit
sar
my
offi
cers
even
thou
ghth
edu
elis
expr
essl
yfo
rbid
den
byth
eC
rim
inal
Cod
e.’°
The
Sta
teit
self
has
conn
ecte
dle
gal
cons
eque
nces
wit
han
offic
er’s
fail
ure
toco
mpl
yw
ith
the
hono
rco
de.
Out
side
ofth
ecl
ass
ofar
my
offi
cers
the
situ
atio
nis
diff
eren
t,ho
wev
er.
The
typi
cal
mea
nsof
stat
utor
yco
erci
onap
plie
dby
“pri
vate
”or
gani
zati
ons
agai
nst
refr
acto
rym
embe
rsis
excl
usio
nfr
omth
eco
rpor
ate
body
and
its
tang
ible
orin
tang
ible
adva
ntag
es.
Inth
epro
fess
iona
lor
gani
zati
ons
ofph
ysic
ians
and
law
yers
asw
ell
asin
soci
alor
poli
tica
lcl
ubs,
itis
the
ulti
ma
rati
o.T
hem
oder
npo
liti
cal
orga
niza
tion
has
toa
larg
eex
tent
usur
ped
the
appl
icat
ion
ofth
ese
mea
sure
sof
doer
law
yers
inG
erm
any;
inE
ngla
ndth
est
ate
cour
tsha
vebe
engi
ven
juri
sdi
ctio
nto
revi
ew,
onap
peal
,ex
clus
ions
from
club
s;an
din
Am
eric
ath
eco
urts
have
pow
erov
erpo
liti
cal
part
ies
asw
ell
asth
eri
ght
ofre
view
ing,
onap
peal
,th
ele
gali
tyof
the
use
ofa
unio
nla
bel.
Thi
sco
nflic
tbe
twee
nth
em
eans
ofco
erci
onof
the
vari
ous
corp
orat
egr
oups
isas
old
asth
ela
wits
elf.
Lpjp
jLhas-
.not-
a1w
ayendçd
ithJ
he—
tsiu
mph
ofth
e.co
erci
vem
eans
ofth
epo
liti
cal
body
,an
dev
ento
day
this
has
not
alw
ays
bee
eoi
eA
part
y,fo
rin
stan
ce,
who
has
viol
ated
the
code
ofth
egr
oup,
has
nore
med
yag
ains
ta
syst
emat
icat
tem
ptto
driv
ehi
mou
tof
busi
ness
byun
ders
elli
ng.
Sim
ilar
ly,
ther
eis
nopr
otec
tion
agai
nst
bein
gbl
ackl
iste
dfo
rha
ving
avai
led
ones
elf
ofth
epl
eaof
ille
gali
tyof
aco
ntra
ctin
futu
res.
Inth
eM
iddl
eA
ges
the
proh
ibit
ions
ofre
sort
ing
toth
eec
cles
iast
ical
cour
tco
ntai
ned
inth
est
atut
esof
cert
ain
mer
chan
ts’
guild
sw
ere
clea
rly
inva
lid
from
the
poin
tof
view
ofca
non
law
,bu
tth
eype
rsis
ted
no
net
hel
ess.
11
Toa
cons
ider
able
exte
ntth
est
ate
mus
tto
lera
teth
eco
erci
vepo
wer
oforg
aniz
atio
nev
enm
berT
hii
Iin
uts
iders
onw
hom
thqaniz
ati
on
trie
sto
im5il
è1t
wri
norm
s.Il
lust
rati
ons
are
affo
rded
byth
eef
fort
ofca
rtel
sto
forc
eou
tsid
ers
into
mem
bers
hip,
orby
the
mea
sure
sta
ken
bycr
edi
tors
’as
soci
atio
nsag
ains
tde
btor
san
dte
nant
s.A
nim
port
ant
mar
gina
lca
seof
coer
cive
lygu
aran
teed
law
,in
the
soci
olo
gica
lse
nse,
ispr
esen
ted
byth
atsi
tuat
ion
whi
chm
aybe
rega
rded
asth
eve
ryop
posi
teof
that
whi
chis
pres
ente
dby
the
mod
ern
poli
tica
lco
mm
uniti
esas
wel
las
byth
ose
relig
ious
com
mun
itie
sw
hich
appl
yth
eir
own
“law
s.”
Inth
em
oder
nco
mm
unit
ies
the
law
isgu
aran
teed
bya
“jud
ge”
orso
me
othe
r“o
rgan
”w
hois
anim
part
ial
and
disi
nter
este
dum
pire
rath
erth
ana
pers
onw
how
ould
bech
arac
teri
zed
bya
spec
ial
rela
tion
ship
wit
hon
eor
the
othe
rof
the
part
ies.
Inth
esi
tuat
ion
whi
chw
eha
vein
min
dth
em
eans
ofco
erci
onar
epr
ovid
edby
thos
eve
ryper
Sons
who
are
link
edto
the
part
yby
clos
epe
rson
alre
lati
onsh
ip,
for
exam
ple,
asm
embe
rsof
his
kins
hip
grou
p.Ju
stas
war
unde
rm
oder
nin
tern
atio
nal
law
,so
unde
rth
ese
cond
itio
ns“v
enge
ance
”an
d“f
eud”
are
the
only
,or
atle
ast,
the
norm
al,
form
sof
law
enfo
rcem
ent.
Inth
isca
se,
the
“rig
ht”
ofth
ein
divi
dual
cons
ists
,so
ciol
ogic
ally
seen
,in
the
mer
epr
obab
ilit
yth
atth
em
embe
rsof
his
kins
hip
grou
pw
illre
spon
dto
thei
rob
liga
tion
ofsu
ppor
ting
his
feud
and
bloo
dve
ngea
nce
(an
obli
gati
on‘°
Wri
tten
befo
reth
eR
evol
utio
nof
1918.
“See
infr
ap.
253.
20
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
prim
aril
ygu
aran
teed
byfe
arof
the
wra
thof
supe
rnat
ural
auth
orit
ies)
and
that
they
will
poss
ess
stre
ngth
suff
icie
ntto
supp
ort
the
righ
tcl
aim
edby
him
even
thou
ghno
tne
cess
aril
yto
achi
eve
itsfi
nal
triu
mph
.T
hete
rm“l
egal
rela
tion
ship
”w
illbe
appl
ied
tode
sign
ate
that
situ
atio
nin
whi
chth
eco
nten
tof
ari
ght
isco
nsti
tute
dby
are
lati
onsh
ip,
i.e.,
the
actu
alor
pote
ntia
lac
tion
sof
conc
rete
pers
ons
orof
pers
ons
tobe
iden
tifie
dby
conc
rete
crit
eria
.T
heri
ghts
cont
aine
din
ale
gal
rela
tion
ship
may
vary
inac
cord
ance
with
the
actu
ally
occu
rrin
gac
tions
.In
this
sens
ea
stat
eca
nbe
desi
gnat
edas
ale
gal
rela
tion
ship
,ev
enin
the
hypo
thet
ical
mar
gina
lca
sein
whi
chth
eru
ler
alon
eis
rega
rded
asen
dow
edw
ith
righ
ts(t
heri
ght
togi
veor
ders
)an
dw
here
,ac
cord
ingl
y,th
eop
port
unit
ies
ofal
lth
eot
her
indi
vidu
als
are
redu
ced
tore
flex
esof
his
regu
lati
ons.
Law
,
Sign
ifica
nce
ofU
sage
inth
eF
orm
atio
nof
Law
—C
hang
eth
roug
hIn
tuit
ion
and
Em
path
y—
Bor
derl
ine
Zone
sbe
twee
nC
onve
ntio
n,U
sage
, and
Law
L,
conv
enti
on,
and
usag
ebe
long
toth
esa
me
cont
inuu
mw
ithim
e‘b
letr
ansi
tion
sle
adin
gfr
omon
eto
the
othe
r.W
esh
all
defi
nesa
ge
mea
na
typi
call
yun
ifor
mati
rhic
his
kept
onth
ebe
aten
sim
ply
beca
use
men
are
C’a
ccus
tom
ecj.
toit
and
pers
ist
init
byun
refl
ecti
veim
itat
ion
Itis
acà
i4ct
i.ze.
-way
ofac
ting,
the
perp
etua
tion
ofw
hich
edi
vidu
alis
not
“req
uire
d”in
any
sens
eby
anyo
ne.
on
venf
the
othe
rha
nd,
shal
lbe
said
toex
ist
whe
reve
ra
cert
ain
soug
htto
bein
duce
dw
itho
ut,
how
ever
,an
yco
erci
on,
phys
ical
orps
ycho
logi
cal,
and,
atle
ast
unde
rno
rmal
circ
umst
ance
s,w
itho
utan
ydi
rect
reac
tion
othe
rth
anth
eex
pres
sion
ofap
prov
alor
disa
ppro
val
onth
epa
rtof
thos
epe
rson
sw
hoco
nsti
tute
the
9yir
oth
eac
tor.
“Con
vent
ion”
mus
tbe
dist
ingu
ishe
dfr
omcu
storn
arla
.W
esh
all
abst
ain
here
from
crit
iciz
ing
this
not
very
usef
ulco
nce
pt.
12
Acc
ordi
ngto
the
usua
lte
rmin
olog
y,th
eva
lidi
tyof
ano
rmas
cust
omar
yla
wco
nsi
sts
inth
eye
likel
ihoo
dth
ata
coer
cive
appa
ratu
sw
ilo
mtfo
rit
sen
forc
emen
t_al
thou
ghit
eny
rom
mer
eco
nsen
sus
rath
erth
anfr
omenactm
eC
onve
ntio
n,on
ized
bye
very
ase
nce
ofan
ccrc
ive
appa
ratu
s,i.
e.,
ofan
y,at
leas
tre
lati
vely
clea
rly
deim
ited
,gr
oup
ofpe
rson
sw
how
ould
cont
inuo
usly
hold
them
selv
esre
ady
for
the
spec
ial
task
ofle
gal
coer
cion
thro
ugh
phys
ical
orps
ycho
logi
cal
mea
ns.
‘‘C
f.in
jra
p.66
.
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
21
The
exis
tenc
eof
am
ere
usag
e,ev
enun
acco
mpa
nied
byco
nven
tion
,ca
nbe
offa
r-re
achi
ngec
onom
icsi
gnif
ican
ce.
The
leve
lof
econ
omic
need
,w
hich
cons
titu
tes
the
basi
sof
all
“eco
nom
icac
tivi
ty,”
isco
mpr
ehen
sive
lyco
ndit
ione
dby
mer
e“u
sage
.”T
hein
divi
dual
mig
htfr
eehi
mse
lfof
itw
itho
utar
ousi
ngth
esl
ight
est
disa
ppro
val.
Infa
ct,
how
ever
,he
cann
otes
cape
from
itex
cept
wit
hth
egr
eate
stdi
ffic
ulty
,an
dit
does
not
chan
geex
cept
whe
reit
com
esgr
adua
lly
togi
vew
ayto
the
imit
atio
nof
the
dif
fere
ntus
age
ofso
me
othe
rso
cial
grou
p.W
eha
veal
read
yse
en13
that
the
unif
orm
ity
ofm
ere
usag
esca
nbe
ofim
port
ance
inth
efo
rmat
ion
ofgr
oups
ofso
cial
inte
rcou
rse
atid
ofin
term
arri
age.
Itm
ayal
sogi
vea
cert
ain,
thou
ghra
ther
inta
ngib
le,
impe
tus
tow
ard
the
form
atio
nof
feel
ings
of“e
thni
c”id
enti
fica
tion
and,
inth
atw
ay,
cont
ribu
teto
the
crea
tion
ofco
mm
unit
y.’
4A
tan
yra
te,
adhe
renc
eto
wha
tha
sas
such
beco
me
ris
such
ast
ron
corn
--en
tof
all
condu
and.c
eq
uen
tly
1Qf
all
colJ
ctiv
eco
nuc
t,t-.’-
lega
lco
erci
on,
we1E
nsg
eli
i1g
al
obfià
iniO
TfT
he
“usu
al”)
ofte
nad
dspf
acti
call
__no
thin
toits
effe
ctiv
enes
san
d,w
here
itopposn
tffñ
tiy
taii
s11i
The
aem
pto
infl
uenc
eac
tual
cond
uct.
Con
vent
ion
iseq
uall
yef
fect
ive,
ifno
tev
enm
ore.
Inco
untle
sssi
tuat
ions
the
indi
vidu
alde
pend
son
his
envi
ronm
ent
for
asp
onta
neo
us,p
on
se,
not
guar
ante
edby
any
eart
hly
ortr
ansc
ende
ntal
auth
ori
ty,,e
exis
tenc
eof
a“c
onve
ntio
n”m
ayth
usbe
far
mor
eer
min
ativ
eof
his
coxi
sen
ceo
egen
orce
men
t
Obv
ious
lyth
ebo
rder
line
betw
een
usag
ean
dco
nv
enti
on
isfl
uid.
The
furt
her
we
goba
ckin
hist
ory,
the
mor
ew
efi
ndth
atco
nduc
t,an
dpar
ticu
larl
yco
llect
ive
cond
uct,
isde
term
ined
,in
anev
erm
ore
com
preh
ensi
vesp
here
,ex
clus
ivel
yby
orie
ntat
ion
tow
hat
iscu
stom
ary.
The
mor
eth
isis
so,
the
mor
edi
squi
etin
gar
eth
eef
fect
sof
any
devi
atio
nfr
omth
ecu
stom
ary.
Inth
issi
tuat
ion,
any
such
devi
atio
nse
ems
toac
ton
the
psyc
heof
the
aver
age
indi
vidu
allik
eth
edi
stur
banc
eof
anor
gani
cfu
nc
tion,
from
whi
chit
appe
ars
inde
edto
deri
ve.
Pre
sent
ennk
gica
Uit
p.ti
ir_u
redo
esno
tal
l,ow
usto
de.te
rniin
e_ve
ryth
tF’if
firs
tva
guel
yan
ddi
mly
expe
rien
ced,
‘con
sens
ual’
chara
cte
ftto
mm
unal
acti
on,
or,
inot
her
wor
ds,
toth
eon
ceQ
ftb
eg
ss”
ofce
rtai
nac
cust
omed
mod
esof
cond
uct,
yen
less
can
we
trac
eth
ech
ange
sof
the
scop
eof
acti
viti
esw
ith
resp
ect
tow
hich
this
trãn
Sit
ion
W.u
.G.i;
Pars
ons’
tr.
xx8.
See
W.u
.G.
ii6.
22
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
took
plac
e.W
esh
all
thus
by-p
ass
this
prob
lem
.It
isen
tire
lya
ques
tion
ofte
rmin
olog
yan
dco
nven
ienc
eat
whi
chpo
int
oe
sha
assu
me
te
exis
tenc
eotejec
ive
conc
eio
nof
a“l
egal
obgati
óh’O
bJj
veJy
fhe
‘èha
nce
ofth
efa
ctua
loc
curr
ence
oa
viol
ent
reac
tion
agai
nst
cert
ain
type
sof
cond
uct
has
alw
ays
been
pres
ent
amon
ghu
man
bein
gsas
wel
las
amon
gan
imal
s.It
wou
ldbe
far-
fetc
hed,
how
ever
,to
assu
me
inev
ery
such
case
the
exis
tenc
eof
aco
mm
unal
lyva
lid
norm
,or
that
the
acti
onin
ques
tion
wou
ldbe
dire
cted
bya
clea
rly
con
ceiv
edco
nsci
ous
purp
ose.
Per
haps
,a.
rudi
men
tary
conc
epti
onof
“dut
y”m
aybe
dete
rmin
ativ
ein
the
beha
vior
ofso
me
dom
estic
anim
als
toa
grea
ter
exte
ntth
anm
aybe
foun
din
abor
igin
alm
anif
we
may
use
this
high
lyam
bigu
ous
conc
ept
inw
hat
isin
this
cont
ext
acl
earl
yin
telli
gibl
ese
nse.
We
have
noac
cess
,ho
wev
er,
toth
e“s
ubje
ctiv
e”ex
peri
ence
sof
the
firs
tho
mo
sapi
ens
and
such
conc
epts
asth
eal
lege
dly
prim
ordi
al,
orev
ena
prio
ri,
char
acte
rof
law
orco
nven
tion
are
ofno
use
wha
tsoe
ver
toem
piri
cal
soci
olog
y.It
isno
tdu
eto
the
assu
med
bind
ing
forc
eof
som
eru
leor
norm
that
the
cond
uct
ofpr
imit
ive
man
man
ifes
tsce
rtai
nex
tern
alfa
ctua
lre
gula
riti
es,
espe
cial
lyin
his
rela
tion
tohi
sfe
llow
s.O
nth
eco
ntra
ry,
thos
eor
gani
call
yco
ndit
ione
dre
gula
riti
esw
hich
we
have
toac
cept
asps
ycho
phys
ical
real
ity,
are
prim
ary.
Itis
from
them
that
the
conc
ept
of“n
atur
alno
rms”
aris
es.
The
inne
rps
ycho
logi
cal
orie
ntat
ion
tow
ards
such
regu
lari
ties
cont
ains
init
self
very
tang
ible
inhi
biti
ons
agai
nst
“inn
ovat
ions
,”a
fact
whi
chca
nbe
obse
rved
even
toda
yby
ever
yone
inhi
sda
ily
expe
rinc
es,
and
itco
nsti
tute
sa
stro
ngsu
ppor
tfo
rth
ebe
lief
in“(
ough
tnes
sIn
view
ofsu
ch. o
bser
vati
onw
em
ust
ask
how
anyt
hing
new
an
ever
aris
ein
this
wor
ld,
orie
nted
asit
isto
war
dth
ere
gula
ran
dth
eeI
u1pf
fcal
lyva
lid.
No
doub
tin
nova
tion
sha
vebe
enin
duce
dfr
omth
eou
tsid
e,i.e
.,by
chan
ges
inth
eex
tern
alco
ndit
ions
oflif
e.B
utth
ere
spon
seev
oked
byex
tern
alch
ange
may
beth
eex
tinc
tion
oflif
eas
wel
las
its
reor
ient
atio
n;th
ere
isno
way
offo
rete
llin
g.F
urth
erm
ore,
exte
rnal
chan
geis
byno
mea
nsa
nece
ssar
ypr
econ
diti
onfo
rin
nova
tion
:in
som
eof
the
mos
tsi
gnif
ican
tca
ses,
itha
sno
tev
enbe
ena
cont
ribu
ting
fact
orin
the
esta
blis
hmen
tof
ane
wor
der.
The
evid
ence
ofet
hnol
ogy
seem
sra
ther
tosh
owth
atth
em
ost
impo
rtan
tso
urce
ofin
nova
tion
has
been
the
infl
uenc
eof
indi
vidu
aLs
who
have
expe
rien
ced
cert
ain
type
sof
“abn
orm
al”
stat
es(w
hich
are
freq
uent
ly,
but
not
alw
ays,
rega
rded
bypr
esen
t-da
yps
ychi
atry
aspath
olog
ical
)an
dw
ho,
asa
resu
ltof
thes
eex
peri
ence
s,ha
vebe
enca
pabl
eof
exer
cisi
nga
spec
ial
infl
uenc
eon
othe
rs.
We
are
not
disc
ussi
nghe
reth
eor
igin
ofth
ese
expe
rien
ces
whi
chap
pear
tobe
“new
”as
aco
nse
quen
ceof
thei
r“a
bnor
mal
ity,
”bu
tra
ther
thei
ref
fect
s.T
hese
infl
uenc
es
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
23
whi
chov
erco
me
the
iner
tia
ofth
ecu
stom
ary
may
orig
inat
efr
oma
var
iet
yof
psyc
holo
gica
loc
curr
ence
s.T
oH
elip
ach
l4a
we
owe
the
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
two
cate
gori
esw
hich
,de
spit
eth
epo
ssib
iit
oer
med
iate
form
s,no
neth
eles
sap
pear
aspo
lar
type
s.T
hefi
rst
insp
ira
,co
nsis
tsin
the
sudd
enaw
aken
ing,
thro
ugh
dras
tic
mea
ns,
ofth
eaw
aren
ess
that
ace
rtai
nac
tion
“oug
ht”
done
byhi
mw
hoha
sth
isex
peri
ence
.In
the
othe
rfo
rm,
that
ofem
athy
orid
enti
fica
tto
the
infl
uenc
ing
pers
on’s
atti
tude
isem
path
ical
lyex
peri
ence
dby
one
orm
ore
othe
rs.
The
type
sof
acti
onw
hich
are
prod
uced
inth
ese
way
sm
ayva
rygr
eatl
y.V
ery
ofte
n,ho
wev
er,
aco
llect
ive
acti
onis
indu
ced
whi
chis
orie
nted
tow
ard
the
infl
uenc
ing
pers
onan
dhi
sex
peri
ence
and
from
whi
ch,
intu
rn,
cert
ain
type
sof
cons
ensu
sw
ith
corr
espo
ndin
gco
nten
tsm
aybe
deve
lope
d.If
they
are
“ada
pted
”to
the
exte
rnal
envi
ronm
ent,
they
will
surv
ive.
The
effe
cts
of“e
mpa
thy”
and,
even
mor
eso
,of
“ins
pira
tion
”(u
sual
lylu
mpe
dto
geth
erun
der
the
ambi
guou
ste
rm“s
ugge
stio
n”)
cons
titu
teth
em
ajor
sour
ces
for
the
real
izat
ion
ofac
tual
inno
vati
ons
who
se“e
stab
lish
men
t”as
are
gula
rity
will
,in
turn
,re
info
rce
the
sens
eof
“oug
htne
ss,”
byw
iich
itm
aypo
ssib
lybe
acco
mpa
nied
.T
hefe
elin
gof
ough
tnes
s,it
istr
ue,
may
undo
ubte
dly
appe
aras
som
ethi
ngpr
imar
yan
dor
igin
alev
enin
the
case
ofin
nova
tion
,as
soon
asth
ere
are
but
the
rudi
men
tsof
aco
nsci
ous
and
purp
osiv
eco
ncep
tof
inno
vati
on.
Par
ticu
larl
yin
the
case
of“i
nspi
rati
on”
itm
ayco
nsti
tute
aps
ycho
logi
cal
com
pone
nt.
Itis
con
fusi
ng,
how
ever
,w
hen
imit
atio
nof
ane
wty
peof
cond
uct
isre
gard
edas
the
basi
can
dpr
imar
yel
emen
tin
itsdi
ffus
ion.
Und
oubt
edly
,im
itat
ion
isof
extr
aord
inar
yim
port
ance
,bu
tas
age
nera
lru
leit
isse
cond
ary
and
cons
titu
tes
only
asp
ecia
lca
se.
Ifth
eco
nduc
tof
ado
g,m
an’s
olde
stco
mpa
nion
,is
“ins
pire
d”by
man
,su
chco
nduc
t,ob
viou
sly,
cann
otbe
desc
ribe
das
“im
itat
ion
ofm
anby
dog.
”In
ave
ryla
rge
num
ber
ofca
ses,
the
rela
tion
betw
een
the
pers
ons
infl
uenc
ing
and
thos
ein
flue
nced
isex
actl
yof
this
kind
.In
som
eca
ses,
itm
ayap
prox
imat
e“e
mpa
thy,
”in
othe
rs,
“im
itat
ion,
”co
ndit
ione
dei
ther
byra
tion
alpu
rpos
eor
inth
ew
ays
of“m
ass
psyc
holo
gy.”
Ijy
case
,ho
wev
er,
the
emer
ging
inno
vati
onis
mos
tli
kely
topro
tde
rive
sfr
omasty
onn
such
case
sa
conv
enti
onw
illre
sult
or,
unde
rce
rtai
nci
rcum
stan
ces,
even
consu
a1
-coe
rciv
eac
tioggin
stjl
evia
nts
..A
slo
ngas
relig
ious
fait
his
stro
ng,
conv
enti
on,
that
is,
the
appr
oval
ordi
sapp
rova
lby
the
envi
ronm
ent,
enge
nder
s,as
Tjf
lyH
eilp
ach
(bor
n18
77),
prof
esso
rof
med
icin
e,kn
own
byhi
shi
ghly
orig
inal
inve
stig
atio
nson
the
infl
uenc
eof
met
eoro
logi
cal
and
geog
raph
icph
enom
ena
upon
the
min
d.
24
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
hist
oric
alex
peri
ence
show
s,th
eho
pean
dfa
ith
that
the
supe
rnat
ural
pow
ers
too
will
rew
ard
orpu
nish
thos
eac
tion
sw
hich
are
appr
oved
ordi
sapp
rove
din
this
wor
ld.
Con
vent
ion,
unde
rap
prop
riat
eco
nditi
ons,
may
also
prod
uce
the
furt
her
belie
fth
atno
ton
lyth
eac
tor
him
self
but
also
thos
ear
ound
him
may
have
tosu
ffer
from
the
wra
thof
thos
esu
per
natu
ral
pow
ers,
and
that
,th
eref
ore,
reac
tion
isin
cum
bent
upon
all,
acti
ngei
ther
indi
vidu
ally
orth
roug
hth
eco
erci
veap
para
tus
ofso
me
orga
niza
tion
.In
cons
eque
nce
ofth
eco
nsta
ntre
curr
ence
ofa
cert
ain
patt
ern
ofco
nduc
t,th
eid
eam
ayar
ise
inth
em
inds
ofth
egu
aran
tors
ofa
part
icul
arno
rm,
that
they
are
conf
ront
edno
long
erw
ith
mer
eus
age
orco
nven
tion,
but
wit
ha
lega
lob
ligat
ion
requ
irin
gen
forc
emen
t.or
mw
hich
has
atta
ined
such
prac
tica
lva
lidi
tyis
calle
dus
tom
aIa
Eve
ntua
lly,
the
inte
rest
sin
volv
edm
ayen
gend
era
rati
onal
lyco
nsid
ered
desi
reto
secu
reth
eco
nven
tion,
orth
eob
ligat
ion
ofcu
stom
ary
law
,ag
ains
tsu
bver
sion
,an
dto
plac
eit
expl
icit
lyun
der
aran
tee
ofan
enfo
rcem
ent
mac
hine
ry,
i.e.,
totr
ansf
orm
itmt
enac
ted
Par
ticu
larl
yin
the
fiel
dof
the
inte
rnal
dist
riut
ion
ofpo
wer
amon
gth
eor
gans
ofan
inst
itut
iona
lor
der
expe
rien
cere
veal
sa
cont
inuo
ussc
ale
oftr
ansi
tion
sfr
omno
rms
ofco
nduc
tgu
aran
teed
bym
ere
conv
entio
nto
thos
ew
hich
are
rega
rded
asbi
ndin
gan
dgu
aran
teed
byla
wA
stri
king
exam
ple
ispr
esen
ted
byth
ede
velo
pmen
tof
the
Bri
tish
Con
stit
utio
n.F
inal
ly,
any
rebe
llion
agai
nst
conv
entio
nm
ayle
adth
een
viro
nmen
tto
mak
eus
eof
itsco
erci
vely
guar
ante
edri
ghts
ina
man
ner
detr
imen
tal
toth
ere
bel;
for
inst
ance
,th
eho
stus
eshi
sri
ght
asm
aste
rof
the
hous
eag
ains
tth
egu
est
who
has
infr
inge
dup
onth
eco
nven
tion
alru
les
ofso
cial
amen
ity;
ora
war
lord
uses
his
lega
lpo
wer
ofdi
smis
sal
agai
nst
the
offi
cer
who
has
infr
inge
dup
onth
eco
deof
hono
r.In
sti
clc
ath
eco
nven
tion
alru
leis
,in
fact
,in
dire
ctly
siip
nort
edjy
...c
cie
rcie
jneis
The
situ
atio
ndi
ffer
sfr
omth
atof
“ung
uara
ntee
d”la
win
sofa
ras
the
init
iati
onof
the
coer
cive
mea
sure
sis
afa
ctua
l,bu
tno
ta
lega
l,co
nse
quen
ceof
the
infr
inge
men
tof
the
conv
entio
n.T
hele
gal
righ
tto
excl
ude
anyo
nefr
omhi
sho
use
belo
ngs
toth
em
aste
ras
such
.B
uta
dire
ctly
ungu
aran
teed
lega
lpr
opos
itio
ndr
aws
itsva
lidi
tyfr
omth
efa
ctth
atits
viol
atio
nen
gend
ers
cons
eque
nces
som
ehow
via
agu
aran
teed
lega
lno
rm.
Whe
re,
onth
eot
her
hand
,a
lega
lno
rmre
fers
to“g
ood
mor
als”
(die
gute
nS
itte
n),
’5
i.e.,
conv
entio
nsw
orth
yof
appr
oval
,th
efu
lfill
men
tof
the
conv
enti
onal
obli
gati
ons
has
also
beco
me
ale
gal
oblig
atio
nan
dw
eha
vea
case
ofin
dire
ctly
guar
ante
edla
w.
The
rear
eal
sonu
mer
ous
in
‘C
f.G
erm
anC
ivil
Cod
e,Se
c.13
8:“A
tran
sact
ion
whi
chis
cont
rary
togo
odm
oral
sis
void
”;Se
c.82
6:“O
new
hoca
uses
harm
toan
othe
rin
tent
iona
lly
and
ina
man
ner
whi
chis
agai
nst
good
mor
als,
has
toco
mpe
nsat
eth
eot
her
for
such
harm
.”
1 J
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
25
stan
ces
ofin
term
edia
tety
pes,
as,
for
exam
ple,
the
cour
tsof
love
ofth
eT
roub
adou
rsof
Pro
venc
ew
hich
had
“jur
isdi
ctio
n”in
mat
ters
oflo
ve;
16
orth
e“j
udge
”in
his
orig
inal
role
asar
bitr
ator
seek
ing
topr
ocur
ea
sett
lem
ent
betw
een
feud
ing
anta
goni
sts,
perh
aps
also
rend
erin
ga
verd
ict,
but
lack
ing
coer
cive
pow
ers
ofhi
sow
n;or
,fi
nally
,m
oder
nin
tern
atio
nal
cour
tsof
arbi
trat
ion.
Insu
chca
ses,
the
amor
phou
sap
prov
alor
dis
appr
oval
ofth
een
viro
nmen
tha
scr
ysta
lliz
edin
toa
set
ofco
mm
ands
,pro
hibi
tion
s,an
dpe
rmis
sion
sau
thor
itat
ivel
ypr
omul
gate
d,i.e
.,a
conc
rete
lyor
gani
zed
patt
ern
ofco
erci
on.
Exc
epti
ngsi
tuat
ions
ofm
ere
play
,as
,fo
rin
stan
ce,
the
cour
tsof
love
,su
chca
ses
may
becl
assi
fied
as“l
aw”
pro.
vide
dth
eju
dgm
ent
isno
rmal
lyba
cked
not
only
byth
eper
sona
l,an
dth
eref
ore
irre
leva
nt,
opin
ion
ofth
eju
dge,
but
by,
atle
ast,
som
ebo
ycot
tas
self
-hel
pof
the
kins
hip
grou
p,th
est
ate,
orso
me
othe
rgr
oup
ofpe
r.so
nsw
hose
righ
tha
sbe
envi
olat
ed,
asin
the
last
two
ofth
eif
iust
rati
ons
abov
e.A
ccor
ding
toourd
enit
ion,
the
fact
that
som
ety
peof
cond
uct
is“a
ppro
ved”
or“dis
apri
yeçby
ever
som
any
pers
ons
isin
suff
icie
ntto
cóti
tuti
Fia
veti
”;
itis
esse
ntia
lth
atcatt
itu
des
are
like
lyto
find
expr
esxi
nin
asp
ecif
icen
viro
nmen
t.T
his
latt
erte
rmis
,of
cour
se,
not
mea
ntin
any
geog
raph
ical
sens
e.B
utth
ere
mus
tbe
som
ete
stfo
rde
fini
ngth
atgr
oup
ofpe
rson
sw
hich
cons
titu
tes
the
envi
ronm
ent
ofth
epe
rson
inqu
estio
n.It
does
not
mat
ter
inth
isco
ntex
tw
heth
erth
ete
stis
cons
titu
ted
bypr
ofes
sion
,ki
nshi
p,ne
ighb
orho
od,
econ
omic
esta
te,
race
,re
ligio
n,po
liti
cal
alle
gian
ce,
oran
ythi
ngel
se.
Nor
does
itm
atte
rth
atth
em
embe
rshi
pis
chan
geab
leor
unst
able
.F
orth
eex
iste
nce
ofa
conv
entio
nin
our
sens
eit
isno
tre
quir
edth
atth
een
viro
nmen
tbe
con
stit
uted
bya
corp
orat
eor
gani
zed
grou
pas
we
unde
rsta
ndth
atte
rm.
The
very
oppo
site
isfr
eque
ntly
the
case
.B
utth
eva
lidi
tyof
law
,p
resu
ppos
ing,
asw
eha
vese
en,
the
exis
tenc
eof
anen
forc
emen
tm
achi
nery
,is
nece
ssar
ily
aco
roll
ary
ofor
gani
zed
colle
ctiv
eac
tion.
Of
cour
se,
we
dono
tim
ply
that
the
colle
ctiv
ew
ould
regu
late
only
its
own
corp
orat
eor
colle
ctiv
eac
tion.
Itis
rath
erth
atth
eor
gani
zed
coll
ecti
vity
mus
tbe
said
tobe
the
“sus
tain
er”
ofth
ela
w.
“Th
e“c
ourt
sof
love
”(c
ours
d’am
our)
belo
nged
toth
eam
usem
ents
ofpo
lite
soci
ety
atth
ehi
ghpe
riod
ofch
ival
ryan
dth
etr
ouba
dour
s(t
wel
fth
toth
irte
enth
cent
ury)
.T
hey
are
repo
rted
toha
veco
nsis
ted
ofci
rcle
sof
ladi
esw
how
ere
orga
nize
din
the
way
ofco
urts
and
rend
ered
judg
men
tsan
dop
inio
nsin
mat
ters
ofco
urtl
ylo
vean
dm
anne
rs.
The
yfl
ouri
shed
inso
uthe
rnF
ranc
e,es
peci
ally
Pro
venc
e,w
here
they
cam
eto
anen
dw
ith
the
coll
apse
ofP
rove
nçal
soci
ety
inth
e“c
rusa
de”
agai
nst
the
Alb
igen
sian
here
tics
.In
the
late
Mid
dle
Age
s,a
bril
lian
tco
urt
oflo
veis
repo
rted
toha
vefl
ouri
shed
for
som
eye
ars
atth
eB
urgu
ndia
nco
urt
;cf
.H
uzzi
r’w
A,
WA
xnsc
OF
TU
EM
IDD
LE
AG
ES
(19
24
),c.
8,p.
10
3.
On
the
cour
tsof
love
inge
nera
l,se
eC
AP
EF
IGU
E,
LE
SC
OU
RS
r,’A
MouR
(186
3);
RA
JNA
,L
Eco
aT!
D’A
MoR
E(1
890);
and
the
art
icle
byF
.B
onnard
ot
in2
LAG
RA
ND
EE
NC
YC
LO
PE
DJz
805,
wit
hfu
rther
lite
ratu
re.
26L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YE
CO
NO
MIC
SY
ST
EM
AN
DN
OR
MA
TIV
EO
RD
ER
S27
On
the
othe
rha
nd,
we
are
far
from
asse
rtin
gth
atle
gal
rule
s,in
the
sens
ehe
reus
ed,
wou
ldof
fer
the
only
stan
dard
ofsu
bjec
tive
orie
ntat
ion
for
cons
ensu
al,
com
mun
al,
corp
orat
e,or
inst
itut
iona
lac
tion
,w
hich
,w
em
ust
rem
embe
r,is
noth
ing
but
ase
gmen
tof
soci
olog
ical
lyre
leva
ntco
ndu
ctin
gene
ral.
If“c
olle
ctiv
eor
der”
isun
ders
tood
tobe
cons
titu
ted
byal
lth
ose
dete
rmin
able
regu
lari
ties
ofco
nduc
tw
hich
are
char
acte
rist
icof
,or
indi
spen
sabl
eto
,th
eac
tual
cour
seof
the
com
mun
al(c
omm
unit
ycr
eati
ngor
com
mun
ity
infl
uenc
ed)
acti
on,
then
this
orde
ris
only
toa
smal
lex
tent
the
resu
ltof
anor
ient
atio
nto
war
dle
gal
rule
s.T
oth
eex
tent
that
itis
cons
ciou
sly
orie
nted
tow
ards
rule
sat
all
and
does
not
mer
ely
spri
ngfr
omun
refl
ecti
veha
bitu
atio
n,th
eru
les
are
ofth
ena
ture
of“u
sage
”an
d“c
onve
ntio
n,”
or,
inpa
rt,
and
ofte
npr
edom
inan
tly,
they
are
rati
onal
max
ims
ofpu
rpos
eful
self
-int
eres
ted
acti
onof
the
indi
vidu
alpa
rtic
ipan
ts,
onth
eef
fect
ive
oper
atio
nof
whi
chea
chpa
rtic
ipan
tis
coun
ting
for
his
own
cond
uct
asw
ell
asfo
rth
atof
all
othe
rs.
Thi
sex
pect
atio
nis
,in
deed
,ju
stif
ied
obje
ctiv
ely,
espe
cial
lysi
nce
the
max
im,
thou
ghla
ckin
gle
gal
guar
anti
es,
ofte
nco
nsti
tute
sth
esu
bjec
tm
atte
rof
som
esp
ecia
lco
nsoc
iati
onor
cons
ensu
s.T
hech
ance
ofle
gal
coer
cion
whi
ch,
asal
read
ym
enti
oned
,m
otiv
ates
even
“leg
al”
cond
uct
only
toa
slig
htex
tent
,is
also
obje
ctiv
ely
anul
tim
ate
guar
anty
for
nom
ore
than
afr
acti
onof
the
actu
alco
urse
ofco
nsen
sual
lyor
ient
edco
nduc
t.It
shou
ldth
usbe
clea
r,th
at,
from
the
poin
tof
view
ofso
ciolo
gyjh
etr
ansit
ions
from
mer
eco
nven
tion
and
from
itto
law
ale
flui
d/J
!Y’
Eve
nfr
oma
non-
sogi
capo
int
ofvi
ewit
isw
rong
todi
stin
guis
hbe
twee
nla
wan
det
hics
byas
sert
ing
that
lega
lno
rms
regu
late
mer
eex
tern
alco
nduc
t,w
hile
mor
alno
rms
regu
late
only
mat
ters
ofco
nsci
ence
.T
hela
w,
itis
true
,do
esno
tby
any
mea
nsal
way
sre
gard
the
inte
ntio
nof
anac
tion
asre
leva
nt,
and
ther
eha
vebe
enle
gal
prop
osit
ions
and
lega
lsy
stem
sin
whi
chle
gal
cons
eque
nces
,in
clud
ing
even
puni
shm
ent,
are
caus
ally
conn
ecte
dex
clus
ivel
yw
ith
exte
rnal
even
ts.
But
this
situ
atio
nis
not
the
norm
alon
e.L
egal
cons
eque
nces
atta
chto
bona
orm
ala
fide
s,or
“int
enti
on,”
orm
oral
turp
itud
e,an
da
good
man
yot
her
pure
lysu
bje
ctiv
efa
ctor
s.M
oral
com
man
dmen
ts,
onth
eot
her
hand
,ar
eai
min
gat
over
com
ing
inpr
acti
cal,
and
thus
exte
rnal
,co
nduc
tth
ose
anti
-nor
mat
ive
impu
lses
whi
chfo
rmpa
rtof
the
“men
tala
ttit
ude.
”F
rom
the
norm
ativ
epo
int
ofvi
eww
esh
ould
thus
dist
ingu
ish
betw
een
the
two
phen
omen
ano
tas
exte
rnal
and
subj
ecti
ve,
but
asre
pres
enti
ngdi
ffer
ent
degr
ees
ofno
rmat
iven
ess.
Fro
mth
eso
ciol
ogic
alpo
int
ofvi
ew,
how
ever
,et
hica
lva
lidi
tyis
nor
mal
lyid
enti
cal
wit
hva
lidi
ty“o
nre
ligio
usgr
ound
s”or
“by
virt
ueof
conv
enti
on.”
Onl
yan
abst
ract
stan
dard
ofco
nduc
tsu
bjec
tive
lyco
n-
ceiv
edas
deri
ved
from
ulti
mat
eax
iom
sco
uld
bere
gard
edas
an“e
xcl
usi
vely
”et
hica
lno
rm,
and
this
only
inso
far
asth
isco
ncep
tion
wou
ldac
quir
epr
acti
cal
sign
ific
ance
inco
nduc
t.Su
chco
ncep
tion
sha
vein
fact
ofte
nha
dre
alsi
gnif
ican
ce.
But
whe
reve
rth
isha
sbe
enth
eca
se,
they
have
been
are
lati
vely
late
prod
uct
of
phi4
osop
hica
L.r
flec
tion
.In
the
past
,as
wel
las
inth
epr
esen
t(“m
oral
com
rnan
dmen
ts’i
nco
ntra
stto
lega
lco
mm
ands
are,
ofvi
ew,
norm
ally
eith
erre
,gio
usly
orco
nven
tion
ally
cond
itio
ned
max
ims
ofco
nduc
tT
hey
are
not
dis
tin,g
hed
from
law
byha
rdan
dfa
stcr
iter
ia.
The
reis
noso
cial
lyim
port
ant
mor
alco
mm
andm
ent
whi
chw
ould
not
have
been
ale
gal
com
man
dat
one
time
oran
othe
r.St
amm
ler’
sdi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
nco
nven
tion
and
lega
lno
rmac
cord
ing
tow
heth
eror
not
the
fulf
illm
ent
ofth
eno
rmis
depe
nden
tup
onth
efr
eew
ifi
ofth
ein
div
idual
’7
isof
nous
ew
hats
oeve
r.It
isin
corr
ect
tosa
yth
atth
efu
lfil
lmen
tof
conv
enti
onal
“obl
igat
ions
,”fo
rin
stan
ceof
aru
leof
soci
alet
ique
tte,
isno
t“i
mpo
sed”
onth
ein
divi
dual
,an
dth
atit
snon
fulf
illm
ent
wou
ldsi
mpl
yre
sult
in,
orco
inci
dew
ith,
the
free
and
volu
nta
ryse
para
tion
from
avo
lunt
ary
cons
ocia
tion.
Itm
aybe
adm
itte
dth
atth
ere
are
norm
sof
this
kind
,bu
tth
eyex
ist
not
only
inth
esp
here
ofco
nven
tion,
but
equa
lly
inth
atof
law
.T
hecl
ausu
lare
bus
sic
stan
tibu
sin
fact
ofte
nle
nds
itse
lfto
such
use.
At
any
rate
,th
edi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
nco
nven
tion
alru
lean
dle
gal
norm
inSt
amm
ier’
sow
nso
ciol
ogy
isno
tce
nter
edon
this
test
.N
oton
lyth
eth
eore
tica
lly
cons
truc
ted
anar
chic
also
ciet
y,th
e“t
heor
y”an
d“c
riti
que”
ofw
hich
Sta
min
ler
has
elab
orat
edw
ith
the
aid
ofhi
ssc
hola
stic
conc
epts
,bu
tal
soa
good
num
ber
ofco
nso
ciat
ions
exis
ting
inth
ere
alw
orld
have
disp
ense
dw
ith
the
lega
lch
arac
ter
ofth
eir
conv
enti
onal
norm
s.T
hey
have
done
soon
the
assu
mpt
ion
that
the
mer
efa
ctof
the
soci
aldi
sapp
rova
lof
norm
infr
inge
men
tw
ith
its,
ofte
nve
ryre
al,
indi
rect
cons
eque
nces
will
suff
ice
asa
sanc
tion
.F
rom
the
soci
olog
ical
poin
tof
view
,le
gal
orde
ran
dco
nven
tion
alor
der
doth
usno
tco
nsti
tute
any
basi
cco
ntra
st,
sinc
e,qu
ite
apar
tfr
omob
viou
sca
ses
oftr
ansi
tion
,co
nven
tion
,to
o,is
sust
aine
dby
psyc
holo
gica
las
wel
las
(at
leas
tin
dire
ctly
)ph
ysic
alco
erci
on.
Itis
only
wit
hre
gard
toth
eso
ciol
ogic
alst
ruct
ure
ofco
erci
onth
atth
eydi
ffer
:T
heco
nven
tion
alor
der
lack
ssp
ecia
lized
pers
onne
lfo
rth
eim
plem
enta
tion
ofco
erci
vepo
wer
(enf
orce
men
tmac
hine
ry:
prie
sts,
judg
es,p
olic
e,th
em
ilit
ary,
etc.
).A
bove
all,
Sta
mm
ler
conf
uses
the
idea
lva
lidi
tyof
ano
rmw
ith
the
assu
med
vali
dity
ofa
norm
inits
actu
alin
flue
nce
onem
piri
cal
acti
on.
The
form
erca
nbe
dedu
ced
syst
emat
ical
lyby
lega
lth
eori
sts
and
mor
alph
ilos
ophe
rs;
the
latt
er,
inst
ead,
ough
tto
beth
esu
bjec
tof
empi
rica
lW
mrs
cnr
uu
Rxcr
(1896)
125.
28
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
obse
rvat
ion.
Fur
ther
mor
e,S
tam
mle
rco
nfus
esth
eno
rmat
ive
regu
lati
onof
cond
uct
byru
les
who
se“o
ught
ness
”is
fact
uall
yac
cept
edby
asi
zabl
enu
mbe
rof
pers
ons,
wit
hth
efa
ctua
lre
gula
riti
esof
hum
anco
nduc
t.T
hese
two
conc
epts
are
tobe
stri
ctly
sepa
rate
d,ho
wev
er.
Itis
byw
ayof
conv
enti
onal
rule
sth
atm
erel
yfa
ctua
lre
gula
riti
esof
acti
on,
i.e.,
usag
es,
are
freq
uent
lytr
ansf
orm
edin
tobi
ndin
gno
rms,
guar
ante
edpr
imar
ily
byps
ycho
logi
cal
coer
cion
.T
radi
tion
thus
mak
esco
nve
ntio
n.T
hem
ere
fact
ofth
ere
gula
rre
curr
ence
ofce
rtai
nev
ents
som
eho
wco
nfer
son
them
the
dign
ity
ofou
ghtn
ess.
Thi
sis
true
wit
hre
gard
tona
tura
lev
ents
asw
ell
asto
acti
onco
ndit
ione
dor
gani
call
yor
byun
refl
ectiv
eim
itat
ion
of,
orad
apta
tion
to,
exte
rnal
cond
ition
sof
life.
Itap
plie
sto
the
accu
stom
edco
urse
ofth
est
ars
asor
dain
edby
the
divi
nepo
wer
s,as
wel
las
toth
ese
ason
alfl
oods
ofth
eN
ile
orth
eac
cust
omed
way
ofre
mun
erat
ing
slav
ela
bore
rs,
who
byth
ela
war
eun
cond
itio
nall
ysu
rren
dere
dto
the
pow
erof
thei
rm
aste
rs.
Whe
neve
rth
ere
gula
riti
esof
acti
onha
vebe
com
eco
nven
tiona
lized
,i.e
.,w
hene
ver
ast
atis
tica
lly
freq
uent
acti
onha
sbe
com
ea
cons
ensu
ally
orie
nted
acti
on(t
his
is,
inou
rte
rmin
olog
y,th
ere
alm
eani
ngof
this
deve
lopm
ent)
,w
esh
all
spea
kof
“tra
diti
on.”
Itca
nnot
beov
erst
ress
edth
atth
em
ere
habi
tuat
ion
toa
mod
eof
ac
tion,
the
inst
inct
topr
eser
veth
isha
bitu
atio
n,an
d,m
uch
mor
eso
,tr
adi
tion,
have
afo
rmid
able
infl
uenc
ein
favo
rof
aha
bitu
ated
lega
lor
der,
even
whe
resu
chan
orde
ror
igin
ally
deri
ves
from
lega
len
actm
ent.
Thi
sin
flue
nce
ism
ore
pow
erfu
lth
anan
yre
flec
tion
onim
pend
ing
mea
nsof
coer
cion
orot
her
cons
eque
nces
,co
nsid
erin
gal
soth
efa
ctth
atat
leas
tso
me
ofth
ose
who
act
acco
rdin
gto
the
“nor
ms”
are
tota
lly
unaw
are
ofth
em.
The
tran
siti
onfr
omth
em
erel
yun
refl
ectiv
efo
rmat
ion
ofa
habi
tto
the
cons
ciou
sac
cept
ance
ofth
em
axim
that
actio
nsh
ould
bein
acco
rdan
cew
ith
ano
rmis
alw
ays
flui
d.T
hem
ere
stat
isti
cal
regu
lari
tyof
anac
tion
lead
sto
the
emer
genc
eof
mor
alan
dle
gal
conv
ictio
nsw
ith
corr
esp
ondi
ngco
nten
ts.
The
thre
atof
phys
ical
and
psyc
holo
gica
lco
erci
on,
onth
eot
her
hand
,im
pose
sa
cert
ain
mod
eof
acti
onan
dth
uspr
oduc
esha
bitu
atio
nan
dth
ereb
yre
gula
rity
ofac
tion
.L
awan
dco
nven
tion
are
inte
rtw
ined
asca
use
and
effe
ctin
the
actio
nsof
men
,w
ith,
agai
nst,
and
besi
de,
one
anot
her.
Itis
gros
sly
mis
lead
ing
toco
nsid
erla
wan
dco
nven
tion
asth
e“f
orm
s”of
cond
uct
inco
ntra
stw
ith
its“s
ubst
ance
”as
Sta
mm
ler
does
.T
hebe
lief
inth
ele
gal
orco
nve
ntio
nal
ough
tnes
sof
ace
rtai
nac
tion
is,
from
aso
ciol
ogic
alpo
int
ofvi
ew,
mer
ely
asu
pera
ddit
umin
crea
sing
the
degr
eeof
prob
abil
ity
wit
hw
hich
anac
ting
pers
onca
nca
lcul
ate
cert
ain
cons
eque
nces
ofhi
sac
tion
.E
cono
mic
theo
ryth
eref
ore
prop
erly
disr
egar
dsth
ech
arac
ter
ofth
eno
rms
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
29
alto
geth
er.
For
the
econ
omis
tth
efa
ctth
atso
meo
ne“p
osse
sses
”so
me
thin
gsi
mpl
ym
eans
that
heca
nco
unt
onot
her
pers
ons
not
toin
terf
ere
wit
hhi
sdi
spos
ition
over
the
obje
ct.
Thi
sm
utua
lre
spec
tof
the
righ
tof
disp
ositi
onm
aybe
base
don
ava
riet
yof
cons
ider
atio
ns.
Itm
ayde
rive
from
defe
renc
eto
conv
enti
onal
orle
gal
norm
s,or
from
cons
ider
atio
nsof
self
-int
eres
ton
the
part
ofea
chpa
rtic
ipan
t.W
hate
ver
the
reas
on,
itis
ofno
prim
ary
conc
ern
toec
onom
icth
eory
.T
hefa
ctth
ata
pers
on“o
wes
”so
met
hing
toan
othe
rca
nbe
tran
slat
ed,
soci
olog
ical
ly,
into
the
follo
win
gte
rms:
ace
rtai
nco
mm
itm
ent
(thr
ough
prom
ise,
tort
,or
othe
rca
use)
ofon
epe
rson
toan
othe
r;th
eex
pect
atio
n,ba
sed
ther
eon,
that
indu
eco
urse
the
form
erw
illyi
eld
toth
ela
tter
his
righ
tof
disp
osit
ion
over
the
good
sco
ncer
ned;
the
exis
tenc
eof
ach
ance
that
this
expe
cta
tion
will
befu
lfill
ed.
The
psyc
holo
gica
lm
otiv
esin
volv
edar
eof
nopr
imar
yin
tere
stto
the
econ
omis
t.A
nex
chan
geof
good
sm
eans
:th
etr
ansf
erof
anob
ject
,ac
cord
ing
toan
agre
emen
t,fr
omth
efa
ctua
lco
ntro
lof
one
pers
onto
that
ofan
othe
r,th
istr
ansf
erbe
ing
base
don
the
assu
mpt
ion
that
anot
her
obje
ctis
tobe
tran
sfer
red
from
the
fact
ual
cont
rol
ofth
ese
cond
toth
atof
the
firs
t.O
fth
ose
who
take
part
ina
debt
or-c
redi
tor
rela
tion
ship
orin
aba
rter
,ea
chon
eex
pect
sth
atth
eot
her
will
conf
orm
tohi
sow
nin
tent
ions
.It
isno
tne
cess
ary,
how
ever
,to
assu
me
conc
eptu
ally
any
“ord
er”
outs
ide
orab
ove
the
two
part
ies
togu
aran
tee,
com
man
d,or
enfo
rce
com
plia
nce
bym
eans
ofco
erci
vem
achi
nery
orso
cial
disa
ppro
val.
Nor
isit
nece
ssar
yto
assu
me
the
subj
ecti
vebe
lief
ofei
ther
orbo
thpa
rtie
sin
any
“bin
ding
”no
rm.
For
the
part
ner
toan
exch
ange
can
depe
ndon
the
othe
rpa
rtne
r’s
egoi
stic
inte
rest
inth
efu
ture
cont
inua
tion
ofex
chai
ige
rela
tion
ship
sor
othe
rsi
mil
arm
otiv
esto
offs
ethi
sin
clin
atio
nto
brea
khi
spr
omis
e—
afa
ctw
hich
resu
lts
mos
tta
ngib
lyfr
omth
eso
-cal
led
“sil
ent
trad
e”am
ong
prim
itiv
epe
ople
sas
wel
las
from
mod
ern
busi
ness
,es
peci
ally
onth
est
ock
exch
ange
.A
ssum
ing
the
avai
labi
lity
ofpu
rely
expe
dien
tial
rati
onal
ity,
each
par
tici
pant
can
and
does
,in
fact
,de
pend
onth
epr
obab
ilit
yth
atun
der
nor
mal
circ
umst
ance
sth
eot
her
part
yw
illac
t“a
sif
”he
acce
pted
as“b
ind
ing”
the
norm
that
one
has
tofu
lfill
his
prom
ises
.C
once
ptua
lly
this
isqu
ite
suff
icie
nt.
But
itgo
esw
itho
utsa
ying
that
itm
akes
adi
ffer
ence
whe
ther
the
part
ner’
sex
pect
atio
nin
this
resp
ect
issu
ppor
ted
byon
eor
both
ofth
efo
llow
ing
guar
anti
es:
i.th
efa
ctua
lly
wid
ecu
rren
cy,
inth
een
viro
nmen
t,of
the
subj
ecti
vebe
lief
inth
eob
ject
ive
vali
dity
ofsu
cha
norm
(con
sens
us);
2.
even
mor
eso
,th
ecr
eati
onof
aco
nven
tion
alg
uar
anty
thro
ugh
rega
rdfo
rso
cial
appr
oval
ordi
sapp
rova
l,or
ofa
lega
lgu
aran
tyth
roug
hth
eex
iste
nce
ofen
forc
emen
tm
achi
nery
.C
anit
besa
idth
ata
stab
lepr
ivat
eec
onom
icsy
stem
ofth
em
oder
n
I
soL
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YE
CO
NO
MIC
SY
ST
EM
AN
DN
OR
MA
TIV
EO
RD
ER
S3
type
wou
ldbe
“unt
hink
able
”w
itho
utle
gal
guar
anti
es?
As
am
atte
rof
fact
we
see
that
inm
ost
busi
ness
tran
sact
ions
itne
ver
occu
rsto
anyo
neev
ento
thin
kof
taki
ngle
gal
acti
on.
Agr
eem
ents
onth
est
ock
exch
ange
,fo
rex
ampl
e,ta
kepl
ace
betw
een
prof
essi
onal
trad
ers
insu
chfo
rms
asin
the
vast
maj
orit
yof
case
sex
clud
e“p
roof
”in
case
sof
bad
fait
h:th
eco
ntra
cts
are
oral
,or
are
reco
rded
bym
arks
and
nota
tion
sin
the
trad
er’s
own
note
book
.N
ever
thel
ess,
adi
sput
epr
acti
call
yne
ver
occu
rs.
Lik
ew
ise,
ther
ear
eco
rpor
ate
grou
pspu
rsui
ngpu
rely
econ
omic
ends
the
rule
sof
whi
chno
neth
eles
sdi
spen
seen
tire
ly,
oral
mos
ten
tire
ly,
wit
hle
gal
prot
ecti
onfr
omth
est
ate.
Cer
tain
type
sof
“car
tels
”w
ere
illu
stra
tive
ofth
iscl
ass
ofor
gani
zati
on.
Itof
ten
happ
ened
also
that
agre
emen
tsw
hich
had
been
conc
lude
dan
dw
ere
vali
dac
cord
ing
topr
ivat
ela
ww
ere
ren
dere
din
oper
ativ
eth
roug
hth
edi
ssol
utio
nof
the
orga
niza
tion
,as
ther
ew
asno
long
era
form
ally
legi
tim
ated
plai
ntif
f.In
thes
ein
stan
ces,
the
corp
orat
egr
oup
wit
hits
own
coer
cive
appa
ratu
sha
da
syst
emof
“law
”w
hich
was
tota
lly
lack
ing
inth
epo
wer
offo
rcib
lele
gal
coer
cion
.Su
chco
erci
on,
atan
yra
te,
was
avai
labl
eon
lyso
long
asth
eor
gani
zed
grou
pw
asin
exis
tenc
e.A
sa
resu
ltof
the
pecu
liar
subj
ecti
veat
titu
deof
the
part
icip
ants
,ca
rtel
cont
ract
sof
ten
had
not
even
any
effe
ctiv
eco
nven
tion
algu
aran
tee.
Tho
seco
nsoc
iatio
nsof
ten
func
tion
edno
neth
eles
sfo
ra
long
tim
ean
dqu
ite
effi
cien
tlyin
cons
eque
nce
ofth
eco
nver
gent
inte
res
tsof
all
the
part
icip
ants
.D
espi
teal
lsu
chfa
cts,
itis
obvi
ous
that
forc
ible
lega
lgu
aran
tee,
espe
cial
lyw
here
exer
cise
dby
the
stat
e,is
not
am
atte
rof
indi
ffer
ence
tosu
chorgajatinn.
Tod
ayec
onom
icex
chan
geis
quit
eov
erw
helm
ingl
yguaa
nte
edby
the
thre
atof
lega
lco
erci
onT
heno
rmal
inte
ntio
nin
anac
tof
eiE
hang
eis
toac
quir
ece
rtai
nsu
hjëc
tive
“rig
hts,
”i.e
.,in
soci
olo
gica
lte
rms,
the
prob
abil
ity
ofsu
ppor
tof
one’
spo
wer
ofdi
spos
ition
byth
eco
erci
veap
para
tus
ofth
est
ater
Eonom
icgo
ods
toda
yar
enor
mal
lyat
the
sam
eti
me
legi
tim
atel
yasi
.red
righ
ts;
they
are
the
very
buil
ding
mat
eria
lfo
rth
eun
iver
seof
the
econ
omic
orde
r.N
onet
hele
ssev
ento
day
they
dono
tco
nsti
tute
the
tota
lra
nge
ofob
ject
sof
exchanj
Eco
nom
icop
port
unit
ies
whi
char
eno
tgu
aran
teed
byth
ele
gal
orde
r,or
the
guar
anty
ofw
hich
isev
enre
fuse
don
grou
nds
ofpo
licy
byth
ele
gal
orde
r,ca
nan
ddo
cons
titu
teob
ject
sof
exch
ange
tran
sact
ions
whi
char
eno
ton
lyno
til
legi
tim
ate
but
perf
ectl
yle
giti
mat
e.T
hey
incl
ude,
for
inst
ance
,th
etr
ansf
er,
agai
nst
com
pens
atio
n,of
the
good
will
ofa
busi
ness
.T
hesa
leof
ago
odw
illto
day
norm
ally
enge
nder
sce
rtai
npr
ivat
ela
wcl
aim
sof
the
purc
hase
rag
ains
tth
ese
ller,
nam
ely,
that
hew
illre
frai
nfr
omce
rtai
nac
tion
san
dw
illpe
rfor
mce
rtai
not
hers
,fo
rin
stan
ce,
“int
rodu
ce”
the
purc
hase
rto
the
cust
omer
s.B
utth
ele
gal
orde
rdo
es
not
enfo
rce
the
clai
ms
agai
nst
thir
dpa
rtie
s.Y
et,
ther
eha
vebe
enan
dst
ill
are
case
sin
whi
chth
eco
erci
veap
para
tus
ofth
epo
liti
cal
auth
orit
yis
avai
labl
efo
rth
eex
erci
seof
dire
ctco
erci
onin
favo
rof
the
owne
ror
purc
hase
rof
a“m
arke
t,”
asfo
rin
stan
cein
the
case
ofa
guil
dm
onop
oly
orso
me
othe
rle
gally
prot
ecte
dm
onop
oly.
Itis
wel
lkn
own
that
Fic
hte
cons
ider
edit
asth
ees
sent
ial
char
acte
rist
icof
mod
emle
gal
deve
lop
men
tth
at,
inco
ntra
stto
such
case
s,th
em
Ode
rnst
ate
guar
ante
eson
lycl
aim
son
conc
rete
usab
lego
ods
orla
bor
serv
ices
.B
esid
es,
so-c
alle
d“f
ree
com
peti
tion
”fi
nds
its
lega
lex
pres
sion
inth
isve
ryfa
ct.
Yet
,al
thou
ghsu
ch“o
ppor
tuni
ties
”ha
vere
mai
ned
obje
cts
ofec
onom
icex
chan
geev
enw
itho
utle
gal
prot
ecti
onag
ains
tth
ird
part
ies,
the
abse
nce
ofle
gal
guar
anti
esha
sne
vert
hele
ssfa
r-re
achi
ngec
onom
iccà
nseq
uenc
es.
But
from
the
poin
tof
view
ofec
onom
ics
and
soci
olog
yit
rem
ains
afa
ctth
at,
onge
nera
lpr
inci
ple,
atle
ast,
the
inte
rfer
ence
ofle
gal
guar
anti
esm
erel
yin
crea
ses
the
degr
eeof
cert
aint
yw
ith
whi
chan
econ
omic
ally
rele
vant
acti
onca
nbe
calc
ulat
edin
adva
nce.
The
lega
lre
gula
tion
ofa
subj
ect
mat
ter
has
neve
rbe
enca
rrie
dou
tin
all
itsim
plic
atio
nsan
ywhe
re.
Thi
sw
ould
requ
ire
the
avai
labi
lity
ofso
me
hum
anag
ency
whi
chin
ever
yca
seof
the
kind
inqu
esti
onw
ould
bere
gard
edas
bein
gca
pabl
eof
dete
rmin
ing,
inac
cord
ance
wit
hso
me
conc
eive
dno
rm,
wha
tou
ght
tobe
done
“by
law
.”W
esh
all
by-p
ass
here
the
inte
ract
ion
betw
een
cons
ocia
tion
and
lega
lor
der:
asw
eha
vese
enel
sew
here
,an
yra
tion
alco
nsoc
iatio
n,an
dth
eref
ore,
any
orde
rof
com
mun
alan
dco
nsen
sual
acti
onis
post
erio
rin
this
resp
ect.
Nor
shal
lw
edi
scus
she
reth
epr
opos
itio
nth
atth
ede
velo
pmen
tof
com
mun
alan
dco
nsen
sual
acti
onco
ntin
uall
ycr
eate
sen
tire
lyne
wsi
tuat
ions
and
rais
espr
oble
ms
whi
chca
nbe
solv
edby
the
acce
pted
norm
sor
byth
eus
ual
logi
cof
juri
spru
denc
eon
lyin
appe
aran
ceor
bysp
urio
usre
ason
ing
(cf.
inth
isre
spec
tth
eth
esis
ofth
e“f
ree-
law
”m
ovem
ent)
•19
We
are
conc
erne
dhe
rew
ith
am
ore
basi
cpr
oble
m:
Itis
afa
ctth
atth
em
ost
“fun
dam
enta
l”qu
esti
ons
ofte
nar
ele
ftun
regu
late
dby
law
even
inle
gal
orde
rsw
hich
are
othe
rwis
eth
orou
ghly
rati
onal
ized
.L
etus
illu
stra
tetw
osp
ecif
icty
pes
ofth
isph
enom
enon
:(x
)A
“con
stit
utio
nal”
mon
arch
dism
isse
shi
sre
spon
sibl
em
inis
ter
and
fails
tore
plac
ehi
mby
any
new
appo
inte
eso
that
ther
eis
noon
eto
coun
ters
ign
his
acts
.W
hat
isto
bedo
ne“b
yla
w”
insu
chsi
tuat
ion?
Thi
squ
esti
onis
not
regu
late
din
any
cons
titu
tion
anyw
here
inth
ew
orld
.W
hat
iscl
ear
isno
mor
eth
anth
atce
rtai
nac
tsof
the
gove
rnm
ent
cann
otbe
“val
idly
”ta
ken.
18D
ER
GE
ScH
LO
SS
EN
EH
AN
DE
LS
ST
AA
T(i
Soc),
Bk.
I,c.
7.“S
eem
ire.
309.
32
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
(2)
Mos
tco
nsti
tuti
ons
equa
lly
omit
cons
ider
atio
nof
the
follo
win
gqu
esti
on:
Wha
tis
tobe
done
whe
nth
ose
part
ies
who
seag
reem
ent
isne
cess
ary
for
the
adop
tion
ofth
ebu
dget
are
unab
leto
reac
han
agre
em
ent?
The
firs
tpr
oble
mis
desc
ribe
dby
Jell
inek
as“m
oot”
for
all
prac
tica
lpurp
ose
s.2°
He
isri
ght.
Wha
tis
ofin
tere
stto
usis
just
tokn
oww
hyit
is“m
oot.”
The
seco
ndty
peof
“con
stit
utio
nal
gap,
”on
the
othe
rha
nd,
has
beco
me
very
prac
tica
l,as
isw
ell
know
n.
21
Ifw
eun
ders
tand
“co
nst
itut
ion,
”in
the
soci
olog
ical
sens
e,as
the
mod
usof
dist
ribu
tion
ofpo
wer
whi
chde
term
ines
the
poss
ibil
ity
ofre
gula
ting
com
mun
alac
tion
,w
em
ay,
inde
ed,
vent
ure
the
prop
osit
ion
that
any
com
mun
ity’s
cons
titu
tion
inth
eso
ciol
ogic
alse
nse
isde
term
ined
byth
efa
ctof
whe
rean
dho
wit
sco
nsti
tuti
onin
the
juri
dica
lse
nse
cont
ains
such
“gap
s,”
espe
cial
lyw
ith
rega
rdto
basi
cqu
estio
ns.
At
times
such
gaps
ofth
ese
cond
type
have
been
left
inte
ntio
nall
yw
here
aco
nsti
tuti
onw
asra
tion
ally
enac
ted
byco
nsen
sus
orim
posi
tion.
Thi
sw
asdo
nesi
mpl
ybe
caus
eth
ein
tere
sted
part
yor
part
ies
who
exer
cise
dth
ede
cisi
vein
flue
nce
onth
edr
afti
ngof
the
cons
titu
tion
inqu
esti
onex
pect
edth
athe
orth
eyw
ould
ulti
mat
ely
have
suff
icie
ntpo
wer
toco
ntro
l,in
acco
rdan
cew
ith
thei
row
nde
sire
s,th
atpo
rtio
nof
com
mun
alac
tion
whi
ch,
whi
lela
ckin
ga
basi
sin
any
enac
ted
norm
,ye
tha
dto
beca
rrie
don
som
ehow
.R
etur
ning
toou
ril
lus
trat
ion:
they
expe
cted
togo
vern
wit
hout
abu
dget
.G
aps
ofth
efi
rst
type
men
tione
dab
ove,
onth
eot
her
hand
,us
uall
yre
mai
nop
enfo
ran
othe
rre
ason
:E
xper
ienc
ese
ems
tote
ach
conv
inci
ngly
that
the
self
-int
eres
tof
the
part
yor
part
ies
conc
erne
d(i
nou
rex
ampl
e,of
the
mon
arch
)w
illat
all
times
suff
ice
soto
cond
itio
nhi
sor
thei
rw
ayof
acti
ngth
atth
e“a
bsur
d”th
ough
lega
llypo
ssib
lesi
tuat
ion
(in
our
exam
ple,
the
lack
ofa
resp
onsi
ble
min
iste
r)w
illne
ver
occu
r.D
espi
teth
e“g
ap,”
gene
ral
cons
ensp
sco
nsid
ers
itas
the
unqu
esti
onab
le“d
uty”
ofth
em
onar
chto
appo
int
am
inis
ter.
As
ther
ear
ele
gal
cons
eque
nces
atta
ched
toth
isdu
ty,
itis
tobe
cons
ider
edas
an“i
ndir
ectl
ygu
aran
teed
lega
lob
liga
tion
.”Su
chen
suin
gle
gal
cons
eque
nces
are:
the
impo
ssib
ilit
yof
exec
utin
gce
rtai
nac
tsin
ava
lidm
anne
r,i.e
.,of
atta
inin
gth
epo
ssib
ilit
yof
havi
ngth
emgu
aran
teed
thro
ugh
the
coer
cive
appa
ratu
s.
Gssrz
UN
DV
ERO
RD
NU
NC
(188
7)295;
V.E
RFA
SSU
NG
SAN
DER
UN
GU
ND
t’E
RF
AS
SUN
GSW
AN
DEL
(Ig
o6
)43
.n
The
situ
atio
nar
ose
inP
russ
iaw
hen
the
pred
omin
antly
liber
alD
iet
early
in
i86o
refu
sed
topa
ssB
ism
arck
’sbudget
bec
ause
ofit
sdis
appro
val
ofhi
spoli
cyof
arm
amen
ts(s
o-ca
lled
Era
ofC
onfli
ctor
Kon
flik
tspe
riod
e).
InA
ustri
a,to
o,Pa
rlia
men
t(R
eich
sral
)re
pea
tedly
was
unab
leto
reac
hag
reem
ent
ona
bu
dg
etd
uri
ng
that
per
iod
ofco
nfl
ict
bet
wee
nth
ese
ver
alet
hnic
gro
ups
ofth
eM
onar
chy
whic
hp
rece
ded
the
outb
reak
ofW
orl
dW
arI.
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
33
But
for
the
rest
,it
isno
tes
tabl
ishe
d,ei
ther
byla
wor
conv
enti
on,
wha
tis
tobe
done
toca
rry
onth
ead
min
istr
atio
nof
the
stat
ein
case
the
rule
rsh
ould
not
fulf
illth
isdu
ty;
and
sinc
eth
isca
seha
sne
ver
occu
rred
thus
far,
ther
eis
no“u
sage
”ei
ther
whi
chco
uld
beco
me
the
sour
cefo
ra
de
cisi
on.
Thi
ssi
tuat
ion
cons
titu
tes
ast
riki
ngil
lust
rati
onof
the
fact
that
law
,co
nven
tion,
and
usag
ear
eby
nom
eans
the
only
forc
esto
beco
unte
d
onas
guar
ante
efo
rsu
chco
nduc
tof
anot
her
pers
onas
isex
pect
edof
,
prom
ised
by,
orot
herw
ise
rega
rded
asdu
efr
om,
him
.B
esid
ean
dab
ove
thes
e,th
ere
isan
othe
rfo
rce
tobe
reck
oned
wit
h:th
eot
her
pers
on’s
self
-
inte
rest
inth
eco
ntin
uati
onof
ace
rtai
nag
reed
acti
onas
such
.T
hece
r
tain
tyw
ithw
hich
the
mon
arch
’sco
mpl
ianc
ew
ith
anas
sum
edly
bind
ing
duty
can
bean
tici
pate
dis
nodo
ubt
grea
ter,
but
only
bya
mat
ter
of
degr
ee,
than
the
cert
aint
y—
ifw
em
ayre
turn
now
toou
rpr
evio
usex
ampl
e—
wit
hw
hich
apa
rtne
rto
anex
chan
geco
unts
,an
din
the
case
of
cont
inue
din
terc
ours
e,m
ayco
ntin
ueto
coun
t,up
onth
eot
her
part
y’s
cond
uct
toco
nfor
mw
ith
his
own
expe
ctat
ions
.T
his
cert
aint
yex
ists
even
thou
ghth
etr
ansa
ctio
nin
ques
tion
may
lack
any
norm
ativ
ere
gula
tion
orco
erci
vegu
aran
ty.
Wha
tis
rele
vant
here
ism
erel
yth
eob
serv
atio
nth
atth
ele
gal
asw
ell
asth
eco
nven
tion
alre
gula
tion
ofco
nsen
sual
orso
ciet
alac
tion
may
be,
asa
mat
ter
ofpr
inci
ple,
inco
mpl
ete
and,
unde
rce
rtai
nci
rcum
stan
ces,
will
beso
quit
eco
nsci
ousl
y.W
hile
the
orie
ntat
ion
ofco
mm
unal
acti
on
toa
norm
isco
nsti
tuti
veof
cons
ocia
tion
inan
yan
dev
ery
case
,th
eco
erci
veap
para
tus
does
not
have
this
func
tion
wit
hre
gard
toth
eto
tali
ty
ofal
lst
able
and
inst
itut
iona
lly
orga
nize
dco
rpor
ate
acti
on.
Ifth
eab
surd
case
ofil
lust
rati
onN
o.r
wer
eto
occu
r,it
wou
ldce
rtai
nly
set
lega
lsp
ec
ulat
ion
tow
ork
imm
edia
tely
and
then
perh
aps,
aco
nven
tion
al,
orev
en
lega
l,re
gula
tion
wou
ldco
me
into
exis
tenc
e.B
utin
the
mea
ntim
eth
e
prob
lem
wou
ldal
read
yha
vebe
enac
tual
lyso
lved
byso
me
com
mun
al
orco
nsen
sual
orso
ciet
alac
tion
the
deta
ils
ofw
hich
wou
ldde
pend
upon
the
natu
reof
the
conc
rete
situ
atio
n.N
orm
ativ
ere
gula
tion
ison
eim
por
tant
caus
alco
mpo
nent
ofco
nsen
sual
acti
on,
but
itis
not,
ascl
aim
edby
Sta
mm
ler,
22
itsun
iver
sal
“for
m.”
Sect
ion
3.Si
gnif
ican
cean
dL
imit
sof
Leg
alC
oerc
ion
inE
cono
mic
Lif
e
Soci
olog
yis
adi
scip
line
sear
chin
gfo
rem
piri
cal
regu
lari
ties
and
type
s.
Inso
far
asit
isco
ncer
ned
with
lega
lgu
aran
ties
and
thos
eno
rmat
ive
conc
eptio
nson
whi
chth
eyde
pend
asth
em
otiv
esun
derl
ying
thei
rcr
ea
aQp
cit.
supr
aII
.27
.
34L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
Yti
on,
inte
rpre
tati
on,
and
appl
icat
ion,
its
inte
rest
isth
usof
asp
ecia
lki
nd.
The
yar
eto
beco
nsid
ered
asco
nseq
uenc
esas
wel
las
,an
dm
ore
so,
asca
uses
orco
ncom
itan
tca
uses
ofce
rtai
nre
gula
riti
es.
The
sem
aybe
regu
lari
ties
ofhu
man
acti
onw
hich
are
assu
chdi
rect
lyre
leva
ntto
soci
olog
y,or
regu
lari
ties
ofna
tura
lO
ccur
renc
es,
enge
nder
edby
hum
anac
tion
,an
das
such
indi
rect
lyre
leva
ntto
soci
olog
y.h._
.Fac
tual
regu
lari
ties
ofco
nduc
t(“
usag
es”)
can,
asw
eha
vese
en,
be
3jfr
me
the
sour
ceof
rule
sfo
rco
nduc
t(“
conv
enti
ons,
”“l
aw”)
.T
here
vers
e,ho
wev
er,
may
beeq
uall
ytr
ue.
Reg
ular
itie
sm
aybe
prod
uced
byle
gal
norm
s,ac
ting
byth
emse
lves
orin
com
bina
tion
wit
hot
her
fact
ors.
Thi
sap
plie
sno
ton
lyto
thos
ere
gula
riti
esw
hich
dire
ctly
real
ize
the
cont
ent
ofth
ele
gal
norm
inqu
esti
on,
but
equa
lly
tore
gula
riti
esof
adi
ffer
ent
kind
.T
hefa
ctth
atan
offi
cial
,fo
rex
ampl
e,go
esto
his
offic
ere
gula
rly
ever
yda
yis
adi
rect
cons
eque
nce
ofth
eor
der
cont
aine
din
ale
gal
norm
whi
chis
acce
pted
as“v
alid
”in
prac
tice
.O
nth
eot
her
hand
,th
efa
ctth
ata
trav
elin
gsa
lesm
anof
afa
ctor
yvi
sits
the
reta
iler
sre
gu
larl
yea
chye
arfo
rth
eso
lici
tati
onof
orde
rsis
only
anin
dire
ctef
fect
ofle
gal
norm
s,vi
z.,
ofth
ose
whi
chpe
rmit
free
com
peti
tion
for
cust
omer
san
dth
usne
cess
itat
eth
atth
eybe
woo
ed.
The
fact
that
few
erch
ildr
endi
ew
hen
nurs
ing
mot
hers
abst
ain
from
wor
kas
are
sult
ofa
lega
lor
con
vent
iona
l“n
orm
”is
cert
ainl
ya
cons
eque
nce
ofth
eva
lidi
tyof
that
norm
.‘W
here
itis
anen
acte
dle
gal
norm
,th
isre
sult
has
cert
ainl
ybe
enon
eof
the
rati
onal
lyco
ncei
ved
ends
ofth
ecr
eato
rsof
that
norm
;bu
tit
isob
viou
sth
atth
eyca
nde
cree
only
the
abst
enti
onfr
omw
ork
and
not
the
low
erde
ath
rate
.E
ven
wit
hre
gard
todi
rect
lyco
mm
ande
dor
pro
hibi
ted
cond
uct,
the
prac
tica
lef
fect
iven
ess
ofth
eva
lidi
tyof
aco
erci
veno
rmis
obvi
ousl
ypr
oble
mat
ic.
Obs
erva
nce
follo
ws
toan
“ade
quat
e”m
easu
re,
but
neve
rw
itho
utex
cept
ions
.P
ower
ful
inte
rest
sm
ayin
deed
indu
cea
situ
atio
nin
whi
cha
lega
lno
rmis
viol
ated
,w
itho
uten
suin
gpu
nish
men
t,no
ton
lyin
isol
ated
inst
ance
s,bu
tpr
eval
entl
yan
dper
ma
nent
ly,
insp
ite
ofth
eco
erci
veap
para
tus
onw
hich
the
“val
idit
y”of
the
norm
isfo
unde
d.W
hen
such
asi
tuat
ion
has
beco
me
stab
iliz
edan
dw
hen,
acco
rdin
gly,
prev
aili
ngpr
acti
cera
ther
than
the
pret
ense
ofth
ew
ritt
enla
wha
sbe
com
eno
rmat
ive
ofco
nduc
tin
the
conv
ictio
nof
the
par
tici
pant
s,th
egu
aran
teei
ngco
erci
vepo
wer
will
ulti
mat
ely
ceas
eto
com
pel
cond
uct
toco
nfor
mto
the
latt
er.
Insu
chca
se,
the
lega
lth
eori
stsp
eaks
of“d
erog
atio
nth
roug
hcu
stom
ary
law
.”cc
Tal
id”
lega
lno
rms,
whi
char
egu
aran
teed
byth
eco
erci
veap
para
tus
ofth
epo
liti
cal
auth
orit
y,an
dco
nven
tion
alru
les
may
also
coex
ist,
how
ever
,in
ast
ate
ofch
roni
cco
nflic
t.W
eha
veob
serv
edsu
cha
situ
atio
nin
the
case
ofth
edu
el,
whe
repr
ivat
ela
wha
sbe
entr
ansf
orm
edby
con-
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
35ve
ntio
n.A
ndw
hile
itis
not
atal
lun
usua
lth
atle
gal
norm
sar
era
tion
ally
enac
ted
wit
hth
epu
rpos
eof
chan
ging
exis
ting
“usa
ges”
and
con
vent
ions
,th
eno
rmal
deve
lopm
ent
ism
ore
usua
lly
asfo
llow
s:a
lega
lor
der
isem
piri
call
y“v
alid
”ow
ing
not
som
uch
toth
eav
aila
bili
tyof
coer
cive
guar
anti
esas
toit
sha
bitu
atio
nas
“usa
ge”
and
its
“routi
niz
ati
on.”
To
this
shou
ldbe
adde
dth
epr
essu
reof
conv
enti
onw
hich
,in
mos
tca
ses,
disa
ppro
ves
any
flag
rant
devi
atio
nfr
omco
nduc
tco
rres
pond
ing
toth
ator
der.
For
the
lega
lth
eori
stth
e(i
deol
ogic
al)
vali
dity
ofa
lega
lno
rmis
conc
eptu
ally
the
priu
s.C
ondu
ctw
hich
isno
tdi
rect
lyre
gula
ted
byla
wis
rega
rded
byhi
mas
lega
lly
“per
mit
ted”
and
thus
equa
lly
affe
cted
byth
ele
gal
orde
r,at
leas
tid
eolo
gica
lly.
For
the
soci
olog
ist,
onth
eot
her
hand
,th
ele
gal,
and
part
icul
arly
the
rati
onal
lyen
acte
d,re
gula
tion
ofco
nduc
tis
empi
rica
lly
only
one
ofth
efa
ctor
sm
otiv
atin
gco
mm
unal
ac
tion
;m
oreo
ver,
itis
afa
ctor
whi
chus
uall
yap
pear
sla
tein
hist
ory
and
who
seef
fect
iven
ess
vari
esgr
eatl
y.T
hebe
ginn
ings
ofac
tual
regu
lari
tyan
d“u
sage
,”sh
roud
edin
dark
ness
ever
ywhe
re,
are
attr
ibut
edby
the
soci
olog
ist,
asw
eha
vese
en,
toth
eim
puls
ive
and
inst
inct
ive
habi
tuat
ion
ofa
patt
ern
ofco
nduc
tw
hich
was
“ada
pted
”to
give
nne
cess
ities
.A
tle
ast
atfi
rst,
this
patt
ern
ofco
nduc
twas
neit
her
cond
itio
ned
nor
chan
ged
byan
enac
ted
norm
.T
hein
crea
sing
inte
rven
tion
ofen
acte
dno
rms
is,
from
our
poin
tof
view
,on
lyon
eof
the
com
pone
nts,
how
ever
char
acte
ris
tic,
ofth
atpr
oces
sof
rati
onal
izat
ion
and
cons
ocia
tion
who
segr
owin
gpe
netr
atio
nin
toal
lsp
here
sof
com
mun
alac
tion
we
shal
lha
veto
trac
eas
am
ost
esse
ntia
ldy
nam
icfa
ctor
indev
elopm
ent.
23
Thi
sdi
scus
sion
has
been
rest
rict
edto
aco
nsid
erat
ion
ofth
ebr
oad
rela
tion
sbe
twee
nla
wan
dec
onom
icac
tivi
ty.
Sum
min
gup
,w
em
ayno
wm
ake
the
follo
win
gst
atem
ents
:(i)
Law
(in
the
soci
olog
ical
sens
e)gu
aran
tees
byno
mea
nson
lyec
onom
icin
tere
sts
but
rath
erth
em
ost
dive
rse
inte
rest
sra
ngin
gfr
omth
em
ost
elem
enta
ryon
eof
prot
ecti
onof
pers
onal
secu
rity
tosu
chpu
rely
idea
lgo
ods
aspe
rson
alho
nor
orth
eho
nor
ofth
edi
vine
pow
ers.
Abo
veal
l,it
guar
ante
espo
liti
cal,
eccl
esia
stic
al,
fam
ilia
l,an
dot
her
posi
tion
sof
auth
orit
yas
wel
las
posi
tion
sof
soci
alpr
eem
inen
ceof
any
kind
whi
chm
ayin
deed
beec
onom
ical
lyco
ndit
ione
dor
econ
omic
ally
rele
vant
inth
em
ost
dive
rse
way
s,bu
tw
hich
are
neit
her
econ
omic
inth
emse
lves
nor
soug
htfo
rpr
epon
dera
ntly
econ
omic
ends
.(2
)U
nder
cert
ain
cond
itio
nsa
“leg
alor
der”
can
rem
ain
unch
ange
d
Thi
spr
ogra
mm
atic
stat
emen
tha
sbe
enca
rrie
dou
tby
Web
erin
Par
tsII
and
III
ofW
.u.G
.T
hepr
esen
tbo
okco
ntai
nsth
ose
sect
ions
ofth
ese
Par
tsw
hich
are
con
cern
edw
ith
the
rela
tion
sbe
twee
nso
cial
stru
ctur
ean
dla
w.
36L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YE
CO
NO
MIC
SY
ST
EM
AN
DN
OR
MA
TIV
EO
RD
ER
S37
whi
leec
onom
icre
lati
ons
are
unde
rgoi
nga
radi
cal
tran
sfor
mat
ion.
Inth
eory
,a
soci
alis
tsy
stem
ofpr
oduc
tion
coul
dbe
brou
ght
abou
tw
itho
ut
the
chan
geof
even
asi
ngle
para
grap
hof
our
law
s,si
mpl
yby
the
gra
dua
l,fr
eeco
ntra
ctua
lac
quis
itio
nof
all
the
mea
nsof
prod
ucti
onby
the
poli
tica
lau
thor
ity.
Thi
sex
ampl
eis
extr
eme;
but,
for
the
purp
ose
ofth
eore
tica
lsp
ecul
atio
n,ex
trem
eex
ampl
esar
em
ost
usef
ul.
Shou
ldsu
cha
situ
atio
nev
erco
me
abou
t—w
hich
ism
ost
unlik
ely,
thou
ghth
eore
ti
cally
not
unth
inka
ble
—th
ele
gal
orde
rw
ould
still
bebo
und
toap
ply
its
coer
cive
mac
hine
ryin
case
itsai
dw
ere
invo
ked
for
the
enfo
rcem
ent
of
thos
eob
liga
tion
sw
hich
are
char
acte
rist
icof
apr
oduc
tive
syst
emba
sed
onpr
ivat
epr
oper
ty.
Onl
y,th
isca
sew
ould
neve
roc
cur
infa
ct.
24
(.)
The
lega
lst
atus
ofa
mat
ter
may
beba
sica
llydi
ffer
ent
acco
rdin
gto
the
poin
tof
view
ofth
ele
gal
syst
emfr
omw
hich
itis
cons
ider
ed.
But
such
diff
eren
ces
[of
lega
lcl
assi
fica
tion]
need
not
have
any
rele
vant
econ
omic
cons
eque
nces
prov
ided
only
that
onth
ose
poin
tsw
hich
gene
r
ally
are
rele
vant
econ
omic
ally
,th
epr
acti
cal
effe
cts
are
the
sam
efo
rth
e
inte
rest
edpa
rtie
s.T
his
not
only
ispo
ssib
le,
but
itac
tual
lyha
ppen
s
wid
ely,
alth
ough
itm
ust
beco
nced
edth
atny
vari
atio
nof
lega
lcl
assi
fica
tion
may
enge
nder
som
eec
onom
icco
nseq
uenc
esso
mew
here
.T
hus
tota
lly
diff
eren
tfo
rms
ofac
tion
wou
ldha
vebe
enap
plic
able
inR
ome
depe
ndin
gon
whe
ther
the
“lea
se”
ofa
min
ew
ere
tobe
rega
rded
lega
lly
asa
leas
ein
the
stri
ctse
nse
ofth
ete
rm,
oras
apu
rcha
se.
But
the
pra
c
tica
lef
fect
sof
the
diff
eren
cefo
rec
onom
iclif
ew
ould
cert
ainl
yha
vebe
en
very
slig
ht.
25
24
The
norm
sof
the
lega
lor
der,
exis
ting
befo
reth
eto
tal
soci
aliz
atio
nto
okpl
ace
coul
dal
sobe
appl
ied
afte
rits
occu
rren
ce,
ifle
gal
titl
eto
the
vari
ous
mea
nsof
pro
duct
ion
wer
eto
beas
crib
edno
tto
one
sing
le,
cent
ral
publ
icau
thor
ity
but
tofo
r
mal
lyau
tono
mou
spu
blic
inst
itut
ions
orco
rpor
atio
nsw
hich
are
tore
gula
teth
eir
rela
tion
ship
sto
each
othe
rby
cont
ract
ual
tran
sact
ions
,su
bjec
tto
the
dire
ctio
nsof
,
and
cont
rol
by,
the
cent
ral
plan
ning
auth
orit
y.Su
cha
situ
atio
ndo
esin
deed
exis
tin
the
Sov
iet
Uni
on.
Cf.
H.
J.B
ER
MA
N,
JUS
TIC
Eus
Rus
siA
(19
50
),an
dre
view
by
Rhe
inst
ein
(r95
1)64
NA
Ry.
L.
RE
V.
2357.
Cf.
inA
mer
ican
law
the
cont
rove
rsy
asto
the
corr
ect
lega
lcl
assi
fica
tion
ofa
min
ing
oroi
lan
dga
sle
ase:
does
the
tran
sact
ion
crea
tea
prof
ita
pren
dre,
ordo
es
itgi
veto
the
“les
see”
the
titl
eto
the
min
eral
s,or
does
itre
sult
inth
ecr
eati
onof
a
leas
ehol
din
tere
stin
the
stri
ctse
nse
ofth
ete
rm?
As
inR
ome,
the
“pro
per”
clas
sifi
ca
tion
max
’be
rele
vant
inso
me
prac
tica
lre
spec
tas
,fo
rin
stan
ce,
wit
hre
gard
toth
e
ques
tion
ofw
heth
er,
inth
eca
seof
the
deat
hof
the
less
ee—
ifhe
shou
ldev
erbe
anin
divi
dual
!—
his
inte
rest
desc
ends
asre
al,
oris
tobe
dist
ribu
ted
aspe
rson
al,
prop
erty
.In
the
form
erca
seit
wou
ld,
ordi
nari
ly,
not
beto
uche
dfo
rth
epa
ymen
t
ofde
bts
ofth
ede
ceas
edun
til
all
the
pers
onal
prop
erty
has
been
exha
uste
d;in
the
latt
er,
the
“lea
se”
wou
ldbe
imm
edia
tely
avai
labl
efo
rth
ecr
edit
ors
alon
gw
ith
the
othe
r“p
erso
nal”
asse
tsof
the
dece
dent
.B
ut,
byan
dla
rge,
the
econ
omic
situ
atio
nis
one
and
the
sam
ew
hich
ever
ofth
eva
riou
sle
gal
clas
sifi
cati
ons
isap
plie
d.
(4)
Obv
ious
ly,
any
lega
lgu
aran
tyis
dire
ctly
atth
ese
rvic
eof
eco
nom
icin
tere
sts
toa
very
larg
eex
tent
.E
ven
whe
reth
isdo
esno
tse
emto
be,
orac
tual
lyis
not,
the
case
,ec
onom
icin
tere
sts
are
amon
gth
est
rong
est
fact
ors
infl
uenc
ing
the
crea
tion
ofla
w.
For
,an
yau
thor
ity
guar
ante
eing
ale
gal
orde
rde
pend
s,in
som
ew
ay,
upon
the
cons
ensu
al
acti
onof
the
cons
titu
tive
soci
algr
oups
,an
dth
efo
rmat
ion
ofso
cial
grou
psde
pend
s,to
ala
rge
exte
nt,
upon
cons
tell
atio
nsof
mat
eria
lin
tere
sts.
(5)
Onl
ya
limite
dm
easu
reof
succ
ess
can
beat
tain
edth
roug
hth
e
thre
atof
coer
cion
supp
orti
ngth
ele
gal
orde
r.O
win
gto
anu
mbe
rof
ex
tern
alci
rcum
stan
ces
asw
ell
asto
itsow
npe
culi
arna
ture
,th
isap
plie
s
espe
cial
lyto
the
econ
omic
sphe
re.
Itw
ould
bequ
ibbl
ing,
how
ever
,to
asse
rtth
atla
wca
nnot
“enf
orce
”an
ypa
rtic
ular
econ
omic
cond
uct,
onth
e
grou
ndth
atw
ew
ould
have
tosa
y,w
ith
rega
rdto
all
its
mea
nsof
coer
cion
,th
atco
actu
sta
men
volu
it.
26
For
this
istr
ue,
wit
hout
exce
ptio
n,of
all
coer
cion
whi
chdo
esno
ttr
eat
the
pers
onto
beco
erce
dsi
mpl
yas
an
inan
imat
eob
ject
.E
ven
the
mos
tdr
asti
cm
eans
ofco
erci
onan
dpunis
h
men
tar
ebo
und
tofa
ilw
here
the
subj
ects
rem
ain
reca
lcit
rant
.In
abr
oad
mas
ssu
cha
situ
atio
nw
ould
alw
ays
mea
nth
atits
mem
bers
have
not
been
educ
ated
toac
quie
scen
ce.
Such
educ
atio
nto
acqu
iesc
ence
inth
ela
w
ofth
etim
ean
dpl
ace
has,
asa
gene
ral
rule
,in
crea
sed
wit
hgr
owin
gpac
i
fica
tion.
Thu
sit
shou
ldse
emth
atth
ech
ance
sof
enfo
rcin
gec
onom
ic
cond
uct
wou
ldha
vein
crea
sed,
too.
Yet
,th
epo
wer
ofla
wov
erec
onom
ic
cond
uct
has
inm
any
resp
ects
grow
nw
eake
rra
ther
than
stro
nger
as
com
pare
dw
ith
earl
ier
cond
ition
s.T
heef
fect
iven
ess
ofm
axim
umpr
ice
regu
lati
ons,
for
exam
ple,
has
alw
ays
been
prec
ario
us,
but
unde
rpr
esen
t-
day
cond
ition
sth
eyha
vean
even
smal
ler
chan
ceof
succ
ess
than
ever
befo
re.
Thu
sth
em
easu
reof
poss
ible
infl
uenc
eon
econ
omic
acti
vity
isno
t
sim
ply
afu
ncti
onof
the
gene
ral
leve
lof
acqu
iesc
ence
tow
ards
lega
lco
erci
on.
The
limits
ofth
eac
tual
succ
ess
ofle
gal
coer
cion
inth
eec
onom
ic
sphe
rera
ther
aris
efr
omtw
om
ain
sour
ces.
One
isco
nsti
tute
dby
the
lim
itat
ions
ofth
eec
onom
icca
paci
tyof
the
pers
ons
affe
cted
.T
here
are
limits
not
only
toth
est
ock
itse
lfof
avai
labl
ego
ods,
but
also
toth
ew
ay
inw
hich
that
stoc
kca
npo
ssib
lybe
used
.F
orth
epa
tter
nsof
use
and
ofre
lati
onsh
ipam
ong
the
vari
ous
econ
omic
unit
sar
ede
term
ined
by
habi
tan
dca
nbe
adju
sted
tohe
tero
nom
ous
norm
s,if
atal
l,on
lyby
diff
icul
tre
orie
ntat
ions
ofal
lec
onom
icdi
spos
ition
s,an
dha
rdly
wit
hout
loss
es,
whi
chm
eans
,ne
ver
wit
hout
fric
tion
s.T
hese
fric
tion
sin
crea
se
wit
hth
ede
gree
ofde
velo
pmen
tan
dun
iver
sali
tyof
apa
rtic
ular
form
of
““A
lthough
coer
ced,
itw
asst
ill
his
wil
l.”
38L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
Y
cons
ensu
alac
tion
,or
,in
othe
rw
ords
,w
ith
the
inte
rdep
ende
nce
ofth
ein
divi
dual
econ
omic
unit
sin
the
mar
ket,
and,
cons
eque
ntly
,th
edep
end
ence
ofev
ery
one
upon
the
cond
uct
ofot
hers
.T
hese
cond
sour
ceof
the
lim
itat
ion
ofsu
cces
sful
lega
lco
erci
onin
the
econ
omic
sphe
relie
sin
the
rela
tive
prop
orti
onof
stre
ngth
ofpr
ivat
eec
onom
icin
tere
sts
onth
eon
eha
ndan
din
tere
sts
prom
otin
gco
nfor
man
ceto
the
rule
sof
law
onth
eot
her.
The
incl
inat
ion
tofo
rego
econ
omic
oppo
rtun
ity
sim
ply
inor
der
toac
tle
gally
isob
viou
sly
slig
ht,
unle
ssci
rcum
vent
ion
ofth
efo
rmal
law
isst
rong
lydi
sapp
rove
dby
apo
wer
ful
conv
entio
n,an
dsu
cha
situ
atio
nis
not
likel
yto
aris
ew
here
the
inte
rest
saf
fect
edby
ale
gal
inno
vati
onar
ew
ides
prea
d.B
esid
es,
itis
ofte
nno
tdi
ffic
ult
todi
sgui
seth
eci
rcum
vent
ion
ofa
law
inth
eec
onom
icsp
here
.Q
uite
part
icul
arly
inse
nsiti
veto
lega
lin
flue
nce
are,
asex
peri
ence
has
show
n,th
ose
effe
cts
whi
chde
rive
dire
ctly
from
the
ulti
mat
eso
urce
sof
econ
omic
acti
on,
such
asth
ees
tim
ates
ofec
onom
icva
lue
and
the
form
atio
nof
pric
es.
Thi
sap
plie
spar
ticu
larl
yto
thos
esi
tuat
ions
whe
reth
ede
term
inan
tsin
prod
ucti
onan
dco
nsum
ptio
ndo
not
liew
ithi
na
com
plet
ely
pers
picu
ous
and
dire
ctly
man
agea
ble
com
plex
ofco
nsen
sual
cond
uct.
Itis
obvi
ous,
besi
des,
that
thos
ew
hoco
ntin
uous
lypa
rtic
ipat
ein
the
mar
ket
inte
rcou
rse
wit
hth
eir
own
econ
omic
inte
rest
sha
vea
far
grea
ter
rati
onal
know
ledg
eof
the
mar
ket
and
inte
rest
situ
atio
nth
anth
ele
gisl
ator
san
den
forc
emen
tof
fice
rsw
hose
inte
rest
ison
lyid
eal.
Inan
econ
omy
base
don
all-
embr
acin
gin
terd
epen
denc
eon
the
mar
ket
the
poss
ible
and
unin
tend
edre
per
cuss
ions
ofa
lega
lm
easu
rem
ust
toa
larg
eex
tent
esca
peth
efo
resi
ght
ofth
ele
gisl
ator
sim
ply
beca
use
they
depe
ndup
onpr
ivat
ein
tere
sted
part
ies.
Itis
thos
epr
ivat
ein
tere
sted
part
ies
who
are
ina
posi
tion
todi
stor
tth
ein
tend
edm
eani
ngof
ale
gal
norm
toth
epo
int
oftu
rnin
git
into
itsve
ryop
posi
te,
asha
sof
ten
happ
ened
inth
epa
st.
Invi
ewof
thes
edi
ffic
ultie
s,th
eex
tent
offa
ctua
lim
pact
ofth
ela
won
econ
omic
cond
uct
cann
otbe
dete
rmin
edge
nera
lly,
but
mus
tbe
calc
ulat
edfo
rea
chpa
rtic
ular
case
.It
belo
ngs
thus
toth
efi
eld
ofca
sest
udie
sin
soci
alec
onom
ics.
Ingen
eral
nom
ore
can
beas
sert
edth
anth
at,
from
apu
rely
theo
reti
cal
poin
tof
view
,th
eco
mpl
ete
mon
opol
izat
ion
ofa
mar
ket,
whi
chen
tail
sa
far
grea
ter
pers
picu
ity
ofth
esi
tuat
ion,
tech
nica
lly
faci
lita
tes
the
cont
rol
byla
wof
that
part
icul
arse
ctor
ofth
eec
onom
y.If
it,ne
vert
hele
ss,
does
not
alw
ays
infa
ctin
crea
seth
eop
port
unit
ies
for
such
cont
rol,
this
resu
ltis
usua
lly
due
eith
erto
lega
lpa
rtic
ular
ism
aris
ing
from
the
exis
tenc
eof
com
peti
ngpo
liti
cal
asso
ciat
ions,
27
orto
the
pow
erof
the
priv
ate
inte
rest
sam
enab
leto
the
mon
opol
istic
cont
rol
and
thus
resi
stin
gth
een
forc
emen
tof
the
law
.
EC
ON
OM
ICS
YS
TE
MA
ND
NO
RM
AT
IVE
OR
DE
RS
39
Fro
mth
epu
rely
theo
reti
cal
poin
tof
view
,le
gal
guar
anty
byth
est
ate
isno
tin
disp
ensa
ble
toan
yba
sic
econ
omic
phen
omen
on.
The
prot
ecti
onof
prop
erty
,fo
rex
ampl
e,ca
nbe
prov
ided
byth
em
utua
lai
dsy
stem
ofki
nshi
pgr
oups
.C
redi
tors
’ri
ghts
have
som
etim
esbe
enpr
otec
ted
mor
eef
fici
ently
bya
relig
ious
com
mun
ity’s
thre
atof
exco
mm
unic
atio
nth
anby
poli
tica
lbo
dies
.“M
oney
,”to
o,ha
sex
iste
din
alm
ost
all
ofit
sfo
rms,
wit
hout
the
stat
e’s
guar
anty
ofits
acce
ptab
ilit
yas
am
eans
ofpay
men
t.28
Eve
n“c
hart
al”
mon
ey,
i.e.,
mon
eyw
hich
deri
ves
its
char
acte
ras
mea
nsof
paym
ent
from
the
mar
king
ofpi
eces
rath
erth
anfr
omth
eir
subs
tant
ive
cont
ent,
isco
ncei
vabl
ew
itho
utth
egu
aran
tyby
the
stat
e.O
ccas
iona
llych
arta
lm
oney
ofno
n-st
atal
orig
inap
pear
edev
enin
spit
eof
the
exis
tenc
eof
anap
para
tus
ofle
gal
coer
cion
byth
est
ate:
the
anci
ent
Bab
ylon
ians
,fo
rin
stan
ce,
did
not
have
“coi
ns”
inth
ese
nse
ofa
mea
nsof
paym
ent
cons
titu
ting
lega
lte
nder
bypr
ocla
mat
ion
ofth
epo
liti
cal
auth
orit
y,bu
tco
ntra
cts
wer
eap
pare
ntly
inus
eun
der
whi
chpa
ymen
tw
asto
bem
ade
inpi
eces
ofa
fift
hof
ash
ekel
desi
gnat
edas
such
byth
est
amp
ofa
cert
ain
“fir
m”
(as
we
wou
ldsa
y)29
The
rew
asth
usla
ckin
gan
ygu
aran
ty“p
ro
clai
med
”by
the
stat
e;th
ech
osen
unit
ofva
lue
was
deri
ved,
not
from
the
stat
e,bu
tfr
ompr
ivat
eco
ntra
ct.
Yet
the
mea
nsof
paym
ent
was
“cha
rtal
”in
char
acte
r,an
dth
est
ate
guar
ante
edco
erci
vely
the
conc
rete
deal
.“C
once
ptua
lly”
the
“sta
te”
thus
isno
tin
disp
ensa
ble
toan
yec
onom
icac
tivi
ty.
But
anec
onom
icsy
stem
,es
peci
ally
ofth
em
oder
nty
pe,
coul
dce
rtai
nly
not
exis
tw
itho
uta
lega
lor
der
wit
hve
rysp
ecia
lfe
atur
esw
hich
coul
dno
tde
velo
pex
cept
inth
efr
ame
ofa
“sta
tal”
lega
lor
der.
Pre
sent
-da
yec
onom
iclif
ere
sts
onop
port
unit
ies
acqu
ired
thro
ugh
cont
ract
s.It
istr
ue,
the
priv
ate
inte
rest
sin
the
obli
gati
onof
cont
ract
,an
dth
eco
mm
onin
tere
stof
all
prop
erty
hold
ers
inth
em
utua
lpr
otec
tion
ofpr
oper
tyar
est
ill
cons
ider
able
,an
din
divi
dual
sar
est
ill
mar
kedl
yin
flue
nced
byco
nve
ntio
nan
dus
age
even
toda
y.Y
et,
the
infl
uenc
eof
thes
efa
ctor
sha
sde
clin
eddu
eto
the
disi
nteg
rati
onof
trad
itio
n,i.e
.,of
the
trad
itio
n-de
ter
min
edre
lati
onsh
ips
asw
ell
asof
the
belie
fin
thei
rsa
cred
ness
.F
urt
her
mor
e,cl
ass
inte
rest
sha
veco
me
todi
verg
em
ore
shar
ply
from
one
anot
her
‘C
f.W
.u.G
.38
,g7
;P
arso
ns’
tr.
17
3,
28
0.
“No
refe
renc
eto
apr
acti
ceof
the
kind
men
tion
edco
uld
belo
cate
dex
cept
the
foll
owin
gpa
ssag
ein
B.
MA
ISS
NE
R,
BA
BrL
ON
IEN
UN
DA
SS
YR
IEN
(19
20
)35
6:“A
son
eco
uld
not
gene
rall
yre
lyup
onth
ew
eigh
tan
dfi
nene
ssof
the
silv
eran
dth
usha
dto
chec
k(x
âtls
),on
epr
efer
red
tore
ceiv
esi
lver
bear
ing
ast
amp
(kan
ku)
byw
hich
the
wei
ght
and
fine
ness
wou
ldbe
guar
ante
ed.
Inco
ntra
cts
from
the
peri
odof
the
firs
tB
abyl
onia
ndy
nast
yw
efi
ndsh
ekel
sm
enti
oned
‘wit
ha
stam
p’(
?)of
Bab
ylon
(Vor
dera
siat
isch
eB
ibli
othe
kV
T,N
o.2
17
,15)
orsh
ekel
s‘f
rom
the
city
ofZ
ahan
’or
‘fro
mG
ross
ippa
r’(B
rit.
Mus
.C
unei
form
Tab
lets
IV,7,
iga)
‘Se
ein
fra
pp.
i88
etse
q.
40
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
yA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
than
ever
bef
ore
.30
The
tem
poof
mod
ern
busi
ness
com
mun
icat
ion
requ
ires
apr
ompt
lyan
dpr
edic
tabl
yfu
ncti
onin
gle
gal
syst
em,
i.e.,
one
whi
chis
guar
ante
edby
the
stro
nges
tco
erci
vepo
wer
.F
inal
ly,
mod
ern
econ
omic
life
byits
very
natu
reha
sde
stro
yed
thos
eot
her
asso
ciat
ions
whi
chus
edto
beth
ebe
arer
sof
Jaw
and
thus
ofle
gal
guar
anti
es.
Thi
sha
sbe
enth
ere
sult
ofth
ede
velo
pmen
tof
the
mar
ket.
The
univ
ersa
lpre
dom
inan
ceof
the
mar
ket
cons
ocia
tion
requ
ires
onth
eon
eha
nda
lega
lsy
stem
the
func
tion
ing
ofw
hich
isca
lcul
able
inac
cord
ance
with
rati
onal
rule
s.O
nth
eot
her
hand
,th
eco
nsta
ntex
pans
ion
ofth
em
arke
tco
nsoc
iatio
nha
sfa
vore
dth
em
onop
oliz
atio
nan
dre
gula
tion
ofal
l“l
egit
imat
e”co
erci
vepo
wer
byon
eun
iver
sal
coer
cive
inst
itut
ion
thro
ugh
the
dis
inte
grat
ion
ofal
lpa
rtic
ular
stat
us-d
eter
min
edan
dot
her
coer
cive
stru
ctu
res,
whi
chha
vebe
enre
stin
gm
ainl
yon
econ
omic
mon
opol
ies.
“On
“cla
sses
,”se
eW
.u.G
.17
7,P
arso
ns’
tr.
424.
CH
AP
TE
RII
I
FIE
LD
SO
FS
UB
ST
AN
TIV
EL
AW
’
x.P
ubli
cL
awan
dP
riva
teL
aw.
One
ofth
em
ost
impo
rtan
tdis
tinc
tions
inm
oder
nle
gal
theo
ryan
dpr
acti
ceis
that
betw
een
“pub
lic”
and
“pri
vate
”la
w.
2B
utth
eex
act
crit
eria
ofth
isdi
stin
ctio
nar
esu
rrou
nded
byco
ntro
vers
y.(a
)In
acco
rdan
cew
ithth
eso
ciol
ogic
alte
st,
one
mig
htde
fine
publ
ic
law
asth
eto
tal
body
ofth
ose
norm
sw
hich
regu
late
the
acti
viti
esof
the
stat
eas
such
,th
atis
,th
ose
acti
viti
esw
hich
the
stat
ein
agi
ven
lega
l
syse
mis
lega
llyem
pow
ered
topu
rsue
.In
this
sens
ew
em
ean
by“a
c
tiviti
esof
the
stat
eas
such
”th
ose
acti
viti
esw
hich
are
inst
rum
enta
lfo
r
the
mai
nten
ance
,de
velo
pmen
t,an
dth
edi
rect
fulf
illm
ent
ofth
eobje
c
tives
ofth
est
ate,
obje
ctiv
esho
wev
erw
hich
mus
tth
emse
lves
beva
lid
byvi
rtue
ofen
actm
ent,
orby
virt
ueof
the
cons
ensu
sof
thos
eco
ncer
ned.
Cor
resp
ondi
ngly
,pr
ivat
ela
ww
ould
bede
fine
das
the
tota
lity
,no
tof
thos
eno
rms
whi
chre
late
toth
est
ate
assu
ch,
but
ofth
ose
norm
sw
hich
,
whi
leis
suin
gfr
omth
est
ate,
regu
late
cond
uct
othe
rth
anst
ate
acti
vity
.
Thi
ski
ndof
defi
nitio
nis
rath
erno
n-te
chni
cal
and,
ther
efor
e,di
ffic
ult
toap
ply.
But
itse
ems
neve
rthe
less
toco
nsti
tute
the
basi
sof
alm
ost
all
othe
rat
tem
pted
dist
inct
ions
ofth
etw
ogr
eat
bran
ches
ofth
ela
w.
(b)
The
dist
inct
ion
just
stat
edis
ofte
nin
tert
win
edw
ith
anot
her
one.
°W.u
.G.
Par
tII
,C
hap.
VII
(Soc
iolo
gyof
Law
)38
7—39
5.
Web
erre
fers
here
toC
onti
nent
al,
and
espe
cial
lyG
erm
an,
lega
lth
eory
,w
here
the
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
publ
icla
wan
dpr
ivat
ela
wis
give
npa
rtic
ular
emph
asis
.T
he
dist
inct
ion
was
fam
ilia
rto
the
Rom
anju
rist
san
dw
ell
know
nes
peci
ally
isU
lpia
n’s
defi
niti
on(D
IGE
ST
1.1
.4.)
ofpu
blic
law
asth
atw
hich
“is
conc
erne
dw
ith
the
Rom
an
stat
e”(q
uod
adst
atum
rei
Ror
nana
esp
ecta
t)an
dof
priv
ate
law
asth
atw
hich
“is
conc
erne
dw
ith
the
inte
rest
ofin
divi
dual
s”(q
uad
adsi
ngi
doru
mut
ihta
tern
per
tinet
).
The
dist
inct
ion
has
been
ofpr
acti
cal
sign
ific
ance
whe
rea
gove
rnm
ent,
alth
ough
bein
gpr
epar
edto
guar
ante
ea
firm
lega
lor
der
wit
hre
gard
toth
epr
ivat
ere
lati
ons
amon
gth
eci
tize
nsth
emse
lves
,ye
tre
mai
ned
unw
illi
ngto
fic
thos
ere
lati
ons
betw
een
them
inha
rdan
dfa
stru
les.
Thi
ssi
tuat
ion
was
typi
cal
ofth
ela
teR
oman
Em
pire
asw
ell
asof
the
abso
lute
mon
arch
ies
ofth
em
oder
nag
e.T
oth
ede
gree
tow
hich
the
orga
nsof
the
stat
ebe
cam
esu
bjec
tto
rule
sof
law
,th
edi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
npu
blic
and
priv
ate
law
lost
impo
rtan
ce,
ulti
mat
ely
tobe
com
eno
mor
eth
ana
conv
enie
nt
clas
sifi
cati
onof
cert
ain
lega
lru
les,
espe
cial
lyfo
rth
epu
rpos
esof
lega
lw
riti
ngan
d
educ
atio
n.S
taat
sans
taht
sbeo
gene
sH
ande
in.
F.
42
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
Pub
lic
law
mig
htbe
rega
rded
asid
enti
cal
wit
hth
eto
tal
body
ofth
e“r
egle
men
tati
ons,
”i.e
.,th
ose
norm
sw
hich
only
embo
dyin
stru
ctio
nsto
stat
eof
fici
als
asre
gard
sth
eir
duti
es,
but,
inco
ntra
dist
inct
ion
tow
hat
may
beca
lled
“cla
imno
rms,
”do
not
esta
blis
han
y“r
ight
s”of
indi
vidu
als.
Thi
sdi
stin
ctio
n,ho
wev
er,
mus
tbe
corr
ectl
yun
ders
tood
.F
orth
eno
rms
ofpu
blic
law
can
esta
blis
hri
ghts
ofin
divi
dual
s,fo
rin
stan
ce,
the
righ
tto
vote
ases
tabl
ishe
din
ala
won
pres
iden
tial
elec
tions
.Su
cha
law
no
ne
thel
ess
falls
wit
hin
the
dom
ain
ofpu
blic
law
.B
utto
day
such
a“p
ubli
cri
ght”
belo
ngin
gto
anin
divi
dual
isno
tre
gard
edas
ave
sted
righ
tin
the
sam
ese
nse
asa
prop
erty
righ
t,w
hich
the
legi
slat
orhi
mse
lfvi
ews
asin
prin
cipl
ein
viol
able
.F
rom
ale
gal
poin
tof
view
,th
epu
blic
righ
tsof
indi
vidu
als
are
but
thos
esp
here
sof
acti
vity
inw
hich
heac
tsas
anag
ent
ofth
est
ate
for
spec
ific
ally
deli
mit
edpur
pose
s.T
hus,
insp
ite
ofth
efa
ctth
atth
eyfo
rmal
lyap
pear
asri
ghts
,th
eym
ayst
ill
bere
gard
edas
but
anot
her
aspe
ct,
a“r
efle
x,”
ofa
“reg
lem
enta
tion
”ra
ther
than
asth
ere
sult
ofa
“cla
im-n
orm
.”F
urth
erm
ore,
byno
mea
nsal
lcl
aim
sw
hich
exis
tin
ale
gal
syst
eman
dw
hich
belo
ngto
priv
ate
law
,as
prev
ious
lyde
fine
d,ar
eve
sted
rig
hts
.4
Inde
ed,
even
thos
ein
cide
nts
ofow
ners
hip
whi
char
efu
llyre
cogn
ized
atan
ygi
ven
time,
may
belo
oked
upon
asbe
ing
but
refl
exes
ofth
ele
gal
orde
r.A
sa
mat
ter
offa
ct,
the
ques
tion
asto
whe
ther
agi
ven
righ
tis
“ves
ted”
mea
nsfr
eque
ntly
nom
ore
than
whe
ther
orno
tit
isli
able
toex
prop
riat
ion
wit
hout
com
pens
atio
n.T
hus
one
mig
htas
sert
that
all
publ
icla
wis
inth
ele
gal
sens
eno
mor
eth
ana
body
ofre
glem
enta
tion
s,w
itho
utas
sert
ing
that
regl
emen
tatj
ons
belo
ngex
clus
ivel
yto
the
sphe
reof
publ
icla
w.
But
not
even
such
ade
fini
tion
wou
ldbe
corr
ect.
For
inso
me
lega
lsy
stem
sth
ego
vern
men
tal
pow
erit
self
may
bere
gard
edas
ave
sted
prop
erty
righ
tbe
long
ing
toth
em
onar
ch,
and
inso
me
othe
rsce
rtai
nco
nsti
tuti
onal
righ
tsbe
long
ing
toth
eci
tizen
may
bere
gard
edas
inal
iena
ble
and,
ther
efor
e,as
vest
edri
ghts
.5
(c)
Fin
ally
,pr
ivat
ela
wm
ight
beco
ntra
sted
wit
hpu
blic
law
asth
ela
wof
coor
dina
tion
asdi
stin
guis
hed
from
that
ofsu
bord
inat
ion.
Pri
vate
law
wou
ldth
enbe
conc
erne
dw
ith
thos
ele
gal
affa
irs
inw
hich
seve
ral
part
ies
are
conf
ront
ing
each
othe
rso
that
the
law
trea
tsth
emas
bein
gco
Ord
inat
edan
dth
atth
eir
lega
lsp
here
sar
eto
be“p
rope
rly”
defi
ned
agai
nst
each
othe
rby
the
legi
slat
ure,
the
judi
ciar
yor
,by
mea
nsof
lega
ltr
ansa
ctio
ns,
byth
epa
rtie
sth
emse
lves
.In
the
dom
ain
ofpu
blic
law
,ho
wev
er,
aho
lder
ofpr
eem
inen
tpo
wer
,ha
ving
auth
orit
ativ
epo
wer
ofco
mm
and,
isco
nfro
ntin
gth
ose
pers
ons
who
are
his
subj
ects
byvi
rtue
‘Cf.
inJr
app
.gS
etse
q.T
here
fere
nce
isto
the
patr
imon
ial
stat
e,as
tow
hich
see
inIr
an.
6.
FIE
LD
SO
FS
UB
ST
AN
TIV
EL
AW
43of
the
lega
lm
eani
ngof
the
norm
s.Y
etno
tev
ery
func
tion
ary
ofth
est
ate
has
auth
orit
yto
com
man
dan
dno
tal
lth
ose
acti
viti
esof
the
orga
nsof
the
stat
ew
hich
are
regu
late
dby
publ
icla
war
eco
mm
ands
.F
urt
her
mor
e,th
ere
gula
tion
ofth
ere
lati
ons
amon
gth
eva
riou
spu
blic
orga
ns,
i.e.,
amon
gpo
wer
hold
ers
ofeq
ual
stat
us,
belo
ngs
toth
epr
oper
sphe
reof
“pub
lic
law
.”B
esid
es,
one
mus
tin
clud
ew
ithi
nth
efi
eld
ofpu
blic
law
not
only
the
rela
tion
sbe
twee
nth
eor
gans
ofth
est
ate
and
thos
esu
bjec
tto
them
but
also
thos
eac
tivi
ties
ofth
esu
bjec
tsby
whi
chth
eycr
eate
and
cont
rol
thos
eor
gans
.O
nce
this
isad
mit
ted,
the
defi
nitio
nhe
redi
scus
sed
lead
sus
back
toth
eon
epr
evio
usly
pres
ente
d,i.e
.,th
ede
fini
tion
that
does
not
rega
rdas
fall
ing
wit
hin
the
fiel
dof
publ
icla
wev
ery
regu
lati
onof
the
pow
erto
exer
cise
auth
orit
yor
ofth
ere
lati
ons
betw
een
thos
ew
hoex
erci
seau
thor
ity
and
thos
ew
hoar
esu
bjec
tto
it.
For
exam
ple,
anem
ploy
er’s
exer
cise
ofpo
wer
wou
ldob
viou
sly
beex
clud
edbe
caus
eit
orig
inat
esin
aco
ntra
ctbe
twee
npa
rtie
sof
equa
lle
gal
stat
us.
Aga
in,
the
auth
orit
yof
the
head
ofa
fam
ily
will
bere
gard
edas
fall
ing
wit
hin
the
sphe
reof
priv
ate
law
—fo
rno
othe
rre
ason
than
the
fact
that
publ
icla
wis
only
conc
erne
dw
ith
thos
eac
tivi
ties
wit
hin
agi
ven
lega
lsy
stem
whi
char
edi
rect
edto
war
dth
em
aint
enan
ceof
the
stat
eas
wel
las
tow
ard
the
real
izat
ion
ofth
ose
obje
ctiv
esof
the
stat
ew
hich
are
its
prim
eco
ncer
n.O
fco
urse
,th
equ
esti
onas
tow
hat
thes
epa
rtic
ular
obje
ctiv
essh
ould
beis
answ
ered
inva
ryin
gw
ays
even
toda
y.L
astl
y,ce
rtai
npu
blic
acti
viti
esm
aybe
inte
ntio
nall
yre
gula
ted
insu
cha
way
that
,w
ith
resp
ect
toth
esa
me
subj
ect
mat
ter,
righ
tsve
sted
inin
div
idua
lsan
dpo
wer
sco
nfer
red
upon
stat
eag
enci
esco
exis
tan
dco
mpe
tew
ith
each
othe
r.A
sw
eha
vese
en,
the
deli
mit
atio
nof
the
sphe
res
ofpu
blic
and
priv
ate
law
isev
ento
day
not
enti
rely
free
from
diff
icul
ty.
Itw
asev
enle
sscl
ear
inth
epa
st,
and
ther
ew
ason
cea
situ
atio
nin
whi
chsu
cha
dist
inct
ion
was
not
mad
eat
all.
Such
was
the
case
whe
nal
lla
w,
all
juri
sdic
tion
s,an
dpa
rtic
ular
lyal
lpo
wer
sof
exer
cisi
ngau
thor
ity
wer
epe
rson
alp
riv
ile
ges,
such
as,
espe
cial
ly,
the
“pre
roga
tive
s”of
the
head
ofth
est
ate.
Inth
atca
seth
eau
thor
ity
toju
dge,
orto
call
ape
rson
into
mil
itar
yse
rvic
e,or
tore
quir
eob
edie
nce
inso
me
othe
rre
spec
tw
asa
vest
edri
ght
inex
actl
yth
esa
me
way
asth
eau
thor
ity
tous
ea
piec
eof
land
;an
dju
stlik
eth
ela
tter
,it
coul
dco
nsti
tute
the
subj
ect
mat
ter
ofa
conv
eyan
ceor
ofin
heri
tanc
e.tT
nder
thi
syst
emof
“pat
rim
onia
lism
,”po
liti
cal
au
thor
ity
was
not
orga
nize
din
anin
stit
utio
nali
zed
patt
ern,
but
was
repre
sent
edby
the
conc
rete
cons
ocia
tion
ofin
divi
dual
pow
er-h
olde
rs,
orpe
r-
On
patr
imon
iali
sm,
see
W.u
.G.
679;
Par
sons
’tr
.62
,34
6.
44L
AW
INE
CO
NO
My
AN
DS
OC
IET
YF
IEL
DS
OF
SU
BS
TA
NT
IVE
LA
W45
Sons
clai
min
gpo
wer
s,an
dby
the
conc
rete
arra
ngem
ents
mad
ebe
twee
nth
em.
Itw
asa
kind
ofpo
liti
cal
auth
orit
yw
hich
was
not
esse
ntia
lly
dif
fere
ntfr
omth
atof
the
head
ofa
hous
ehol
d,or
ala
ndlo
rd,
ora
mas
ter
ofse
rfs.
Such
ast
ate
ofaf
fair
sha
sne
ver
exis
ted
asa
com
plet
esy
stem
,bu
t,in
sofa
ras
itdi
dex
ist,
ever
ythi
ngw
hich
we
lega
llych
arac
teri
zeas
falli
ngw
ithi
nth
esp
here
of“p
ubli
cla
w”
cons
titu
ted
the
subj
ect
mat
ter
ofth
epr
ivat
eri
ghts
ofin
divi
dual
pow
er-h
olde
rsan
dw
asin
this
resp
ect
inno
way
diff
eren
tfr
oma
“rig
ht”
inpr
ivat
ela
w.
2.
Rig
ht-g
rant
ing
Law
and
Reg
lem
enta
tion
.A
lega
lsy
stem
may
also
assu
me
ach
arac
ter
exac
tly
oppo
site
toth
eon
eju
stde
scri
bed,
that
isto
say,
“pri
vate
law
,”of
the
kind
defi
ned
abov
e,m
aybe
com
plet
ely
abse
ntin
wid
ear
eas
ofso
cial
life
whi
chw
ould
toda
yfa
llw
ithi
nits
sphe
re.
Thi
soc
curs
whe
reth
ere
exis
tno
norm
sha
ving
the
char
acte
rof
righ
t-gr
anti
ngla
ws.
Insu
cha
situ
atio
n,th
een
tire
body
ofno
rms
con
sist
sex
clus
ivel
yof
“reg
ulat
ions
.”In
othe
rw
ords
,al
lpr
ivat
ein
tere
sts
enjo
ypr
otec
tion
,no
tas
guar
ante
edri
ghts
,bu
ton
lyas
the
obve
rse
aspe
ctof
the
effe
ctiv
enes
sof
thes
ere
gula
tion
s.T
his
situ
atio
n,to
o,ha
sne
ver
prev
aile
dan
ywhe
rein
itspu
refo
rm,
but
inso
far
asit
abta
ins,
all
form
sof
law
beco
me
abso
rbed
with
in“a
dmin
istr
atio
n”an
dbe
com
epa
rtan
dpa
rcel
of“g
over
nmen
t.”
3“G
over
nmen
t”8
and
“Adm
inis
trat
ion”
“Adm
inis
trat
ion”
isno
ta
conc
ept
ofpu
blic
law
excl
usiv
ely.
For
we
mus
tre
cogn
ize
the
exis
tenc
eof
priv
ate
adm
inis
trat
ion,
asin
the
case
ofa
hous
ehol
dor
abu
sine
ssen
terp
rise
,al
ongs
ide
the
kind
ofad
min
istr
atio
nca
rrie
don
eith
erby
the
stat
eor
byot
her
publ
icin
stit
utio
ns(i
.e.,
eith
erin
stit
utio
nal
orga
nsof
the
stat
eits
elf,
orhe
tero
nom
ous
inst
itut
ions
deri
ving
thei
rpo
wer
sfr
omth
est
ate,
orre
cogn
ized
coer
cive
agen
cies
esta
blis
hed
byth
est
ate
for
part
icul
arpu
rpos
es.
The
sela
tter
agen
cies
are
hete
rono
mou
spu
blic
coer
cive
orga
niza
tion
s).°
‘Th
isde
scri
ptio
nof
the
“ide
alty
pe”
ofth
eto
tali
tari
anst
ate
was
Wri
tten
befo
reit
emer
ged
init
sm
oder
nfo
rm.
Web
er’s
term
“gov
ernm
ent”
has
been
reta
ined
here
,al
thou
ghth
ete
rm“e
xec
uti
ve”
mig
htbe
tter
corr
espo
ndto
Am
eric
anpa
rlan
ce.
‘Web
erca
llsth
est
ate
asw
ell
aspu
blic
bodi
esw
ithm
the
stat
eZ
wan
gsor
ganj
sa..
tion
en,
here
rend
ered
byth
eex
pres
sion
“coe
rciv
eag
ency
oror
gani
zati
on.”
The
poin
tab
out
thes
eco
erci
veor
gani
zati
ons
isth
atth
eyha
veno
ton
lyce
rtai
nde
lega
ted
pow
ers
ofle
gisl
atio
nbu
tal
soth
atm
embe
rshi
pin
the
bodi
esor
orga
niza
tion
sis
not
am
atte
rof
choi
cebu
tof
com
puls
ion.
The
mos
tco
mm
onex
ampl
esar
e:m
unic
ipal
corp
orat
ions
,sc
hool
and
sani
tary
dist
rict
s,‘e
stab
lish
ed”
chur
ches
,an
dce
rtai
npro
fess
iona
lgu
ilds
oras
soci
atio
ns,
such
asan
“int
egra
ted”
bar
asso
ciat
ion.
Init
sw
ides
tse
nse,
the
expr
essi
on“p
ubli
cad
min
istr
atio
n”in
clud
esno
ton
lyle
gisl
atio
nan
dad
judi
cati
onbu
tal
soth
ose
othe
rre
sidu
ary
ac
tivi
ties
whi
chw
eus
uall
yca
ll“g
over
nmen
t.”“G
over
nmen
t”ca
nbe
boun
dby
lega
lno
rms
and
lim
ited
byve
sted
righ
ts.
Inth
ese
resp
ects
itre
sem
bles
legi
slat
ion
and
adju
dica
tion
.B
utth
ere
are
two
aspe
cts
tobe
dist
ingu
ishe
d.F
irst
,an
din
apo
siti
vese
nse,
gove
rnm
ent
mus
tha
vea
legi
tim
ate
basi
sfo
rits
own
juri
sdic
tion
;a
mod
ern
gove
rnm
ent
exer
cise
sits
func
tions
asa
“leg
itim
ate”
juri
sdic
tion
,w
hich
mea
nsle
gally
that
it
isre
gard
edas
rest
ing
onau
thor
izat
ion
byth
eco
nsti
tuti
onal
norm
sof
the
stat
e.Se
cond
ly,
and
ina
nega
tive
sens
e,th
eli
mit
atio
nson
the
pow
er
ofth
est
ate
byla
wan
dve
sted
righ
tscr
eate
thos
ere
stra
int5
upon
its
free
dom
ofac
tion
tow
hich
itm
ust
adju
stits
elf.
One
spec
ific
char
acte
ris
ticof
gove
rnm
ent,
how
ever
,re
side
sin
the
fact
that
itai
ms
not
only
atac
know
ledg
ing
and
enfo
rcin
gth
ela
wsi
mpl
ybe
caus
eth
ela
wex
ists
and
cons
titu
tes
the
basi
sof
vest
edri
ghts
,bu
tal
soin
that
itpu
rsue
sot
her
conc
rete
obje
ctiv
esof
apo
liti
cal,
ethi
cal,
util
itar
ian,
orso
me
othe
r
kind
.T
oth
ego
vern
men
t,th
ein
divi
dual
and
his
inte
rest
sar
ein
the
lega
lse
nse
obje
cts
rath
erth
anbe
arer
sof
righ
ts.
Inth
em
oder
nst
ate,
itis
true
,th
ere
exis
tsa
tren
dfo
rmal
lyto
assi
mi
late
adju
dica
tion
to“a
dmin
istr
atio
n”(i
nth
ese
nse
of“g
over
nmen
t”).
Aju
dge
isfr
eque
ntly
inst
ruct
ed,
eith
erby
the
posi
tive
law
orby
lega
lth
eory
,to
rend
erhi
sde
cisi
onon
the
basi
sof
ethi
cs,
equi
ty,
orex
pedi
ency
.In
the
adm
inis
trat
ive
fiel
d,on
the
othe
rha
nd,
the
mod
ern
stat
eha
spr
ovid
edfo
rth
eci
tizen
,to
who
m,
onpr
inci
ple,
its
acti
viti
esar
edi
rect
ed,
apo
ssib
ilit
yof
prot
ecti
nghi
sin
tere
sts
bygr
anti
ngre
med
ies
whi
char
efo
rmal
lyid
enti
cal
wit
hth
ose
exis
ting
inth
efi
eld
ofth
ead
min
istr
atio
nof
just
ice,
nam
ely,
the
righ
tto
reso
rtto
adm
inis
trat
ive
tri
buna
ls.’
°B
utno
neof
thes
egu
aran
ties
can
elim
inat
eth
eba
sic
con
tra
dict
ion
betw
een
adju
dica
tion
and
“gov
ernm
ent.”
Law
crea
tion
,to
o,is
appr
oxim
ated
bygo
vern
men
tw
here
ver
gove
rnm
ent
prom
ulga
tes
gene
ral
rule
sde
alin
gw
ith
typi
cal
situ
atio
nsra
ther
than
mer
ely
inte
rven
ing
insp
ecif
icca
ses
—an
d,to
ace
rtai
nex
tent
,ev
enw
hen
itdo
esno
tfe
elbo
und
byth
em.
Aft
eral
l,ob
serv
ance
byth
ego
vern
men
tof
the
rule
sis
rega
rded
10
An
Ang
lo-A
mer
ican
law
yer
wou
ldre
gard
this
righ
tas
anor
dina
ryin
stan
ceof
the
“rig
ht”
ofac
cess
toth
eco
urts
.B
utas
aco
ntin
enta
lla
wye
r,W
eber
thin
ksof
the
prot
ecti
onof
this
righ
tas
that
entr
uste
dto
the
spec
iall
yes
tabl
ishe
dad
min
istr
ativ
e
trib
unal
sof
eith
erth
eF
renc
hor
the
Ger
man
type
.T
his
kind
ofpr
otec
tion
ofth
eci
tizen
agai
nst
abus
esof
gove
rnm
enta
lpo
wer
sis
orga
nize
don
line
sdi
ffer
ent
from
thos
ekn
own
inth
eco
untr
ies
ofth
eC
omm
onL
aw,
but
itsh
ould
not
bere
gard
edas
less
effe
ctiv
e.C
f.E
.F
reun
d,A
d,ni
nist
rati
veL
aw,
iE
NC
YC
.S
oc.
Sci
.(1
930)
452,
and
Gar
ner,
Ang
lo-A
mer
ican
and
Con
tine
ntal
Eur
opea
nA
dmin
istr
ativ
eL
aw(1
92
9),
7N
.Y.U
.L.Q
.R
EV
.387.
46L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YF
IEL
DS
OF
SU
BS
TA
NT
IVE
LA
W47
asth
eno
rmal
thin
gan
da
tota
ldi
sreg
ard
ofth
emw
ould
ordi
nari
lybe
disa
ppro
ved
as“a
rbit
rary
”co
nduc
t.T
hepr
imev
alfo
rmof
“adm
inis
trat
ion”
isre
pres
ente
dby
patr
iarc
hal
pow
er,
i.e.,
the
rule
ofth
eho
useh
old.
Init
spr
imit
ive
form
,th
eau
thor
ity
ofth
em
aste
rof
the
hous
ehol
dis
unli
mit
ed.
Tho
sesu
bord
inat
edto
his
pow
erha
veno
righ
tsas
agai
nst
him
,an
dno
rms
regu
lati
nghi
sbe
havi
orto
war
dth
emex
ist
only
asin
dire
ctef
fect
sof
hete
rono
mou
sre
ligio
usch
ecks
onhi
sco
nduc
t.O
rigi
nall
y,w
ear
eco
nfro
nted
wit
hth
eco
exis
tenc
eof
the
theo
reti
call
yun
rest
rain
edad
min
istr
ativ
epo
wer
ofth
em
aste
rof
the
hous
ehol
dw
ithi
nth
edo
mes
ticgr
oup,
onth
eon
esi
dean
d,on
the
othe
r,ar
bitr
atio
npr
ocee
ding
s,or
igin
atin
gin
arra
ngem
ents
mad
ebe
twee
nki
nshi
pgr
oups
and
rela
ting
toth
epr
oof
and
com
posi
tion
ofal
lege
din
jury
.O
nly
inth
ela
tter
are
“cla
ims,
”i.e
.,ri
ghts
,at
issu
ean
dar
eve
rdic
tsre
nder
ed;
and
only
inre
lati
ons
betw
een
kins
hip
grou
psdo
we
find
esta
blis
hed
form
alit
ies,
lim
itat
ions
asto
time,
rule
sof
evid
ence
,et
c.,
that
is,
the
begi
nnin
gsof
“jud
icia
l”pr
oced
ure.
Non
eof
thes
eex
ist
wit
hin
the
sphe
reof
patr
iarc
hal
pow
er,
whi
chre
pres
ents
the
prim
itiv
efo
rmof
“gov
ernm
ent,”
inth
esa
me
way
asth
ein
ter-
grou
par
rang
emen
tsre
pres
ent
the
prim
itiv
efo
rmof
adju
dica
tion
.T
hetw
oar
edi
stin
ctfr
omon
ean
othe
ral
sow
ith
rega
rdto
the
sphe
res
inw
hich
they
oper
ate.
Eve
nsu
cha
rela
tive
lyla
teph
enom
enon
asth
ean
cien
tR
oman
adm
inis
trat
ion
ofju
stic
est
oppe
dat
the
thre
shol
dof
the
hous
ehol
d.”
We
shal
lla
ter
see
how
dom
estic
auth
orit
yca
me
tobe
diff
used
beyo
ndit
sor
igin
alsp
here
and
was
carr
ied
over
into
cert
ain
form
sof
poli
tica
lpo
wer
,vi
z.,
pat
rim
onia
lm
onar
chy,
ther
eby
also
ente
ring
into
the
adm
inis
trat
ion
ofju
stic
e.W
hene
ver
this
happ
ened
,th
edi
stin
ctio
nsbe
twee
nle
gisl
atio
n,ad
judi
cati
on,
and
gove
rnm
ent
wer
ebr
oken
dow
n.T
heco
nseq
uenc
esha
vebe
enon
eor
the
othe
rof
the
follo
win
g:In
the
firs
tpl
ace,
adju
dica
tion
assu
med
the
char
acte
rof
“adm
inis
tra
tion
,”bo
thfo
rmal
lyan
dm
ater
iall
y,an
dw
asop
erat
edsi
mpl
yth
roug
hde
cree
sor
com
man
dsis
sued
byth
elo
rdto
his
subj
ects
acco
rdin
gto
cons
ider
atio
nsof
mer
eex
pedi
ency
oreq
uity
.an
dw
itho
utfi
xed
form
san
dat
arbi
trar
ytim
es.
Thi
ssi
tuat
ion,
how
ever
,ne
ver
obta
ined
with
full
forc
eex
cept
inbo
rder
line
case
s;bu
tap
prox
imat
ions
toit
have
occu
rred
in“i
nqui
sito
rial
”pr
oced
ures
asw
ell
asin
all
thos
esy
stem
sof
pro
cedu
rein
whi
chth
eco
nduc
tof
tria
lan
dpr
oof
isdo
min
ated
byth
eju
dge.
’2
‘1M.
Kas
er,
Zur
altr
örn
isch
enH
ausg
ewal
t(i
g.o
),67
SA
y.Z
.R
ör.
Ger
man
,an
dge
nera
lly
cont
inen
tal,
theo
ryof
proc
edur
edi
stin
guis
hes
betw
een
two
type
sof
tria
l:(x
)th
etr
ial
acco
rdin
gto
the
Off
izia
lina
xim
e,an
d(2
)th
etr
ial
The
othe
r,ra
ther
diff
eren
t,po
ssib
leco
nseq
uenc
eof
the
diff
usio
nof
the
patt
ern
ofdo
mes
ticau
thor
ity
into
extr
a-ho
useh
old
sphe
res
cons
ists
in“a
dmin
istr
atio
n”as
sum
ing
the
form
ofju
dici
alpr
oced
ure,
asha
ppen
edto
ala
rge
exte
nt,
and
inso
me
sens
est
illha
ppen
sto
day,
tobe
the
case
inE
ngla
nd.
Par
liam
ent
deal
sw
ith
“pri
vate
bill
s,”
i.e.,
wit
hsu
chpu
rely
adm
inis
trat
ive
acts
aslic
ensi
ng,
etc.
,in
exac
tly
the
sam
ew
ayth
atit
trea
tspu
blic
bills
.T
hefa
ilur
eto
dist
ingu
ish
betw
een
the
two
type
sof
legi
slat
ion
has
been
age
nera
lfe
atur
eof
olde
rpa
rlia
men
tary
proc
edur
e;fo
rth
eE
ngli
shP
arli
amen
tit
was
,in
deed
,a
deci
sive
fact
orin
the
esta
bli
shm
ent
ofits
posi
tion
.’3
Par
liam
ent
aros
eor
igin
ally
asa
judi
cial
body
,an
d,in
Fra
nce,
itbe
cam
esu
chto
the
excl
usio
nof
all
othe
rac
tivi
ties
.T
his
conf
usio
nbe
twee
nle
gisl
ativ
ean
dju
dici
alfu
ncti
ons
was
cond
itio
ned
bypo
liti
cal
circ
umst
ance
s.T
hebu
dget
,w
hich
isa
pure
lyad
min
istr
ativ
em
atte
r,’
4is
also
trea
ted
asa
legi
slat
ive
act,
inad
here
nce
toa
patt
ern
esta
blis
hed
inE
ngla
ndas
wel
las
for
poli
tica
lre
ason
s.
acco
rdin
gto
the
rhan
dlz
Lfl
gS
maX
ime.
Und
er(x
),th
etr
ial
isdo
min
ated
byth
epr
esid
ing
judg
ew
hose
func
tion
itis
toas
cert
ain
wha
tha
sre
ally
happ
ened
and
who
is,
ther
efor
e,al
one
orpr
imar
ily
enti
tled
toca
llan
dex
amin
eth
ew
itne
sses
and
tore
quir
esu
chpr
oof
ashe
thin
ksne
cess
ary.
Und
er(2
),th
eju
dge
only
assu
mes
the
role
ofum
pire
ina
tria
lm
ainl
yco
nduc
ted
byth
epa
rtie
s;ea
chpar
tyde
cide
sup
onth
ew
itness
es
hew
ishe
sto
call,
the
ques
tion
she
wis
hes
toas
kin
exam
inat
ion
and
cros
s_ex
amin
atio
n,an
dth
eki
ndof
evid
ence
hew
ishe
sto
subm
it.
Act
uall
y,ne
ithe
rty
peof
tria
lha
sin
prac
tice
ever
exis
ted
ina
pure
form
.C
onti
nent
alpr
oced
ure,
both
civi
lan
dcr
imin
al,
foll
ows
toda
ym
ainl
yth
eV
erha
ndlu
flg5
m0,
Xu1
1,al
thou
ghth
ela
tter
ism
odif
ied,
espe
cial
lyin
crim
inal
proc
edur
e,by
cert
ain
conc
essi
ons
toth
eO
ffiz
iah,z
axil
’Ze.
Cf.
EN
GE
LM
AN
NA
ND
Mu.L
AR
,II;
Mil
ar,
Form
ativ
eP
rinci
ple
sof
Civ
ilP
roce
dure
(1923)
18IL
L.
L.
Ray
.i.
94,zo;
and
his
arti
cle
onP
roce
dure
inx
EN
CY
C.
Soc
.S
cs.
439
(wit
hli
stof
furt
her
lite
ratu
re).
Conce
rnin
gm
oder
nco
nti
nen
tal
pro
cedure
see
also
SCH
LE
SIN
GE
R,
CO
MPA
RA
TIV
EL
Aw
(195
0)19
7,520,
523;
and
Ham
son,
Civ
ilP
roce
dure
inF
rance
and
E,i
gia
nd
(ig5o),
,oC
AeB
.L
.J.
411.
‘C
f.JE
LL
INE
I,SY
STE
MR
.G
NE
IST
,H
IST
OR
YO
FT
HE
EN
GL
ISH
CO
NST
ITU
TIO
N(A
shw
ort
h’s
tr.
1892
)338;
HA
Tsc
HE
K,
503
J.E
.A
.Jo
LU
’FE
,C
ON
STIT
UTI
ON
Al.
HIS
TO
RY
OF
MEO
IAEV
AL
ENG
LAN
D(1
937)
337;
alsO
AN
SON
,L
AW
AN
DC
UST
OM
AN
D
TH
EC
ON
STIT
UT
ION
(1892)
262;
On
the
pre
sent
pra
ctic
e,se
eV
anE
AN
DP
HIL
LIP
S,
CoN
sTIT
UT
ION
AL
LA
’(2
950)
iii.
Web
er’s
clas
sifi
cati
on
ofpri
vat
ebi
lls
and
the
budget
as
“pure
lyad
min
istr
ativ
em
atte
rs”
der
ives
from
Ger
man
lega
lan
dco
nst
ituti
onal
theo
ry,
whic
hdis
tinguis
hes
bet
wee
nla
ws
inth
efo
rmal
and
the
subst
anti
ve
sens
e.A
law
inth
esu
bst
anti
ve
sens
em
eans
anen
actm
ent
auth
ori
zing
inte
rfer
ence
by
the
stat
ew
ith
the
life,
libe
rty,
orpro
per
tyof
the
citi
zens.
Ala
win
the
form
alse
nse
issi
mply
anact
issu
ing
from
the
legis
latu
re,
irre
spec
tive
ofit
sco
nte
nts
.O
neof
the
post
ula
tes
ofth
e“r
ule
ofla
w”
asunder
stood
onth
eC
onti
nen
tis
that
the
stat
eis
not
allo
wed
toin
terf
ere
wit
hli
fe,
liber
ty,
or
pro
per
tyw
ithout
the
conse
nt
ofth
epeo
ple
orth
eir
duly
elec
ted
repre
senta
tives
.H
ence
,an
yla
win
the
subst
anti
ve
sens
em
ust
be,
or
atle
ast
hav
eit
sbas
isin
,an
act
ofth
ele
gis
latu
re,
i.e.
,a
law
inth
efo
rmal
sens
e.It
isth
ispoli
tica
l
48L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YT
hedi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
n“a
dmin
istr
atio
n”an
d“p
riva
tela
w”
beco
mes
flui
dw
here
the
offi
cial
acti
ons
ofth
eor
gans
ofof
fici
albo
dies
assu
me
the
sam
efo
rmas
agre
emen
tsbe
twee
nin
divi
dual
s.T
his
isth
eca
sew
hen
offi
cial
sin
the
cour
seof
thei
rof
fici
aldu
ties
mak
eco
ntra
ctua
lar
range
men
tsfo
rex
chan
geof
good
sor
serv
ices
eith
erw
ith
mem
bers
ofth
eorg
aniz
atio
nor
wit
hot
her
indi
vidu
als.
Fre
quen
tly
such
rela
tion
ship
sar
ew
ith
draw
nfr
omth
eno
rms
ofpr
ivat
ela
w,
are
arra
nged
inso
me
way
diff
eren
tfr
omth
ege
nera
lle
gal
norm
sas
tosu
bsta
nce
oras
toth
em
ode
ofen
forc
emen
t,an
dar
eth
usde
clar
edto
belo
ngto
the
sphe
reof
“adm
inis
tra
tion
.”‘
As
long
ascl
aim
str
eate
din
this
way
are
guar
ante
edby
som
e
theo
ryof
the
rule
ofla
ww
hich
cons
titu
tes
the
basi
sof
the
prin
cipl
eso
firm
lyhe
ldin
the
cont
inen
tal
coun
trie
s,w
hich
requ
ires
that
all
law
beex
pres
sed
ina
code
orst
atute
,an
dw
hich
thus
excl
udes
the
reco
gnit
ion
asle
giti
mat
eof
any
“com
mon
law
”w
hich
wou
ldno
tbe
base
don
stat
ute
but
sole
lyon
judi
cial
prec
eden
t.T
heno
tion
that
law
coul
dbe
mad
eor
appl
ied
byco
urts
wit
hout
appr
oval
ofth
ele
gisl
atur
eex
pres
sly
give
nin
ast
atute
,so
that
ther
eco
uld
bea
gove
rnm
ent
byth
eju
dici
ary
rath
erth
anby
the
peop
le’s
duly
elec
ted
repr
esen
tati
ves,
appe
ars
repu
gnan
tto
the
trad
itio
nal
cont
inen
tal
noti
ons
ofth
eru
leof
law
and
dem
ocra
cy.
On
the
othe
rha
nd,
mea
sure
sw
hich
dono
tco
nsti
tute
publ
icin
terf
eren
cew
ith
the
life,
libe
rty,
orpr
oper
tyof
the
subj
ects
are
clas
sifi
edas
“adm
inis
trat
ive
acts
”w
hich
gene
rall
ydo
not
requ
ire
for
thei
rva
lidi
tya
law
inth
efo
rmal
sens
e.B
utm
oder
nco
nsti
tuti
onal
law
ofte
nre
quir
esth
atev
enan
“adm
inis
trat
ive
act”
beem
bodi
edin
afo
rmal
law
,th
atis
,be
prop
erly
pass
edby
the
legi
slat
ure.
As
rega
rds
the
budg
et,
itis
,in
theo
reti
cal
anal
ysis
,on
lya
prog
ram
ofpu
blic
reve
nue
and
expen
di
ture
,an
dth
usan
adm
inis
trat
ive
act.
Thi
san
alys
isdo
esno
t,of
cour
se,
appl
yto
the
tax
and
cust
oms
prov
isio
nsw
hich
cons
titu
tein
terf
eren
ces
wit
hpr
oper
ty.
But
even
for
the
budg
etas
such
,po
siti
veco
nsti
tuti
onal
law
requ
ires
that
itbe
embo
died
inan
act
ofth
ele
gisl
atur
e.T
hebu
dget
,th
eref
ore,
albe
itan
adm
inis
trat
ive
act,
con
stit
utes
also
ala
win
the
form
alse
nse.
Cf.
JEL
LIN
EK
,SY
STEM
226;
also
KE
LS
EN
123,
131;
JEL
LIN
EK
,V
ER
WA
LT
UN
GS
RE
CH
T(1
949)
8,38
5;F
LE
INE
R,
INS
TIT
UT
ION
EN
DE
SD
EU
TS
CH
EN
VE
RW
AL
TIJ
NG
SR
EC
HT
S(x
922)
I7
LA
BA
ND
,D
EU
TS
CR
ES
RE
IcR
ssrT
sR
EC
HT
(1912)
130.
Cf.
the
spec
ial
rule
sap
plyi
ngin
this
coun
try
togo
vern
men
tco
ntra
cts
and
the
enfo
rcem
ent
ofco
ntra
ctua
lcl
aim
sag
ains
tth
ego
vern
men
t.T
hesp
ecia
lst
atus
ofgo
vern
men
tco
ntra
cts
isev
enm
ore
pron
ounc
edin
Fra
nce,
whe
reth
eyar
esu
bjec
tto
abo
dyof
spec
ial
rule
sto
ala
rge
exte
ntju
dici
ally
elab
orat
ed,
not
byth
eor
dina
ryco
urts
,bu
tby
the
Cou
ncil
ofS
tate
and
the
adm
inis
trat
ive
trib
unal
ssu
bord
inat
eto
it.
Cf.
GooaN
ow
,C
OM
PA
RA
TIV
EA
DM
INIS
TR
AT
IVE
LA
W(1
893)
I,86
,107;
II,
217;
WA
LIN
E,
LAN
OT
ION
JUD
ICIA
IRE
Dx
L’EX
cES
m.i
PO
UvO
IR(2
926)
7—so
,76
etse
q.;
F.
A.
Ooo
,E
UR
OP
EA
NG
OV
ER
NM
EN
TS
AN
DP
oLIT
IcS
(2nd
ed.
2943
)572,
768.
On
the
othe
rha
nd,
unde
rth
efi
scth
eory
,w
hich
prev
ails
inG
erm
any
and
the
othe
rco
untr
ies
foll
owin
gth
eG
erm
ansy
stem
,go
vern
men
tco
ntra
cts
are
trea
ted
like
con
trac
tsco
nclu
ded
betw
een
priv
ate
part
ies
and
are
subj
ect
toth
eju
risd
icti
onof
the
ordi
nary
cour
ts.
The
sam
etr
eatm
ent
appl
ies
toto
rts
com
mit
ted
bypu
blic
offi
cial
sin
the
cour
seof
thei
rof
fici
aldu
ties
.C
f.E
.B
orch
ard,
Sta
teL
iabi
lity
,14
EN
CY
C.
Soc
.S
ci.
338,
wit
hbi
blio
grap
hy;
also
2G
ooonow
,op
.ci
t.240,
258—
261;
as
to
FIE
LD
SO
FS
UB
ST
AN
TIV
EL
AW
49po
ssib
ilit
yof
enfo
rcem
ent,
they
dono
tce
ase
tobe
“rig
hts,
”an
dth
edi
stin
ctio
nis
nom
ore
than
ate
chni
cal
one.
How
ever
,ev
enas
such
,th
edi
stin
ctio
nm
aybe
ofco
nsid
erab
lepr
acti
cal
sign
ific
ance
.N
onet
hele
ss,
the
tota
lst
ruct
ure
ofan
cien
tR
oman
priv
ate
law
isco
mpl
etel
ym
isun
der
stoo
dif
one
rega
rds
asbe
long
ing
toit
ssp
here
only
thos
ecl
aim
sw
hich
wer
een
forc
edin
are
gula
rju
rytr
ial
and
onth
eba
sis
ofa
len,
and
excl
udes
from
ital
lth
ose
righ
tsw
hich
wer
een
forc
edso
lely
thro
ugh
the
mag
istr
ate’
s“c
ogni
tio”
and
whi
ch,
attim
es,
wer
eof
prep
onde
rant
eco
nom
icsi
gnif
ican
ce.’
°
.C
rim
inal
Law
and
Pri
vate
Law
.T
heau
thor
ity
ofm
agi
and
pro
ph
ets
17an
d,un
der
cert
ain
cond
ition
s,th
epo
wer
sof
the
prie
stho
od,
can,
toth
eex
tent
that
they
have
thei
rso
urce
inco
ncre
tere
vela
tion
,be
asun
rest
rain
edby
righ
tsan
dno
rms
asth
epr
imit
ive
pow
erof
the
mas
ter
ofa
hous
ehol
d.B
elie
fin
mag
icis
also
one
ofth
eor
igin
also
urce
sof
crim
inal
law
,as
dist
ingu
ishe
dfr
om“p
riva
tela
w.”
18T
hem
oder
nvi
ew
gove
rnm
ent
cont
ract
sin
Eng
land
,se
eW
ade
and
Phi
llip
s,op
.ci
t.su
pra
n.
13at
p.309.
“F
oll
ow
ing
GA
lus
IV.
103,
ion,
itha
sbe
com
ecu
stom
ary
todi
stin
guis
hbe
twee
niu
dici
umle
giti
mun
ian
dth
eiu
dici
aqu
aeim
peri
oco
ntin
entu
r.T
hefo
rmer
isth
ere
gula
rci
vil
proc
edur
ein
whi
chth
eis
sue
isde
fine
dbe
fore
the
prae
tor,
form
ally
stat
edin
the
form
ula,
and
then
trie
dbe
fore
and
deci
ded
byth
ela
yju
dge
(iud
ex).
The
latt
erte
rmco
vers
ava
riet
yof
spec
ial
proc
eedi
ngs
inw
hich
,as
aco
mm
onfe
atur
e,th
eis
sue
isno
ton
lyfo
rmul
ated
byth
em
agis
trat
ebut
also
trie
dbe
fore
and
deci
ded
byhi
mor
,un
der
his
auth
orit
y,by
asu
bsti
tute
(sub
roga
tus,
surr
ogat
e).
One
ofth
ese
proc
edur
esw
asth
eso
-cal
led
bure
aucr
atic
cogn
itio
,w
hich
appl
ied
toth
eli
tiga
tion
conc
erni
ngth
ela
nds
owne
dby
the
stat
eas
ager
publ
icus
.T
his
pro
cedu
redi
ffer
edfr
omth
eor
dina
ryci
vil
proc
edur
eno
ton
lyth
roug
hth
eab
senc
eof
aiu
dex,
but
also
thro
ugh
the
fact
that
judg
men
tco
uld
bere
nder
ednot
only
for
mon
eyda
mag
esbut
also
for
spec
ific
perf
orm
ance
.A
sW
eber
indi
cate
s,it
ssi
gnif
ican
ceha
sbe
enco
mm
only
negl
ecte
din
the
lite
ratu
reon
Rom
an
law
.Fo
rfu
rther
info
rmat
ion
onth
ele
gal
aspe
cts
ofth
ebu
reau
crat
icco
gnit
io,
see
Wen
ger,
z8,
62et
seq.
,239,
250,
255
etse
q.;
asto
itssi
gnif
icance
inconnecti
on
wit
hth
eag
erpu
blic
us,
see
Wxa
ER
,167
etse
q.;
cf.
als
oM
OM
MSE
N,
290.
‘F
or
furt
her
disc
ussi
onof
the
role
ofla
wpro
phet
sse
ein
fra
p.
86.
“On
the
role
ofm
agic
inle
gal
deve
lopm
ent,
see
G.
Gurv
itch
,M
agic
and
Law
(1942),
gS
OC
IAL
RE
SE
AR
CH
104,
and
sam
e,E
ssA
JsD
ES
OC
IOL
OC
IE(1
939)
204.
For
age
nera
lac
count
ofth
ero
leof
mag
icin
pri
mit
ive
soci
etie
sas
rega
rds
the
crim
inal
law
and
the
peculi
ar
natu
reof
pri
vate
or
civi
lla
w,
see
MA
LX
NO
WS
KI,
CR
IM.E
AN
DC
US
TO
MIN
SAV
AG
ES
oci
xiY
(192
6)50
—59
,6’
—68
,g8
—gg
,119—
121.
See
also
Hoc
aiN
,L
AW
AN
DOR
DER
InP
OL
YN
ES
IA(2
934)
and
Mal
inow
ski’
sin
troduct
ion
ther
eto,
esp
ecia
lly
pp.
xvii
-lxx
ii;
Low
IE,
PR
IRII
T1v
ER
EL
IGIO
N(1
925);
TV
E0R
,P
RIM
ITIV
EC
UL
TU
SE
(6th
ed.
1920);
RA
DC
LiF
FE
-BR
OW
N,
TH
EA
ND
AM
AN
ISL
AN
DE
RS
(1922);
WE
ST
ER
MA
RC
IC,
RIT
UA
LA
ND
BE
LIE
FIN
MoR
occo
(1926).
Usu
ally
regar
ded
asth
eba
sic
50
LA
WrN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
ofcr
imin
alju
stic
e,br
oadl
y,is
that
publ
icco
ncer
nw
ith
mor
alit
yor
expe
dien
cyde
cree
sex
piat
ion
for
the
viol
atio
nof
ano
rm;
this
conc
ern
find
sex
pres
sion
inth
ein
flic
tion
ofpu
nish
men
tup
onth
eev
ildo
erby
agen
tsof
the
stat
e,th
eev
ildo
er,
how
ever
,en
joyi
ngth
epr
otec
tion
ofa
regu
lar
proc
edur
e.T
here
dres
sof
the
viol
atio
nof
priv
ate
righ
ts,
onth
eot
her
hand
,is
left
toth
ein
jure
dpa
rty,
and
acti
onby
the
latt
erle
ads
not
topu
nish
men
t,bu
tto
the
rest
orat
ion
ofa
situ
atio
nw
hich
the
law
has
guar
ante
ed.
But
even
toda
yth
isdi
stin
ctio
nis
not
alw
ays
appl
ied
incl
ear-
cut
fash
ion.
Itw
asce
rtai
nly
unkn
own
inpr
imit
ive
adm
inis
trat
ion
ofju
stic
e.E
ven
inth
ela
test
ages
ofot
herw
ise
com
plex
lega
lde
velo
pm
ents
,ev
ery
acti
onw
assi
mpl
ylo
oked
upon
asso
Und
ing
into
rtan
dth
eno
tion
sof
“con
trac
t”an
dob
ligat
iow
ere
com
plet
ely
unkn
own.
’°In
deed
,C
hine
sela
wst
illm
anif
ests
som
etr
aces
ofth
issit
uati
on,2
0w
hich
inth
ehi
stor
yof
civi
liza
tion
has
been
ofsu
chgr
eat
impo
rtan
cein
lega
lde
velo
pmen
t.E
very
infr
inge
men
tby
anou
tsid
erup
ona
mem
ber
ofa
kins
hip
grou
por
his
prop
erty
calls
for
eith
erre
veng
e21
or
com
posit
ion,
the
purs
uit
ofw
hich
isle
ftto
the
inju
red
part
y,su
ppor
ted
byhi
ski
n.
wor
k5
SIR
JAIo
PE
SF
RA
ZE
R,
TH
EG
OL
DE
NB
OU
GH
,vo
ls.
Ian
dII
;T
UE
MA
GIC
AR
T(3
rded
.iii,
abri
dged
ed.
1925).
For
ash
ort
intr
oduc
tion
toth
epr
oble
m,
see
RO
BS
ON
,C
IVII
ISA
TIQ
NA
ND
TH
EG
RO
WT
HO
FL
AW
(I5)
74et
Seq
.Se
eon
all
this
inge
nera
l:E
NG
EL
MA
NN
AN
DM
u.L
AN
,it
S,
12
9,
III,
652;
R.D
LA
GR
AS
SE
RIE
,T
HE
EV
OL
UT
ION
OF
Civ
nz.
LA
W(1
918)
609;
DIA
MO
ND
301,
307;
Low
rE,
PR
IMIT
IVE
SoC
IETY
(1920)
397,
425.
See
also
asre
gard
s:(a
)R
om
an
law
:N
OY
ES
201—
207;
A.
HA
GE
RS
TR
ÔM
,D
xaR
dM
ISC
EE
OB
LIG
AT
ION
SB
E_
GR
iPE
(2927)
ôoo;
KA
SE
R30
8—31
6,32
2—33
6.(b
)G
reek
law
:P
.V
inog
rado
ff.
Gre
ekL
aw,
inC
OL
LE
CT
ED
PA
PE
RS
vol.
2(Juin
sP
RU
DE
NC
E,
1928)
43,
44.
Cc)
Ori
enta
lla
w:
Art
icle
s“l
aw”
ing
EN
CY
C.
Soc.
SeT.
(293
3)an
dli
tera
ture
ther
eci
ted,
espe
cial
lyth
ear
ticl
esby
Seid
ion
Egy
ptia
nL
aw,
p.209;
Kos
cbak
eron
Cun
eifo
rmL
aw,
p.III;
and
Gul
akon
Jew
ish
Law
,p.
229.
(d)
Sla
vic
law
:L
.J.
ST
RA
CH
OV
SK
Y,
AH
AN
DB
OO
KO
FS
LA
VIC
ST
UD
IES
(1949);
R.
DA
RE
ST
E,
ET
UD
ES
D’H
IST
OIR
ED
UD
RO
IT(2
889)
258—
222
(L’A
NC
IEN
DR
OIT
SL
AV
E).
(e)
Germ
anic
law
:A
MIR
A2
80
—2
82
;2
BR
UN
NE
R,
RE
CH
TS
GE
SC
HIC
HT
E3
28
.In
Eng
lish
law
the
dis
tincti
on
betw
een
tort
and
Contr
act
deve
lope
dat
ara
ther
late
stag
e.C
f.M
AIT
LA
ND
,F
OR
MS
8,48
,53
etse
q.;
HO
LO
SW
OR
TR
,II
,43
etse
q.,
III,
375
etse
q.,
412
et
Seq
.;P
LU
CK
NE
TT
.20
The
refe
renc
eis
toC
hine
sela
was
itex
iste
dbe
fore
the
refo
rms
foll
owin
gth
ere
volu
tion
of1912;
see
J.H
.W
IGM
OR
E,
WoR
I.IJ’
sL
EG
AL
SYST
EMS
(19
28
)141;
W.
S.H
.H
UN
G,
OU
TL
INE
SO
FM
OD
EIU
eC
HIN
ES
EL
Aw
(2934)
5,249;
AL
AB
AS
TE
R.
“The
Ger
man
text
cont
ains
anob
viou
sty
pogr
aphi
cal
erro
r;in
stea
dof
Rec
htit
shou
ldre
adR
ache
(“re
veng
e”).
pF
IEL
DS
OF
SU
BS
TA
NT
IVE
LA
W5’
The
proc
edur
efo
rob
tain
ing
com
posi
tion
eith
ersh
ows
notr
ace
atal
lor
atm
ost
the
mer
ebe
ginn
ings
ofth
edi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
nfe
lony
that
calls
for
veng
eanc
e,an
dto
rtth
atm
erel
yre
quir
esre
stit
utio
n.F
urt
her
mor
e,th
eab
senc
eof
adi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
nac
tion
sfo
rw
hat
we
call
“civ
il”re
dres
san
dcr
imin
alpr
osec
utio
nai
min
gat
puni
shm
ent,
and
the
desi
gnat
ion
ofbo
thth
ese
phen
omen
aby
the
sing
leex
pres
sion
ofsa
tis
fact
ion
for
wro
ngsu
ffer
ed,
isco
nnec
ted
wit
htw
ope
culi
arit
ies
ofpri
mi
tive
law
and
proc
edur
e.T
here
isa
com
plet
eun
conc
ern
wit
ha
noti
onof
guilt
,an
d,co
nseq
uent
ly,
wit
han
yde
gree
sof
guil
t,re
flec
ting
the
inne
rm
otiv
atio
nsan
dps
ycho
logi
cal
atti
tude
s.H
ew
hoth
irst
sfo
rve
ngea
nce
isno
tin
tere
sted
inm
otiv
es;
heis
conc
erne
don
lyw
ith
the
obje
ctiv
eha
ppen
ing
ofth
eev
ent
byw
hich
his
desi
refo
rve
ngea
nce
has
been
arou
sed.
His
ange
rex
pres
ses
itse
lfeq
uall
yag
ains
tin
anim
ate
obje
cts,
byw
hich
heha
sbe
enun
expe
cted
lyhu
rt,
agai
nst
anim
als
byw
hich
heha
sbe
enun
expe
cted
lyin
jure
d,an
dag
ains
thu
man
bein
gsw
hoha
veha
rmed
him
unkn
owin
gly,
negl
igen
tly,
orin
tent
iona
lly.
Thi
s,fo
rex
ampl
e,w
asth
eor
igin
alse
nse
ofth
eR
oman
actio
depa
uper
ie,
i.e.,
that
anan
imal
had
beha
ved
ina
way
othe
rth
anit
shou
ldha
ve,
asw
ell
asof
the
noxa
eda
tio,
i.e.,
the
surr
ende
rof
the
anim
alfo
rven
gea
nce
.22
Eve
ryw
rong
is,
ther
efor
e,a
“tor
t”th
atre
quir
esex
piat
ion,
and
noto
rtis
mor
eth
ana
wro
ngth
atre
quir
esex
piat
ion.
The
prim
itiv
ein
dist
inct
iven
ess
ofcr
ime
and
tort
also
foun
dex
pre
ssi
onin
the
ways
inw
hich
“jud
gmen
ts”
wer
e“e
nfor
ced.
”P
roce
dure
did
not
vary
,w
heth
erth
esu
itw
asab
out
api
ece
ofla
ndor
abou
tho
mic
ide.
But
even
whe
nth
atst
age
was
reac
hed
whe
nfa
irly
wel
l-es
tabl
ishe
dco
mpo
sitio
nsbe
gan
tobe
impo
sed,
ther
ew
asst
ill
ala
ckof
“off
icia
l”m
achi
nery
for
the
enfo
rcem
ent
ofth
ese
judg
men
ts.
Itw
asra
ther
belie
ved
that
aju
dgm
ent
whi
chha
dbe
enar
rive
dat
byth
ein
ter
pret
atio
nof
orac
les
orot
her
mag
ical
devi
ces,
orth
ein
voca
tion
ofm
agic
alor
divi
nepo
wer
s,ca
rrie
dw
ith
itsu
ffic
ient
mag
ical
auth
orit
yto
enfo
rce
itsel
f,so
that
diso
bedi
ence
cons
titu
ted
aki
ndof
seri
ous
blas
phem
y.W
here
,as
are
sult
ofce
rtai
nde
velo
pmen
tsco
nnec
ted
wit
hm
ilit
ary
or
gani
zati
on(t
obe
deal
tw
ith
shor
tly)
,23
the
tria
lto
okpl
ace
befo
rean
asse
mbl
yof
the
who
leco
mm
unit
y,w
ith
all
mem
bers
part
icip
atin
gin
the
mak
ing
ofth
eju
dgm
ent
(as
was
the
case
,fo
rin
stan
ce,
inea
rly
Ger
man
icre
cord
ed
his
tory),
itm
ight
beex
pect
edth
atas
aco
nseq
uenc
eof
such
“On
the
acti
ode
pan
peri
ean
dnoxae
dati
ose
eS
onar
28
0,
33!
(jct
iode
paup
erie
);
and
29
2,
19
4,
28
0,
332
(noxae
dati
o);
WE
NG
ER
15
3,
whe
refu
rther
lite
ratu
reis
cit
ed.
“See
infr
app
.91
et.
seq.
52L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
YF
IEL
DS
OF
SU
BS
TA
NT
IVE
LA
W53
coop
erat
ion
inth
ere
nder
ing
ofa
judg
men
t,no
neof
itsm
embe
rsw
ould
obst
ruct
its
enfo
rcem
ent,
prov
ided
itha
dno
tbe
enpu
blic
lych
alle
nged
inth
eas
sem
bly.
Nev
erth
eles
s,th
evi
ctor
ious
liti
gant
coul
dno
tde
pend
onan
ythi
ngm
ore
than
mer
epa
ssiv
ity
onth
epa
rtof
thos
eou
tsid
eof
his
own
kins
hip
grou
p.It
was
enti
rely
incu
mbe
ntup
onhi
m,
byw
ayof
self
-he
lp,
toen
forc
eth
eju
dgm
ent
wit
hth
eas
sist
ance
ofhi
ski
nfol
kun
less
,of
cour
se,
the
unsu
cces
sful
part
yob
eyed
the
judg
men
t.B
oth
inR
ome
and
amon
gth
eG
erm
anic
trib
es,
this
self
-hel
pus
uall
yco
nsis
ted
inth
eca
ptur
eof
the
cond
emne
dto
rem
ain
asho
stag
efo
rth
epa
ymen
tof
the
com
posi
tion,
the
amou
ntof
whi
chw
asei
ther
fixe
dby
the
judg
men
tits
elf
orw
asto
beag
reed
onby
the
liti
gant
sth
emse
lves
.N
ordi
dth
isse
lf-h
elp
vary
for
diff
eren
tty
pes
ofli
tiga
tion
:se
lf-h
elp
was
reso
rted
tow
heth
erth
esu
itha
dbe
enab
out
api
ece
ofla
ndor
whe
ther
itha
dbe
enab
out
hom
icid
e.A
nof
fici
alm
achi
nery
for
the
enfo
rcem
ent
ofju
dgm
ents
did
not
beco
me
avai
labl
eun
til
prin
ces
orm
agis
trat
essa
wth
ene
cess
ity,
for
poli
tica
lre
ason
san
din
the
inte
rest
ofpu
blic
orde
r,to
use
thei
rim
peri
umag
ains
tpe
rson
sin
terf
erin
gw
ith
the
enfo
rcem
ent
ofa
judg
men
tan
dto
thre
aten
such
pers
ons
with
lega
lsa
ncti
ons,
espe
cial
lyoutl
awry
.24
All
this
,ho
wev
er,
took
plac
ew
itho
utan
ydi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
nci
vil
and
crim
inal
proc
eedi
ngs.
Inth
ose
lega
lsy
stem
sin
whi
chun
der
the
infl
uenc
eof
cert
ain
lega
lho
nora
tior
es22
ther
ere
mai
ned
som
eco
ntin
uity
with
the
As
toR
ome,
see
WE
NG
ER
8et
seq.
;as
toG
erm
anic
law
,se
eH
UE
BN
ER
,427,
477,
478.
Cf.
also
the
sour
cem
ater
ials
coll
ecte
din
ST
ON
EA
ND
SIM
PS
ON
,L
Aw
AN
DS
OC
IET
Y(1
948)
132
etse
q.,
284
€tse
q.H
onor
atio
res
(Lat
.“t
hose
ofhi
gher
honor”
).In
Ger
man
the
wor
dH
onora
tior
enis
used
,of
ten
wit
ha
slig
htim
plic
atio
nof
frie
ndly
ridi
cule
,to
mea
nth
em
ore
resp
ecta
ble
citi
zens
ofa
tow
n.W
eber
uses
the
wor
das
ate
rmof
art,
whi
chhe
defi
nes
asap
plyi
ngto
pers
ons
havi
ngth
efo
llow
ing
char
acte
rist
ics:
“(x)
By
virt
ueof
thei
rec
onom
icsi
tuat
ion
they
are
able
ona
cont
inuo
usba
sis
tooc
cupy
posi
tion
sof
lead
ersh
ipor
auth
orit
yin
aco
rpor
ate
grou
pw
itho
utre
mun
erat
ion
orw
ith
are
mun
erat
ion
whi
chis
mer
ely
nom
inal
;an
d(2
)th
eyoc
cupy
apo
siti
onof
soci
alpr
esti
ge,
whi
chm
ayre
ston
any
one
ofm
any
diff
eren
tgr
ound
san
dw
hich
issu
chth
atin
afo
rmal
lyde
ni.o
crat
icpr
oces
sth
eyar
eli
kely
toen
joy
the
conf
iden
ceof
thei
rfe
llow
mem
bers
,so
that
they
will
hold
offi
cefi
rst
upon
the
basi
sof
free
choi
ce,
and
then
bytr
adit
ion.
”(W
.u.G
.,‘7
0)
Thi
sde
fini
tion
iscl
osel
yco
nnec
ted
wit
hth
ech
arac
teri
zati
onof
the
pecu
liar
situ
atio
nw
hich
exis
tsw
hen
auth
ori
tyis
exer
cise
dby
such
hono
rati
ores
asco
mpa
red
wit
hot
her
type
sof
auth
orit
y(T
HE
OR
Y,
Par
sons
’tr
.4x
3;se
eal
soW
.u.G
.óo
g,67
4,68
i,719).
As
defi
ned
inth
isw
ay,
Par
sons
isju
stif
ied
intr
ansl
atin
gho
nora
tior
esby
“am
ateu
rs.”
How
ever
,W
eber
does
not
cons
iste
ntly
adhe
reto
his
own
defi
niti
on.
Inth
epr
esen
tco
ntex
tW
eber
mea
nsby
“leg
alho
nora
tior
es”
(Rec
hish
onor
atio
ren)
,th
ose
clas
ses
ofpe
rson
sw
hoha
ve(i
)in
som
ew
aym
ade
the
occu
pati
onw
ith
lega
lpr
oble
ms
aki
ndof
spec
iali
zed
expe
rtkn
owle
dge,
and
(2)
enjo
yam
ong
thei
rgr
oup
such
apr
esti
geth
atth
eyar
eab
leto
impr
ess
som
epe
culi
arch
arac
teri
stic
sup
onth
ele
gal
syst
emof
thei
rre
spec
tive
anci
ent
form
sof
expi
ator
yju
stic
e,an
din
whi
chth
ere
was
ale
sser
degr
eeof
“bur
eauc
rati
zati
on,”
i.e.,
thos
eof
Rom
ean
dE
ngla
nd,
this
orig
inal
stat
eof
com
plet
eno
ndif
fere
ntia
tion
cont
inue
dto
show
itse
lfin
the
reje
ctio
nof
spec
ific
perf
orm
ance
for
the
rest
orat
ion
ofco
ncre
teob
ject
s.E
ven
inan
acti
onco
ncer
ning
titl
eto
land
,th
eju
dgm
ent
was
ordi
nari
lyre
nder
edin
term
sof
money
.2G
Thi
sw
asno
tdu
eat
all
toa
high
lyde
velo
ped
mar
ket
econ
omy
whi
chw
ould
eval
uate
ever
ythi
ngin
term
sof
mon
ey.
Rat
her
was
ita
cons
eque
nce
ofth
epr
imit
ive
prin
cipl
eth
atev
ery
wro
ng,
incl
udin
gth
ew
rong
ful
poss
essi
onof
prop
erty
,de
man
ded
sati
sfa
ctio
nan
dno
thin
gbu
tsa
tisf
acti
on,
and
that
this
liab
ilit
yat
tach
edto
the
culp
rit’
sow
npe
rson
.O
nth
eC
onti
nent
,sp
ecif
icpe
rfor
man
ceem
erge
dre
lati
vely
earl
yin
the
earl
yM
iddl
eA
ges,
owin
gto
the
rapi
dly
grow
ing
pow
erof
the
impe
rium
ofth
epri
nce
s.27
Eng
lish
proc
edur
e,on
the
othe
rha
nd,
even
dow
nto
rece
nttim
es,
had
tore
sort
tope
culi
arfi
ctio
nsin
orde
rto
intr
oduc
eth
epo
ssib
ilit
yof
spec
ific
perf
orm
ance
inac
tion
sco
nce
rnin
gre
alpro
per
ty?
InR
ome
the
pers
iste
nce
ofco
ndem
nati
onto
mon
eyda
mag
esin
stea
dof
spec
ific
perf
orm
ance
was
the
resu
ltof
the
gene
ral
tend
ency
toke
epof
fici
alac
tivi
ties
toa
min
imum
,w
hich
,in
turn
,w
asdu
eto
the
syst
emof
rule
byho
nora
tior
es.
.T
ort
and
Cri
me.
Sub
stan
tive
law
too
was
deep
lyin
flue
nced
byth
eno
tion
that
liti
gati
onim
plie
da
wro
ngco
mm
itte
dby
the
accu
sed
and
not
just
the
exis
tenc
eof
ast
ate
ofaf
fair
sob
ject
ivel
yre
gard
edas
unla
wfu
l.O
rigi
nall
y,al
l“o
blig
atio
ns”
wer
e,w
itho
utex
cept
ion,
obli
gati
ons
exde
lict
o;he
nce,
cont
ract
ual
oblig
atio
nsw
ere,
asw
esh
all
see,
29
atfi
rst
conc
eive
das
aris
ing
out
ofto
rt.
InE
ngla
nd,
asla
teas
the
Mid
dle
Age
s,a
cont
ract
ual
actio
nw
asfo
rmal
lyco
nnec
ted
wit
ha
fict
itio
usto
rt.
3°
soci
etie
s.T
heco
ntex
tm
akes
itcl
ear,
how
ever
,th
atpe
rson
sof
this
kind
can
beho
nora
tiOre
Sev
enth
ough
they
rece
ive
am
ore
than
nom
inal
rem
uner
atio
nfo
rth
eir
acti
viti
es.
As
toth
ero
leof
lega
lho
nora
tiO
res
inge
nera
l,se
ein
fra
p.19
8€1
seq.
20
As
toth
eR
oman
rule
that
omni
sco
ndem
nati
Oes
tpe
cuni
ari.a
,se
eW
E1’iG
ER243
etse
q.C
f.E
imE
LM
AN
NA
ND
MIV
LA
R,6
6—68
;al
so,
M.
Esm
ein,
L’o
rigi
neet
lalo
giqu
ede
Iaju
risp
rude
nce
enm
atiè
red’
astr
eint
es(1
903),
2R
EV
UE
TR
ME
ST
RIE
LL
DE
DR
OIT
CIV
IL5.
20
Here
Web
erse
ems
tobe
mis
take
n.W
hat
hem
ayha
veha
din
min
dar
eth
efi
ctio
nsre
sort
edto
inth
eac
tion
ofej
ectm
ent;
cf.
MA
ITL
AN
D,
FO
RM
S.
For
the
doc
trin
eof
spec
ific
perf
orm
ance
inE
ngli
shla
w,
see
MA
ITL
AN
D,
EQ
UIT
Y(1
936)
301—
317;
H.
HA
ZE
I.T
U1E
,E
arly
His
tory
ofSp
ecif
icP
erfo
rman
ceof
Con
trac
tin
Eng
lish
Law
(FE
ST
OA
BE
UR
KO
HI-
ER,
1913)
68—
69.
20
lnfr
a,
p.250.
20
This
stat
emen
tis
too
broa
d.It
appl
ies
toth
eac
tion
ofas
sum
psit
,but
not
toth
eac
tion
sof
cove
nant
,de
bt,
and
deti
nue.
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
FIE
LD
SO
FS
UB
ST
AN
TIV
EL
AW
55
54 The
abat
emen
tof
the
debt
sup
onth
ede
ath
ofth
ede
btor
was
asm
uch
beca
use
ofth
isco
ncep
tas
ofth
eab
senc
eof
any
noti
onof
a“l
awof
succ
essi
on.”
3’T
hehe
irs’
liab
ilit
yfo
rco
ntra
ctua
lde
bts
was
,as
we
shal
lsee,
32
deve
lope
dw
ith
vary
ing
resu
lts
bym
eans
ofth
ejo
int
liab
ilit
yfo
rw
rong
ful
acts
,fi
rst
ofth
eki
ndre
dan
dla
ter
ofth
efe
llow
mem
bers
ofth
eho
useh
old
orof
the
part
icip
ants
ina
pow
erre
lati
onas
eith
ersu
bord
inat
esor
supe
rior
s.E
ven
the
prin
cipl
eof
prot
ecti
onof
bona
fide
purc
hase
rs,
apr
inci
ple
alle
gedl
yin
disp
ensa
ble
for
mod
ern
com
mer
ce,
33
has
its
orig
inin
the
anci
ent
idea
that
nola
wsu
itco
uld
bean
ythi
ngbu
ton
eex
delic
toag
ains
ta
thie
fo
his
acce
ssor
y.O
nly
late
r,in
cons
eque
nce
ofth
ede
velo
pmen
tof
acti
ons
exco
ntra
ctu
and
the
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
“rea
l”an
d“p
erso
nal”
acti
ons,
did
the
old
rule
unde
rgo
dive
rgen
tde
velo
pmen
tsin
diff
eren
tle
gal
syst
ems.
Thu
sit
spl
ace
cam
eto
beoc
cupi
edby
the
ow
ner
’sac
tion
agai
nst
ever
ypo
sses
sor
(rei
vind
icat
io)‘
inan
cien
tR
om
an
35
and
inE
ngli
shla
w3°
asw
ell
asin
Hin
dula
w,
37
whi
ch,
inco
ntra
stto
Chi
nese
law
,w
asre
lati
vely
high
lyra
tion
aliz
ed.
Still
late
rth
epro
tec
tion
ofth
ebo
nafi
depu
rcha
ser
was
revi
ved
agai
nin
the
case
ofpur
chas
ers
inm
arke
tov
ert
inE
ngli
sh38
and
Hin
dula
w39
onth
era
tion
al“S
eeG
oudy
,T
wo
Anc
ient
Bro
card
s,in
P.
Vxooaa
nosr
,E
ssA
Ys
o’
Lzn
sx.
HIS
TOR
Y(1
913)
216—
227;
HoL
nsw
oR
Tn,
III,
576
etse
q.n
Cf.
infr
a,p.
154.
“Web
erci
tes
here
the
anci
ent
Ger
man
max
imof
Han
dm
uss
Han
dw
ahre
n(“
hand
mus
tw
arra
nt
han
d”)
.It
mea
nsth
atw
here
aba
ilee
has
tran
sfer
red
the
chat
tel
toa
thir
dpar
ty,
the
bail
orha
san
acti
onon
lyag
ains
tth
eba
ilee.
See
HU
EB
NER
,407,
422,
448;
2B
RU
NN
ER
,R
EC
HT
SGE
SCH
ICH
TE
522;
(592
8),
668;
HO
LMES
,C
OM
MO
NL
Aw
(1951),
264;
2PO
LLO
CIC
AN
DM
AIT
LA
NO
(189
9)25
5.A
sto
the
alle
ged
indis
pen
sabil
ity
for
moder
nbu
sine
ssof
the
pro
tect
ion
ofbona
fide
pur
chas
ers
far
bey
ond
the
modes
tsc
ope
ofpro
tect
ion
exis
ting
inA
mer
ican
law
,se
e3
MO
TIV
EZ
UO
EM
EN
TW
UR
FEE
INE
SB
UER
GER
LIC
HEN
GE
SET
ZB
UC
RE
Sfl
IER
DA
SD
EU
TSC
HE
RE
IcH
(i888)
344.
‘T
heac
tion
whi
chW
eber
mea
nshe
reis
,as
indic
ated
by
his
refe
rence
toth
ere
ivi
ndic
atio
,th
atac
tion
whic
hhas
been
dev
eloped
inal
lm
ore
elab
ora
tesy
stem
san
dw
hic
his
now
const
itute
din
Am
eric
anla
wby
the
acti
on
ofre
ple
vin
.It
isth
ere
med
yby
whic
hth
eow
ner
assu
ch,
and
wit
hout
refe
rence
toan
yco
ntr
act
or
tort
,ca
nobta
inre
stit
uti
on
ofa
chat
tel
tow
hic
hhe
has
the
titl
e,but
whic
hhe
find
sin
the
han
ds
ofan
oth
erper
son
tow
hom
he
has
not
giv
ena
spec
ial
perm
issi
onor
righ
tto
hold
orto
use
it.
“As
toth
eR
oman
rei
vind
icat
io,
see
WE
NG
ER
127;
SoE
nti8
g,24
8,26
9;B
ucx
LA
ND
,M
AN
UA
l.139—
142;
JOL
OW
ICZ
242—
144;
cf.
in) r
ap.ii
r.
Cf.
MA
ITL
AN
D,
FO
RM
S,
22et
seq.;
PoL
LocI
cA
ND
MA
ITL
AN
D,
207,
237,
146—
148,
z66;
HO
LD
SW
OR
TII
,II
I,318
etse
q.“C
f.Jo
lly,
.Rec
ktun
dS
itte
,in
Bt’
IHL
ER
S,G
RU
ND
RIS
SD
ER
IND
O-M
US
CH
EN
PH
IL
OL
OG
IE(1
896)
8.“O
nth
ehis
tory
ofm
arket
over
tin
Engli
shla
wse
eH
OI.
DS
WO
RT
HV
,g8
,lo
s,I
IC—
III
.“S
ee
rM
n.t.
AN
DW
ILS
ON
,H
IST
OR
YO
FB
RIT
IsH
IND
IA(r
858)
i6o.
grou
nds
ofpr
ovid
ing
secu
rity
for
busi
ness
deal
ings
.T
heab
senc
eof
gen
eral
prot
ecti
onof
bona
fide
purc
hase
rsin
Eng
lish
and
Rom
anla
w,
asco
ntra
sted
with
Ger
man
law
,is
yet
anot
her
inst
ance
ofth
ead
apta
bili
tyof
com
mer
cial
inte
rest
toth
em
ost
dive
rse
syst
ems
ofsu
bsta
ntiv
ela
w.It
•il
lust
rate
s,m
oreo
ver,
the
high
degr
eeof
inde
pend
ence
whi
chch
arac
ter
izes
the
deve
lopm
ent
ofla
w.
Per
haps
anot
her
exam
ple
ofth
isde
lict
ual
•co
ncep
tion
ofle
gal
obli
gati
onca
nbe
foun
din
the
expr
essi
onm
alo
ordi
nete
nes
40th
atoc
curs
inth
eF
rank
ish
acti
onfo
rth
ere
stit
utio
nof
land
,al
thou
ghth
eco
rrec
tin
terp
reta
tion
ofth
ese
wor
dsis
ade
bata
ble
mat
ter.
Itis
quit
epo
ssib
le,
how
ever
,th
aten
tire
lydi
ffer
ent
idea
sm
ayha
vebe
enat
wor
kin
such
lega
lin
stit
utio
nsas
the
bila
tera
lR
oman
vin
di
cati
o,
41
the
Hel
leni
cdia
dik
asia
,or
the
Ger
man
icac
tion
sfo
rla
nd.
43
In•
all
thes
eca
ses
one
may
conc
lude
that
they
wer
eor
igin
ally
rega
rded
asac
tione
sde
recu
rsu,
i.e.,
acti
ons
tend
ing
toas
cert
ain
ape
rson
’sfu
llm
embe
rshi
pin
ace
rtai
nco
mm
unit
yas
base
dup
onhi
sti
tle
toa
cert
ain
piec
eof
land.
44
Aft
eral
l,fenit
es
45
mea
ns“c
omra
des,
”an
dK
lero
s46
mea
ns“c
omra
de’s
shar
e.”
Aga
in,
orig
inal
ly,
the
regu
lar
exof
ficio
pros
ecut
ion
for
ade
lict
was
asno
nexi
sten
tas
the
offi
cial
enfo
rcem
ent
ofa
judg
men
t.W
ithi
nth
eho
useh
old,
chas
tise
men
tde
rive
dfr
omth
epa
tria
rch’
sau
thor
ity
over
his
hous
ehol
d.D
ispu
tes
amon
gm
embe
rsof
aki
nshi
pgr
oup
wer
ese
ttle
dby
the
elde
rs.
How
ever
,in
all
thes
esi
tuat
ions
,th
ede
cisi
onw
heth
erpu
nish
men
tw
asto
bem
eted
out
orno
t,an
d,if
itw
as,
inw
hat
form
and
tow
hat
degr
ee,
was
anen
tire
lydi
scre
tion
ary
mat
ter,
for
‘°L
at.
—li
tera
lly:
“Y
ou
are
hold
ing
byba
dor
der,
”i.e
.,“u
nlaw
full
y.”
“S
ee
supr
afl
.34
.D
iadi
kasi
ais
adis
pute
betw
een
two
clai
man
tsaim
ing
at
aju
dici
aldecla
rati
on
asto
who
is“r
eall
y”th
eho
lder
ofth
eti
tle.
Itis
thus
not
anac
tion
for
dam
ages
bro
ught
by
anal
lege
dti
tle
hold
erag
ainst
anal
leged
wro
ngdoer
.C
f.M
xiz
aU
N’)
ScH
0EM
AN
N,
DE
EA
TT
ISC
HE
PRO
CES
S(1
824)
367;
2B
0N
NE
RA
ND
SMIT
H79
,101.
“T
hese
,as
Web
erad
ds,
“are
of
ato
tall
ydif
fere
nt
stru
ctu
re.”
As
toth
ese
acti
ons,
see
Ass
TE
A192—
199,
266;
GT
ER
ICE
,G
reoss
EN
5cH
A1T
SR
EC
HT
II,
268—
325
R.
Sohm
,F
ränk
isck
esR
echt
und
röm
isch
esR
echt
(i88o),
iSA
y.Z
.G
ER
M.
27.
“S
ee
also
WEB
ER’S
GEN
ERA
LE
CO
NO
MIC
HIs
TO
RY
(1950),
c.I.
[WIR
TS
cEA
ET
SG
ES
CE
ICIC
TE
(1923)
17,
‘91
and
lite
ratu
reth
ere
cite
d.“T
he
refe
renc
eco
uld
not
beas
cert
aine
d;po
ssib
lyit
isto
Celt
ic,
espe
cial
lyIr
ish,
law
.T
he
word
Fen
ites
may
deri
vefr
om
the
old
Iris
hna
me
Fen
iw
hic
hm
eans
the
landow
nin
gcl
ass,
but
byet
ymol
ogy
mea
nsth
em
ilit
ary
cast
e;se
eM
acN
eil,
Cel
ticL
aw,
gE
NC
YC
.S
oc.
Sci
.246;
and
byth
esa
me
auth
or,
Ear
lyIr
ish
Law
san
dIn
stit
uti
ons
(1930).
7N
.Y.U
.L.Q
.R
EV
.84
9—85
3;cf
.al
soth
epre
sent
Gae
lic
word
Fei
nas
in“F
enni
anB
roth
erho
od”
or“S
inn
Fei
nP
arty
.”“K
lero
s(G
reek
)is
that
whi
chis
assi
gned
bylo
t,i.e
..an
allo
tmen
tof
land;
cf.
Lio
nat
AN
DS
CO
TT
,G
azE
K-E
NG
LIS
HL
EX
ICO
N(1
925);
2V
n{O
GR
AD
OIT
6,,
6’,
202,
210,
253.
LA
WIN
EC
ON
OM
YA
ND
SO
CIE
TY
FIE
LD
SO
FS
UB
ST
AN
TIV
EL
AW
“cri
min
alla
w”
was
none
xist
ent.
Apr
imit
ive
form
ofcr
imin
alla
wdi
dde
velo
pou
tsid
eth
ebo
unda
ries
ofth
eho
useh
old,
part
icul
arly
insi
tua
tions
inw
hich
the
cond
uct
ofan
indi
vidu
alen
dang
ered
all
the
mem
bers
ofhi
sne
ighb
orho
od,
kins
hip,
orpo
liti
cal
asso
ciat
ion.
Such
situ
atio
nsco
uld
bebr
ough
tab
out
bytw
oty
pes
ofm
isco
nduc
t:re
ligio
usbl
asph
emy
orm
ilit
ary
diso
bedi
ence
.T
hew
hole
grou
pw
asen
dang
ered
whe
na
mag
ical
norm
,e.
g.,
ata
boo,
was
infr
inge
dan
d,in
cons
eque
nce,
the
wra
thof
mag
ical
forc
es,
spir
its
orde
ities
,th
reat
ened
tode
scen
dw
ithev
ilco
nse
quen
ces
not
mer
ely
upon
the
blas
phem
er(o
rcr
imin
al)
him
self
but
upon
the
who
leco
mm
unit
yw
hich
suff
ered
him
toex
ist
wit
hin
thei
rm
idst
.S
tim
ulat
edby
mag
ior
prie
sts,
the
mem
bers
ofth
eco
mm
unit
yw
ould
outl
awth
ecu
lpri
tor
lync
hhi
m,
asfo
rin
stan
ceth
roug
hst
onin
gam
ong
the
Jew
s.O
rel
seth
eym
ight
cond
uct
anex
piat
ory
relig
ious
tria
l.B
las
phem
ous
acts
wer
eth
usth
em
ain
sour
ceof
wha
tm
aybe
calle
d“i
ntr
agr
oup
puni
shm
ent”
asdi
stin
guis
hed
from
“int
er-g
roup
veng
eanc
e.”
The
seco
ndso
urce
for
such
puni
shm
ent
was
poli
tica
lor
,or
igin
ally
,m
ilit
ary.
Any
one
enda
nger
ing
bytr
each
ery
orco
war
dice
the
secu
rity
ofth
eco
lle
ctiv
efi
ghtin
gfo
rces
or,
afte
rso
me
code
ofm
ilit
ary
disc
iplin
ebe
cam
ees
tabl
ishe
d,by
diso
bedi
ence
,ha
dto
reck
onw
ithth
epu
niti
vere
acti
ons
ofth
ew
arlo
rdor
the
arm
y.
47
And
alth
ough
,of
cour
se,
ape
rson
’sm
ili
tary
mis
beha
vior
had
firs
tto
bees
tabl
ishe
das
afa
ct,
the
proc
edur
efo
rth
efi
ndin
gof
this
fact
was
very
sum
mar
yin
deed
.
6.im
peri
um.
Fro
mth
epr
edom
inan
ceof
veng
eanc
eto
the
form
atio
nof
afi
rmly
fixe
dan
dfo
rmal
ized
crim
inal
proc
edur
ea
dire
ctlin
eof
deve
lopm
ent
can
betr
aced
.A
sw
eha
vese
en,
the
puni
tive
reac
tion
sof
the
mas
ter
ofa
dom
estic
grou
p,or
ofth
ere
ligio
usor
mil
itar
yau
thori
ties,
wer
ein
gene
ral
free
from
proc
edur
alfo
rmal
ity
orru
le.It
istr
ueth
atth
epu
niti
vepo
wer
sof
the
mas
ter
ofa
hous
ehol
dbe
cam
eto
som
eex
tent
rest
rict
edby
the
inte
rven
tion
ofth
eel
ders
ofhi
sow
ngr
oup
orth
ere
ligio
usor
mil
itar
yau
thor
itie
sin
char
geof
cert
ain
intr
a-gr
oup
rela
tions
,bu
tby
and
larg
eth
em
aste
rre
mai
ned
ala
wun
tohi
mse
lfw
ithin
his
sphe
rean
dhe
was
boun
dby
lega
lru
les
only
inve
rysp
ecia
lca
ses.
Asl
ow,
and
inits
resu
ltva
ryin
g,su
bjec
tion
toru
les
occu
rred
,how
ever
,as
toth
epr
imit
ive
nond
omes
tic
pow
ers,
i.e.
the
hous
ehol
dlik
epo
wer
exer
cise
dby
patr
imon
ial
mon
arch
yin
rela
tion
squ
ite
diff
eren
tfr
omth
ose
ofa
hous
ehol
d,or
,in
othe
rw
ords
,as
toth
ose
pow
ers
whi
char
eco
ntai
ned
inth
eco
ncep
tof
impe
rium
.W
esh
all
not
disc
uss
here
the
‘F
orth
em
ilit
ary
puni
shm
ent
impo
sed
byth
eR
om
anco
mU
iace
ntur
iata
see
MA
INE
37
4—
38
2;
LOw
IE,
Om
uon
0’
TH
ES
TA
TE
(1927)
102—
108;
and
the
sam
eau
thor
’sP
RIM
ITIV
ES
OC
IET
Y(1
920)
385,
394—
396.
57or
igin
sof
the
proc
ess
byw
hich
defi
nite
rule
sbe
cam
ees
tabl
ishe
d.N
orsh
all
we
disc
uss,
atan
yra
teat
pres
ent,
whe
ther
the
hold
erof
impe
rium
impo
sed
them
onhi
mse
lfin
his
own
inte
rest
,or
whe
ther
heha
dto
doso
invi
ewof
the
fact
ual
limits
wit
hin
whi
chhe
wou
ldfi
ndob
edie
nce,
orw
heth
erth
eyw
ere
impo
sed
upon
him
byot
her
pow
ers.
All
thes
eques
tions
will
bede
alt
wit
hin
our
anal
ysis
ofdom
inat
ion.
48
Impe
rium
has
al
way
sin
clud
ed,
how
ever
—an
din
the
past
toan
even
grea
ter
exte
ntth
anto
day
—th
epo
wer
topu
nish
and,
inpa
rtic
ular
,th
epo
wer
tocr
ush
diso
bedi
ence
not
mer
ely
thro
ugh
the
dire
ctap
plic
atio
nof
forc
ebu
tth
roug
hth
eth
reat
ofde
trim
ent
asw
ell.
The
pow
erto
puni
shco
uld
bedi
rect
edag
ains
tce
rtai
nsu
bord
inat
e“o
ffic
ials
”w
hoex
erci
sed
impe
rium
orag
ains
tth
ose
who
wer
esu
bjec
ted
toit
spo
wer
.In
the
form
erca
se,
we
spea
kof
disc
ipli
nary
pow
er,
and
inth
ela
tter
,of
the
pow
erto
infl
ict
puni
shm
ent.
Inth
isco
ntex
t,“p
ubli
cla
w”
isdi
rect
lyco
nnec
ted
wit
hcr
imin
alla
w;
and
we
can
stat
e,at
any
rate
,th
atbo
thcr
imin
alla
wan
dcr
imin
alpr
oced
ure
dono
tbe
gin
tobe
syst
emat
ical
lytr
eate
dun
less
ther
ear
eat
leas
tso
me
rule
sw
hich
are
reco
gniz
edas
fact
uall
ybi
ndin
g.
7.L
imit
atio
nof
Pow
eran
dS
epar
atio
nof
Pow
ers.
Such
norm
sas
thos
eju
stm
enti
oned
alw
ays
act
asre
stra
ints
upon
the
impe
rium
wit
hin
the
sphe
rein
whi
chth
eyob
tain
.O
nth
eot
her
hand
,no
tev
ery
rest
rain
tpo
sses
ses
“nor
mat
ive”
char
acte
r.N
owth
ere
are
two
kind
sof
rest
rain
ts,
viz.
,(r
)li
mit
atio
nsof
pow
er,
and
(2)
sepa
rati
onof
pow
ers.
Lim
itat
ion
ofpo
wer
exis
tsw
here
,du
eto
sacr
edtr
adit
ion
oren
actm
ent,
apa
rtic
ular
impe
rium
isre
stra
ined
byth
eri
ghts
ofit
ssu
bjec
ts.
The
pow
er-h
olde
rm
ayis
sue
only
com
man
dsof
ace
rtai
nty
pe,
orhe
may
issu
eal
lso
rts
ofco
mm
ands
exce
ptin
cert
ain
case
sor
subj
ect
toce
rtai
nco
nditi
ons.
Whe
ther
thes
eli
mit
atio
nspo
sses
s“l
egal
,”“c
onve
ntio
nal,”
orm
erel
y“c
usto
mar
y”st
atus
,is
tobe
answ
ered
inea
chca
seby
asce
rtai
ning
whe
ther
the
mai
nten
ance
ofth
eli
mit
atio
nsis
guar
ante
edby
aco
erci
veor
gani
zati
on(w
hose
coer
cive
mea
nsm
aybe
mor
eor
less
effe
ctiv
e)or
whe
ther
they
are
mai
ntai
ned
only
byco
nven
tion
aldi
sapp
rova
lor
whe
ther
inth
ela
stan
alys
isth
ere
isno
agre
edli
mit
atio
nat
all.
The
othe
rki
ndof
rest
rain
t(“
sepa
rati
onof
pow
ers”
)ex
ists
whe
reon
eim
peri
umco
nflic
tsw
ithan
othe
rim
peri
um,
eith
ereq
ual
orin
cert
ain
resp
ects
supe
rior
toit,
but
the
legi
tim
ate
vali
dity
ofw
hich
isfu
lly
reco
gniz
edas
lim
itin
gth
eex
tent
ofits
auth
orit
y.B
oth
lim
itat
ion
ofpo
wer
and
sepa
rati
onof
pow
ers
may
exis
tto
geth
er,
and
itis
this
coex
iste
nce
whi
chso
dist
inct
ivel
ych
arac
teri
zes
the
moder
nst
ate
wit
hits
dis
trib
uti
on
ofco
mpet
ence
among
its
var
ious
orga
ns.
Indee
d,
this
moder
nst
ate
ises
senti
ally
char
acte
rize
dby
‘8lnjr
ac.
XII
.
I
58L
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
Yth
efo
llow
ing
crit
eria
:It
isa
cons
ocia
tion
ofbe
arer
sof
cert
ain
defi
ned
impe
ria;
thes
ebe
arer
sar
ese
lect
edac
cord
ing
toes
tabl
ishe
dru
les;
thei
rim
peri
aar
ede
lim
itat
edfr
omea
chot
her
byge
nera
lru
les
ofse
par
atio
nof
pow
ers;
and
inte
rnal
lyea
chof
them
find
sth
ele
giti
mac
yof
its
pow
erof
com
man
dde
fine
dby
set
rule
sof
lim
itat
ion
ofpo
wer
.B
oth
sepa
rati
onof
pow
ers
and
lim
itat
ion
ofpo
wer
may
assu
me
stru
ctu
ral
form
squ
ite
diff
eren
tfr
omth
ose
inw
hich
they
appe
arin
the
mod
ern
stat
e.E
spec
iall
yis
this
true
ofth
ese
para
tion
ofpo
wer
s.It
sst
ruct
ure
was
diff
eren
tin
the
anci
ent
Rom
anla
wof
inte
rces
sion
ofpa
rm
ajor
vepote
stas
49
asw
ell
asin
the
patr
imon
ial,
the
corp
orat
e,an
dth
efe
udal
type
sof
stat
eorg
aniz
atio
n.
50
Non
ethe
less
,th
ere
istr
uth
inM
onte
squi
eu’s
asse
rtio
nth
atit
was
only
thro
ugh
the
sepa
rati
onof
pow
ers
that
the
very
conc
ept
ofpu
blic
law
was
mad
eposs
ible
.5’
But
this
prop
osit
ion
mus
tbe
unde
rsto
odco
rrec
tly
inth
ese
nse
that
the
sepa
rati
onof
pow
ers
need
not
nece
ssar
ily
beof
the
sort
that
heth
ough
the
had
foun
din
Eng
land
.O
nth
eot
her
hand
,no
tev
ery
kind
ofse
para
tion
ofpo
wer
sle
ads
toth
eid
eaof
apu
blic
law
,bu
ton
lyth
atty
pew
hich
ispe
culi
arto
the
idea
ofth
est
ate
asa
rati
onal
lyor
gani
zed
inst
itut
ion.
The
reas
onw
hya
syst
emat
icth
eory
ofpu
blic
law
was
deve
lope
don
lyin
Wes
tern
coun
trie
sis
sim
ply
that
only
inth
ese
coun
trie
sha
dth
epo
liti
cal
orga
niza
tion
assu
med
the
form
ofan
inst
itut
ion
wit
hra
tion
ally
dove
tail
edju
risd
icti
ons
and
ase
para
tion
ofpo
wer
s.A
sfa
ras
anti
quit
yis
conc
erne
d,it
had
asy
stem
atic
theo
ryof
the
stat
epr
ecis
ely
toth
eex
tent
that
ther
eex
iste
da
rati
onal
sepa
rati
onof
pow
ers:
the
doct
rine
ofth
eim
peri
aof
the
seve
ral
Rom
anm
agis
trat
esw
asel
abor
ated
ina
syst
emat
icm
anner
.12
Eve
ryth
ing
else
was
esse
ntia
lly
poli
tica
lph
ilos
ophy
rath
erth
anco
nsti
tuti
onal
law
.In
the
Mid
dle
Age
s,se
para
tion
ofpo
wer
sap
pear
edon
lyin
the
com
peti
tion
amon
gpr
ivile
ges,
feud
alcl
aim
s,an
dot
her
righ
ts;
cons
eque
ntly
.th
ere
was
nose
para
tetr
eatm
ent
ofco
nsti
tuti
onal
law
.W
hate
ver
ther
ew
asof
itw
asco
ntai
ned
infe
udal
and
man
oria
lla
w.
The
deci
sive
lega
lco
ncep
tions
ofm
oder
npu
blic
law
owe
thei
ror
igin
toa
pecu
liar
com
bina
tion
ofse
vera
lfa
ctor
s.A
sa
mat
ter
ofhi
stor
ical
fact
,th
eyow
eit
toth
era
tion
alfo
rmal
cons
ocia
tion
ofpr
ivil
eged
pers
ons
inpu
blic
corp
orat
ions
ofth
eA
nof
fici
alof
equa
lor
high
erpo
wer
(par
mai
orve
pale
stas
)co
uld,
thro
ugh
his
“ste
ppin
gin
”(i
nter
cess
ia),
Sto
pth
eac
tivi
ties
ofot
her
offi
cial
s;cf
.M
OM
MS
EN
22;
L.
HO
MO
,R
OM
AN
PO
LIT
ICA
LIN
ST
ITU
TIo
NS
(2929)
29.
45,
221—
223;
JoL
oW
!cz
H,
43,
45,
47,
337;
cf.
also
W.u
.G.
567;
Web
er.
Die
Sta
dt
(7A
RC
Hly
1tR
SO
ZIA
LW
ISS
.vze
nS
OZ
IAL
PO
LIT
IK,
1920/2
1)
712.
‘°W
.u.G
.P
art
III,
cc.
VI
and
VII
.51
MO
NT
ES
QU
IEU
,SP
IRIT
or
TH
ELA
WS
(Nug
ent
tran
sl.
1949
)551.
‘Cf.
HO
MO
,op
.ci
t.,su
bti
t.“i
mpe
rium
”(i
ndex
),es
p.pp
.206—
235;
1M
orr
SEN
76—
igz
;W
.H
EIT
LA
NO
,R
OM
AN
RE
PU
BL
IC(1
909)
vol.
I,su
bli
t.“im
peri
um
.”
FIE
LD
SO
FS
UB
ST
AN
TIV
EL
AW
59co
rpor
ativ
est
ate
whi
chin
crea
sing
lyco
mbi
ned
both
sepa
rati
onan
dli
mit
atio
nof
pow
ers
wit
hin
stit
utio
nal
stru
ctur
e.A
sa
mat
ter
ofle
gal
theo
ry,
they
owe
itto
the
Rom
anco
ncep
tof
the
corp
orat
ion,
the
idea
sof
natu
ral
law
,an
d,fi
nally
,F
renc
hle
gal
theo
ry.
We
shal
lde
alw
ith
this
deve
lopm
ent
ofm
oder
npu
blic
law
inou
rch
apte
ron
auth
ori
ty.
53
Inth
efo
llow
ing
sect
ions
we
shal
lde
alm
ainl
yw
ith
law
mak
ing
and
law
find
ing,
but
only
inco
nnec
tion
wit
hth
ose
econ
omic
ally
rele
vant
sphe
res
whi
chto
day
are
left
topr
ivat
ela
wan
dci
vil p
roce
dure
.
8.S
ubst
anti
veL
awan
dP
roce
dure
.A
ccor
ding
toou
rco
ntem
pora
rym
odes
ofle
gal
thou
ght,
the
acti
viti
esof
poli
tica
lor
gani
zati
ons
fall,
asre
gard
s“l
aw,”
into
two
cate
gori
es,
viz.
,la
wm
akin
gan
dla
wfi
ndin
g,th
ela
tter
invo
lvin
g“e
xecu
tion
”as
ate
chni
cal
mat
ter.
Tod
ayw
eun
ders
tand
byla
wm
akin
gth
ees
tabl
ishm
ent
ofge
nera
lno
rms
whi
chin
the
law
yers
’th
ough
tas
sum
eth
ech
arac
ter
ofra
tion
alru
les
ofla
w.
Law
find
ing,
asw
eun
ders
tand
it,is
the
“app
lica
tion
”of
such
esta
blis
hed
norm
san
dth
ele
gal
prop
osit
ions
dedu
ced
ther
efro
mby
lega
lth
inki
ng,
toco
ncre
te“f
acts
”w
hich
are
“sub
sum
ed”
unde
rth
ese
norm
s.H
owev
er,
this
mod
eof
thou
ght
has
byno
mea
nsbe
enco
mm
onto
all
peri
ods
ofhi
stor
y.T
hedi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
nla
wm
akin
gas
crea
tion
ofge
nera
lno
rms
and
law
-fi
ndin
gas
appl
icat
ion
ofth
ese
norm
sto
part
icul
arca
ses
does
not
exis
tw
here
adju
dica
tion
is“a
dmin
istr
atio
n”in
the
sens
eof
free
deci
sion
from
case
toca
se.
Insu
cha
situ
atio
n,it
isno
ton
lyth
ele
gal
norm
that
isla
ckin
g,bu
tal
soth
eid
eaof
apa
rty’
sri
ght
toha
veit
appl
ied
tohi
sca
se.
The
sam
eis
true
whe
rela
wap
pear
sas
“pri
vil
ege”
54
and
whe
re,
acco
rdin
gly,
the
idea
ofan
“app
lica
tion
”of
lega
lno
rms
asth
efo
unda
tion
ofa
lega
lcl
aim
coul
dno
tha
vear
isen
.A
gain
,th
edi
stin
ctio
nbe
twee
nla
wm
akin
gan
dla
wfi
ndin
gis
abse
ntw
here
ver,
but
only
toth
eex
tent
that
,la
wfi
ndin
gis
not
conc
eive
das
anap
plic
atio
nof
gene
ral
norm
sto
conc
rete
case
s.In
othe
rw
ords
,th
edi
stin
ctio
nis
abse
ntin
all
case
sof
irra
tion
alad
judic
atio
n,w
hich
has
been
not
only
the
prim
itiv
efo
rmof
adju
dica
tion
but
whi
ch,
asw
esh
allse
e,
55
has
also
prev
aile
d,ei
ther
inits
pure
orin
som
em
odif
ied
form
, thr
ough
out a
llhi
stor
yin
allp
arts
ofth
ew
orld
exce
ptth
ose
inw
hich
Rom
anla
wca
me
toob
tain
.Si
mila
rly,
the
dist
inct
ion
betw
een
rule
sof
law
tobe
appl
ied
inth
epr
oces
sof
law
find
ing,
and
rule
sre
gar
din
gth
atpr
oces
sits
elf,
has
not
alw
ays
been
draw
nas
clea
rly
asth
atw
hich
isdr
awn
toda
ybe
twee
nsu
bsta
ntiv
ean
dpr
oced
ural
law
.W
here
lega
lpr
oced
ure
rest
edup
onth
eim
peri
um’s
infl
uenc
eup
onth
epl
eadi
ngs,
as,
W.u
.G.,
Par
tII
I,c.
VI.
‘Se
ein
fra,
p.267.
Infr
a,C
.V
.
6oL
AW
INE
CO
NO
MY
AN
DS
OC
IET
Yfo
rin
stan
ce,
inea
rly
Rom
anla
w,
or,
ina
tech
nica
lly
quit
edi
ffer
ent
way
,in
Eng
lish
law
,it
isea
syto
hold
the
noti
onth
atsu
bsta
ntiv
ele
gal
clai
ms
are
iden
tica
lw
ith
the
righ
tto
mak
eus
eof
proc
edur
alfo
rms
ofac
tion
such
asth
eR
oman
acti
o5°
orth
eE
nglis
hw
rit.
57
Inol
der
Rom
anle
gal
doct
rine
the
line
ofde
mar
cati
onbe
twee
npr
oced
ural
and
priv
ate
law
was
thus
not
draw
nin
the
way
itis
draw
nby
us.
For
quit
edi
ffer
ent
reas
ons,
asi
mil
arm
ixtu
reof
prob
lem
sw
hich
we
wou
ldre
spec
tive
lyca
llpro
cedu
ral
and
subs
tant
ive
was
apt
toar
ise
whe
read
judi
cati
onw
asba
sed
onir
rati
onal
mod
esof
proo
f,su
chas
the
oath
orw
ager
ofla
win
thei
ror
igin
alm
agic
alsi
gnif
ican
ce,
orup
onor
deal
s.T
heri
ght
ordu
tyto
reso
rt,
orsu
bmit
,to
such
sign
ific
ant
acts
ofm
agic
was
then
aco
mpo
nent
ofa
subs
tant
ive
lega
lcl
aim
orev
enid
enti
cal
with
it.N
ever
thel
ess,
the
dis
tinc
tion
betw
een
rule
sof
proc
edur
alan
dof
subs
tant
ive
law
was
inhe
rent
inth
edi
stin
ctio
nm
ade
inth
eM
iddl
eA
ges
betw
een
Ric
hist
eige
,on
the
one
hand
,an
d“m
irro
rsof
law
,”58
onth
eot
her.
Thi
sdi
stin
ctio
nw
asno
less
clea
rth
anth
atw
hic
hw
asm
ade
inth
eR
oman
s’ea
rly
effo
rts
atsy
stem
atiz
atio
n,
5°al
thou
ghit
was
mad
ein
aso
mew
hat
diff
eren
tw
ay.
KA
szn
274;
Nov
as‘4
6.
See
MA
ITL
AN
D,
FO
RM
S78
.E
RIC
HT
ST
EIG
—a
book
cont
aini
ngad
vice
asto
how
toin
itia
tean
dpr
osec
ute
ala
wsu
it.
RE
CH
TS
BU
CH
(Spi
egel
,“M
irro
rof
Law
”)—
aha
ndbo
okof
law
,es
peci
ally
ofsu
bsta
ntiv
ela
w.
As
tobo
th,
see
ST
OB
BE
I,2
86
etse
q.,
390
etse
q.,
II,
14
3et
seq.
CA
mS
’IN
ST
ITU
TE
S(c
a.161
A.D
.)is
the
olde
stw
ork
acce
ssib
leto
usin
whi
chw
efi
ndth
atar
rang
emen
tof
the
mat
eria
lsin
the
thre
epa
rts
ofP
erso
ns,
Thi
ngs,
and
Act
ions
,w
hich
was
trad
itio
nall
yfo
llow
edun
til
the
eigh
teen
thce
ntur
y.
Cha
pter
IV
CA
TE
GO
RIE
SO
FL
EG
AL
TH
OU
GH
T’
As
we
have
alre
ady
poin
ted
out,
the
mod
ein
whi
chth
ecu
rren
tba
sic
conc
eptio
nsof
the
vari
ous
fiel
dsof
law
have
been
diff
eren
tiat
edfr
omea
chot
her
has
depe
nded
larg
ely
upon
fact
ors
ofle
gal
tech
niqu
ean
dof
poli
tica
lor
gani
zati
on.
Eco
nom
icfa
ctor
sca
nth
eref
ore
besa
idto
have
had
anin
dire
ctin
flue
nce
only
.T
obe
sure
,ec
onom
icin
flue
nces
have
play
edth
eir
part
,bu
ton
lyto
this
exte
nt:
that
cert
ain
rati
onal
izat
ions
ofec
onom
icbe
havi
or,
base
dup
onsu
chph
enom
ena
asa
mar
ket
econ
omy
orfr
eedo
mof
cont
ract
,an
dth
ere
sult
ing
awar
enes
sof
unde
rlyi
ng,
and
incr
easi
ngly
com
plex
conf
licts
ofin
tere
sts
tobe
reso
lved
byle
gal
mac
hine
ry,
have
infl
uenc
edth
esy
stem
atiz
atio
nof
the
law
orha
vein
tens
ifie
dth
ein
stit
utio
nali
zati
onof
poli
tica
lso
ciet
y.W
esh
all
have
occa
sion
toob
serv
eth
istim
ean
dag
ain.
All
othe
rpu
rely
econ
omic
infl
uenc
esm
erel
yoc
cur
asco
ncre
tein
stan
ces
and
cann
otbe
form
ulat
edin
gene
ral
rule
s.O
nth
eot
her
hand
,w
esh
all
freq
uent
lyse
eth
atth
ose
aspe
cts
ofla
ww
hich
are
cond
itio
ned
bypo
liti
cal
fact
ors
and
byth
ein
tern
alst
ruct
ure
ofle
gal
thou
ght
have
exer
cise
da
stro
ngin
flue
nce
onec
onom
icor
gani
zati
on.
Inth
efo
llow
ing
para
grap
hs,
we
shal
lde
albr
iefl
yw
ith
the
mos
tim
port
ant
cond
itio
nsby
whi
chth
efo
rmal
char
acte
rist
ics
ofla
w,
i.e.,
law
mak
ing
and
law
find
ing,
have
been
infl
uenc
ed. W
esh
all
bees
peci
ally
inte
rest
edin
obse
rvin
gth
eex
tent
and
the
natu
reof
the
rati
on
alit
yof
the
law
and,
quit
epa
rtic
ular
ly,
ofth
atbr
anch
ofit
whi
chis
rele
vant
toec
onom
iclif
e,vi
z., p
riva
tela
w.
Abo
dyof
law
can
be“r
atio
nal”
inse
vera
ldi
ffer
ent
sens
es,
depe
ndin
gon
whi
chof
seve
ral
poss
ible
cour
ses
lega
lth
inki
ngta
kes
tow
ard
rati
on
aliz
atio
n.L
etus
begi
nw
ithth
eap
pare
ntly
mos
tel
emen
tary
thou
ght
proc
ess,
viz.
,ge
nera
liza
tion
,i.e
.,in
our
case
,th
ere
duct
ion
ofth
ere
ason
sre
leva
ntin
the
deci
sion
ofco
ncre
tein
divi
dual
case
sto
one
orm
ore
“pri
nci
ples
,”i.e
.,le
gal
prop
osit
ions
.T
his
proc
ess
ofre
duct
ion
isno
rmal
lyco
ndit
iona
lup
ona
prio
ror
conc
urre
ntan
alys
isof
the
fact
sof
the
case
asto
thos
eul
tim
ate
com
pone
nts
whi
char
ere
gard
edas
rele
vant
inth
eju
rist
icva
luat
ion.
Con
vers
ely,
the
elab
orat
ion
ofev
erm
ore
com
preh
ensi
ve“l
egal
prop
osit
ions
”re
acts
upon
the
spec
ific
atio
nan
dde
lim
itat
ion
ofth
epo
tent
iall
yre
leva
ntch
arac
teri
stic
sof
the
fact
s.T
hepr
oces
sbo
th‘W
.u.G
.39
5—39
7.
