MC20

CHAPTER 20

Foreign Policy and Military Policy

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

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1. The proper conduct of foreign affairs requires precisely those qualities least likely to be present in democratic nations according to

a. Tocqueville.b. Metternich.c. Talleyrand.d. Franklin.e. Hegel.

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2. Alexis de Tocqueville suggested that the proper conduct of foreign affairs requires

a. an equal balance of majoritarian, client, and interest group politics.

b. power that is shared among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government.

c. sensitivity to culture and courage to act forcefully.d. precisely those qualities most lacking in democratic nations.e. unmitigated allegiance and a stoic disposition.

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3. Issues regarding a nuclear-test-ban treaty, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Alliance, and a Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT) agreement are all examples of

a. neo-institutional politics.b. interest group politics.c. entrepreneurial politics.d. client politics.e. majoritarian politics.

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4. All of the following are examples of majoritarian politics in foreign policy except

a. a nuclear test ban treaty.b. a quota system on Japanese steel imports.c. military alliances in Western Europe.d. a strategic arms limitation treaty (SALT) agreement.e. A, B, and C.

Copyright © Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

671 Chapter 20: Foreign Policy and Military Policy

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5. All of the following policies reflect interest group politics in foreign policy except

a. government policy toward Cyprus.b. tariffs and quotas on Japanese steel imports.c. alliances with Western Europe.d. the ABM defense system.e. A and D.


6. U.S. policy toward Cyprus and tariffs on Japanese steel imports would be examples of

a. majoritarian politics.b. interest group politics.c. entrepreneurial politics.d. client politics.e. neo-institutional politics.


7. Washington's provision of assistance to U.S. corporations doing business abroad is an example of _____ politics.

a. majoritarianb. clientc. interest groupd. entrepreneuriale. neo-institutional

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8. Which of the following statements about the president's power in foreign affairs it true?

a. It is greater than that of leaders of other nations.b. It has rarely caused great controversy or political debate.c. It is probably less than the Framers intended.d. It is strictly limited by the federal court system.e. It is greater than his or her power over domestic affairs.


9. Presidents have asserted the right to send troops abroad on their own authority in more than _______ instances.

a. 13b. 20c. 35d. 45e. 125

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10. Only ____ of the thirteen major wars this country has fought have followed a formal declaration of war.

a. 7b. 5c. 3d. 2e. 1


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11. The Senate has well over _______ treaties since 1789 but, in the same time period, presidents have signed around _______ executive orders.

a. 500 . . . 1,000b. 500 . . . 2,000c. 1,000 . . . 3,000d. 1,000 . . . 7,000e. 1,000 . . . an unknown amount


12. All of the following presidencies were characterized by leadership in foreign policy by the secretary of state except

a. Harry S. Trumanb. John F. Kennedyc. Bill Clintond. Gerald Forde. Dwight D. Eisenhower


13. Which of the following presidencies was not characterized by White House dominance of foreign policy?

a. Dwight Eisenhowerb. John F. Kennedyc. Franklin D. Rooseveltd. Richard M. Nixone. none of these

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14. The president usually takes the leading role in foreign policy issues that are matters of



15. In foreign policy issues that are majoritarian in nature, decision-making tends to be dominated by

a. the president.b. Congress.c. the bureaucracy.d. public opinion.e. influential members of the Senate.




16. Congress plays a leading role in foreign policy issues that are matters of



17. When either interest group or client politics is involved in issues of foreign policy, a much larger role is played by

a. the president.b. Congress.c. the State Department.d. public opinion.e. influential members of the House of Representatives.


18. All of the following kinds of politics matter in foreign affairs. Which kind determines the most important issues?

a. majoritarian politics.b. interest group politics.c. bureaucratic politics.d. client politics.e. neo-institutional politics.

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19. The constitutional power to appoint ambassadors and to negotiate treaties is vested in the

a. State Department.b. Senate.c. president.d. Congress.e. the House.


20. In the conduct of foreign affairs, the president has constitutionally been vested with each of the following powers except

a. the power to act as commander-in-chief of the armed forces.b. the power to appoint ambassadors.c. the power to declare war on other nations.d. the power to negotiate treaties with other nations.e. A, B and C.




21. The constitutional power to declare war and to regulate commerce with other nations is vested in the

a. State Department.b. Senate.c. president.d. the House of Representatives.e. Congress.


22. In the conduct of foreign affairs, Congress has all of the following powers except

a. the power to appropriate money for the armed forces.b. the power to declare war on other nations.c. the power to appoint ambassadors.d. the power to regulate commerce with other nations.e. the power to authorize money for the armed forces.


23. How many times have U.S. presidents sent troops abroad without the authorization of Congress?

a. noneb. tenc. approximately fiftyd. more than 100e. more than 300


24. Since 1789 the Senate has ratified some _______ treaties. Presidents during this time have signed about _______ executive agreements without Senate approval.

a. 100; 700b. 700; 100c. 1,000; 7,000d. 7,000; 1,000e. 100; 20,000


25. Presidential success with Congress on foreign policy matters, compared with presidential success on domestic matters, is

a. impossible to determine.b. about the same.c. decidedly less.d. somewhat greater.e. decidedly greater.




26. Compared with the leaders of other nations, the ability of a U.S. president to act decisively during times of foreign crisis is generally

a. more limited.b. less limited.c. about as limited.d. more constrained by the courts, less constrained by the

legislature.e. more constrained by both the courts and the legislature.


27. An example of the relative weakness of U.S. presidents in foreign affairs, compared to leaders of other nations, was

a. Reagan's indecisiveness during the Grenada crisis.b. Bush's inability to recruit congressional support for Operation

Desert Storm.c. Wilson's inability to lead the United States into the League of

Nations.d. Kennedy's unwillingness to commit troops to Vietnam.e. Johnson's unwillingness to commit troops to Vietnam.

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28. All of the following presidents were dominant in setting foreign policy except

a. Franklin Roosevelt.b. John Kennedy.c. Dwight Eisenhower.d. Richard Nixon.e. C and D.

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29. Which of the following statements about Presidents Franklin Roosevelt, John Kennedy, and Richard Nixon is true?

a. They were all dominant in setting foreign policy.b. They all initiated wars prior to getting congressional approval.c. They all left major foreign policy issues to expert advisers.d. They were all relatively uninformed on foreign policy when

first elected.e. They generally left matters related to foreign policy in the

hands of the Secretary of State.


30. When a U.S. president signs a treaty with another nation, he or she is issuing

a. his or her personal guarantee that the United States will act in a prescribed fashion.

b. a legal mandate that has been approved by both the courts.c. a congressional promise that the United States will act in a

prescribed fashion.d. a legal mandate that has been approved by Congress.e. his or her promise to try to get the Senate to go along.




31. The branch of government least involved in foreign policy disputes has traditionally been

a. Congress.b. the Supreme Court.c. the executive branch.d. all of these.e. A and B.


32. When legal issues have arisen out of foreign policy disputes between the president and Congress, the Supreme Court has generally

a. favored Congress.b. favored the president.c. refused to intervene.d. interpreted the U.S. Constitution quite literally.e. relied upon the Solicitor General to resolve conflicts.


33. An example cited by the text of the Supreme Court's reluctance to intervene in foreign policy disputes between the president and congress was its position on

a. the Nixon-Watergate scandal.b. Franklin Roosevelt's relocation of 100,000 Japanese-

Americans.c. Jimmy Carter's attempt to rescue hostages held in Iran.d. Ronald Reagan's decision to send troops to Lebanon.e. Bill Clinton’s decision to bomb a weapons depot.


34. An example cited by the text of the Supreme Court's reluctance to intervene in foreign policy disputes between the president and congress was its position on

a. the Nixon-Watergate scandal.b. Abraham Lincoln's illegal measures during the Civil War.c. Jimmy Carter's attempt to rescue hostages held in Iran.d. Ronald Reagan's decision to send troops to Lebanon.e. Bill Clinton’s decision to bomb a weapons depot.


35. The most important check on what the president can do in foreign affairs is

a. the Supreme Court.b. the Pentagon bureaucracy.c. the two-party system.d. the Joint Chiefs of Staff.e. congressional control over the purse strings.




36. Which of the following statements about foreign policy during the civil war in Angola is correct?

a. Congress forbade Gerald Ford from aiding one side.b. Jimmy Carter refused to intervene, despite congressional

insistence.c. Ronald Reagan secretly sent aid, although it was illegal for him

to do so.d. The United States took a strong hands-off position.e. None of these.


37. In 1970 Congress forbade Gerald Ford to aid a faction in the civil war in

a. Mexico.b. Afghanistan.c. Poland.d. Angola.e. Libya.


38. Congress sometimes acts to limit the president's ability to commit military or economic aid to other countries, as in the case of

a. economic aid to Senegal during the Senegalese civil war.b. arms sales to Turkey during the dispute over Cyprus.c. the sale of jets to Iran during the 1991 Persian Gulf War.d. emergency relief aid to Bangladesh during the 1984 flood.e. the sharing of off axis satellite technology with Israel during

the invasion of Kuwait.


39. Congress sometimes acts to limit the president's ability to commit military or economic aid to other countries, as in the case of

a. economic aid to Senegal during its dispute with Chad.b. aid to the pro-Western faction in the Angloan civil war.c. the sale of jets to Iran during the 1991 Persian Gulf War.d. emergency relief aid to Bangladesh during the 1984 flood.e. the sharing of off axis satellite technology with Israel during

the invasion of Kuwait.


40. The War Powers Act of 1973 requires that

a. Congress not interfere with the president's role as commander-in-chief.

b. the president not spend money for military engagements without the prior approval of Congress.

c. the president consult with Congress when sending troops into a new conflict.

d. Congress declare war whenever the president sends troops into a conflict.

e. troops be removed from conflicts within 120 days of the beginning of an operation.




41. The War Powers Act of 1973 requires that

a. Congress not interfere with the president's role as commander-in-chief.

b. the president not spend money for military engagements without the prior approval of Congress.

c. troops be committed for only sixty days without a formal declaration of war.

d. Congress declare war whenever the president sends troops into a conflict.

e. troops be removed from conflicts within 120 days of the beginning of an operation.


42. In 1973 Congress adopted the ________, which required the president to consult with Congress before sending U.S. troops into action.

a. War Powers Actb. Twenty-sixth Amendmentc. Declaration and Intention Amendmentd. Foreign Relations Limited Security Clausee. Boland-Fry Amendment


43. Beginning in 1983, Congress debated whether to fund covert Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) aid to rebels trying to overthrow the government of

a. Poland.b. Libya.c. El Salvador.d. Pakistan.e. Nicaragua.


44. Which of the following statements about congressional oversight of Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) covert activities is true?

a. Congress has no authority to disapprove of such activities.b. Congress must approve those activities that involve political

assassination.c. Congress must approve those activities that involve military

expenditures.d. Congress has blanket authority to approve or disapprove of

such activities.e. Congress must approve those activities which will extend more

than 60 days.




45. Foreign policy became the first item on the president's agenda at what period in U.S. history?

a. during and after the Civil Warb. during and after World War Ic. during and after World War IId. during and after the Vietnam Ware. during and after the Gulf War


46. The text suggests that _______ president(s) has/have recognized the War Powers Act as constitutional.

a. Democraticb. Republicanc. first termd. everye. no

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47. According to the text, the United State's achievement of major power status caused the formation of its foreign policy to be characterized by

a. imperialism and the concentration of decision making.b. concentrated decision making and indecisiveness.c. indecisiveness and greater presidential involvement.d. greater presidential involvement and policy making by many

new agencies.e. less presidential involvement and policy making by one or two

new agencies.


48. The decision-making machinery in U.S. foreign policy can best be described as

a. highly concentrated.b. tightly coordinated.c. multicentered.d. majoritarian.e. bipartisan.


49. Federal agencies that have agents or missions abroad include all of the following except

a. Department of Agriculture.b. Department of the Interior.c. Department of Labor.d. Drug Enforcement Administration.e. A and D.




50. Coordination of the different agencies that have overseas activities is handled by the

a. president directly.b. National Security Council.c. secretary of state.d. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).e. president’s cabinet.


51. The National Security Council is chaired by the

a. secretary of state.b. deputy attorney general.c. director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).d. head of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS).e. president.


52. Which of the following statements about the National Security Council is true?

a. It reports directly to the secretary of state.b. Its membership is appointed by the Federal Bureau of

Investigation (FBI).c. Its influence is limited by constant squabbling among agencies.d. Its membership is appointed by congress.e. It grew in influence during the Kennedy administration.


53. The national security adviser to President Reagan was

a. George Shultz.b. Caspar Weinberger.c. John Poindexter.d. Oliver North.e. Eliot Abrams.


54. One consequence of the multicentered decision-making machinery that characterizes U.S. foreign policy is that

a. foreign-policy issues are rarely settled.b. executive power is almost unlimited.c. the National Security Council has little actual power.d. agency interests often run counter to agency positions.e. the CIA rarely conducts covert operations.




55. One consequence of the multicentered decision-making machinery that characterizes U.S. foreign policy is that

a. agency positions tend to be strongly influenced by agency interests.

b. executive power is almost unlimited.c. the National Security Council has little actual power.d. foreign-policy issues are generally settled quickly.e. the CIA rarely conducts covert operations.


56. At the time of World War II, public opinion

a. had long been supportive of a strong stand against Hitler and Japan.

b. became supportive of the war with the rise of Hitler.c. became supportive of the war only after Pearl Harbor.d. became supportive of the war after Papal intervention.e. remained deeply divided.


57. U.S. public opinion on international involvement since World War II has been

a. less favorable than before.b. consistently favorable.c. favorable but volatile.d. impossible to determine.e. intense and informed.


58. Which of the following statements about public opinion during World War II is correct?

a. It was one of the least popular wars the United States has fought.

b. It was popular at first, but unpopular as it continued.c. It was the most popular war the United States has ever fought.d. It was about average among U.S. wars in terms of popular

support.e. It was increasingly popular until the media began to cover it

more seriously.


59. Probably the only universally popular war in which the United States has been involved was

a. the Civil War.b. the Boer War.c. World War I.d. the Gulf War.e. World War II.




60. What aspect of presidential/congressional relations does the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) illustrate?

a. Presidents have an easier time getting Congress to pass legislation containing clear domestic policy benefits.

b. Presidents have an easier time getting Congress to pass legislation containing clear foreign policy benefits.

c. Foreign and domestic policy considerations are equally important in getting a president's program passed.

d. Congressional support for a president's program depends on factors other than either foreign or domestic policy.

e. Congressional support for the president’s foreign policy agenda is rarely connected with partisanship.


61. How did President Clinton's strategy change as he tried to win support for the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)?

a. At first he stressed the domestic benefits, then switched to the foreign policy benefits.

b. At first he stressed the foreign policy benefits, then switched to the domestic benefits.

c. At first he stressed both domestic and foreign policy benefits, then switched to foreign policy benefits.

d. At first, he lobbied members of his own party, then he looked to the American people for support.

e. At first, he stressed the importance of benefits to the American people, then he stressed the benefits to the members of his own party.


62. No matter what the president does in his conduct of foreign policy, any significant action he undertakes usually causes his popularity to

a. fall.b. rise.c. remain unchanged.d. rise if the foreign policy elite approves.e. rise if leaders of other nations approve.


63. In which foreign military situation did the President not benefit from the "rally 'round the flag"?

a. Kennedy after the Bay of Pigsb. Reagan when he invaded Grenadac. Bush when he sent troops to fight Iraqd. Clinton when he sent troops to Bosniae. All of these


64. Which of the following statements concerning public opinion and the Vietnam War is incorrect?

a. Initially, college-educated people gave higher levels of support for the war.

b. The average American was upset the United States was on the defensive in Vietnam.



c. College-educated persons eventually became upset that America was on the offensive in Vietnam.

d. The average person deeply opposed the antiwar protests taking place on college campuses.

e. Younger people, in general, were more opposed to the War than older ones




b. The average American was upset the United States was on the offensive in Vietnam.



e. Younger people, in general, were no more opposed to the War than older ones





c. College-educated persons eventually became upset that America was on the defensive in Vietnam.








d. The average person supported the antiwar protests taking place on college campuses.





68. Studies of how casualty rates affect public opinion show that, as deaths rates increase, people

a. develop more favorable attitudes toward the war.b. support withdrawal from the war.c. support surrender.d. support escalation in the fighting to defeat the enemy more

quickly.e. support withdrawal, after a series of powerful strikes.


69. What was the public's response when police roughed up antiwar demonstrators at the 1968 Democratic convention?

a. Older people only were overwhelmingly on the side of the demonstrators.

b. It was nearly evenly split in its sympathies.c. It was overwhelmingly on the side of the demonstrators.d. Younger people only were overwhelmingly on the side of the

demonstrators.e. It was overwhelmingly on the side of the police.


70. Cleavage between mass and elite opinion on foreign policy tends to be greatest when the elite

a. are college educated.b. are moderates.c. come from a blue-collar background.d. are more conservative and less internationalist.e. consist of foreign policy experts.


71. Compared to the general public, foreign policy leaders in the United States tend to be

a. conservative and internationalist.b. liberal and internationalist.c. conservative and isolationist.d. liberal and isolationist.e. moderate and utopian.


72. The text argues that those who are actively involved in shaping U.S. foreign policy

a. are a shadowy, conspiratorial group of insiders.b. are deeply divided against one another.c. are lackeys of multinational capitalism.d. do not usually know what they are doing.e. frequent international conferences and coordinate strategies.




73. The text lists all of the following as members of the U.S. foreign policy elite except

a. board members of the Fortune 500 corporations.b. senior officials of the State Department.c. members of the Council on Foreign Relations.d. editors of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Policy.e. A and C.


74. Which of the following groups of people turned most strongly against the Vietnam War as it progressed?

a. working-class peopleb. members of minority groupsc. college-educated people who regularly read several periodicalsd. people of low status generally, especially those who had little

contact with elite mediae. individuals in large metropolitan areas with blue-collar

occupations.


75. As the Vietnam War progressed, upper-middle-class Americans who regularly read periodicals

a. turned against the war more strongly than other groups.b. remained about equally divided on the war.c. remained the group most loyal to presidential policy.d. turned from mild support to mild disapproval.e. rallied behind the president.


76. Elite opinion was at work in the formulation of the strategy of containment by

a. John Foster Dulles.b. Averell Harriman.c. Maxwell Taylor.d. George Kennan.e. Henry Cabot Lodge.


77. An example of an elite opinion that dominated U.S. foreign policy for years was George Kennan's article developing the strategy of

a. isolationism.b. containment.c. national liberation.d. massive retaliation.e. retroactive dependency.




78. The foremost U.S. critic of the doctrine of containment after World War II was

a. George F. Kennan.b. John Foster Dulles.c. Walter Lippmann.d. Cordell Hull.e. Christopher Donnell


79. Klingberg describes U.S. views on foreign affairs as alternating between

a. activism and passivity.b. growth and decline.c. benevolence and malevolence.d. cynicism and wrath.e. extroversion and introversion.


80. Since the 1920s, the text argues, U.S. elite opinion has moved through all of the following world views except

a. isolationism.b. antiappeasement.c. disengagement.d. anti-imperialism.e. A and C.


81. In 1946 ________ delivered the famous Iron Curtain speech in Fulton, Missouri, in which he summed up Soviet policy in Eastern Europe.

a. Winston Churchillb. George Kennanc. Charles Lindberghd. President Trumane. Dwight Eisenhower


82. A clear application of the Munich worldview was evident in U.S.

a. extension of the Marshall Plan.b. handling of the Iran hostage crisis.c. neutrality during the Falkland’s war.d. intervention in Vietnam.e. All of these.


83. The Munich worldview stipulated that it would be foolish to

a. pre-empt an attack by an aggressive use of force.b. use military force for political objectives.c. maintain a colonial empire in the contemporary world.d. expect capitalism to survive much longer.e. try to answer aggression with appeasement.




84. U.S. intervention in Vietnam represented an application of

a. the lessons of Munich and Pearl Harbor.b. elite influence on public opinion.c. extreme moralism in foreign affairs.d. the power of the imperial presidency.e. Congressional dominance.


85. The disengagement view of foreign policy emerged at what time in this century?

a. during World War Ib. in the aftermath of World War IIc. during the Korean Ward. in the aftermath of the Vietnam Ware. just before the end of the Reagan administration


86. The disengagement view of foreign policy differed from previous applications of the containment view because it

a. emphasized close ties to a handful of strong allies.b. drew on conservatives and moderates for its major support.c. grew out of a military and domestic political failure, Vietnam.d. focused on communism as the major threat to world peace.e. saw little hope for coalition building in the international

community.


87. The restoration of the Munich worldview was signaled by the election of

a. Bill Clinton.b. Jimmy Carter.c. Lyndon Johnson.d. John Kennedy.e. Ronald Reagan.


88. The election of Ronald Reagan in 1980 signaled the restoration of much of the

a. Vietnam worldview.b. Third world overview.c. Keynesian worldview.d. Munich-Pearl Harbor worldview.e. Hobbesian worldview.




89. One effect of the U.S. experience in Vietnam on foreign policy has been to

a. give stronger support to the antiappeasement elite position.b. color all debates concerning subsequent military initiatives.c. shift military priorities from land-based to air-based

preparation.d. remove Congress from a decision-making role in foreign

policy.e. place military decision making solely in the hands of the

executive branch.


90. When Clinton came into office in 1992, he brought into office

a. apprehension for foreign policy.b. lack of appreciation for policy.c. disinterest in foreign policy.d. lack of understanding of foreign policy.e. considerable foreign policy making experience and interest.


91. When Clinton came into office in 1992, his foreign policy advisors were drawn from the ranks of those who believed in

a. isolationism.b. containment.c. disengagement.d. antiappeasement.e. imperialism.


92. When Serbian troops were sent into neighboring Kosovo to suppress the ethnic Albanians, the strongest voices for American military intervention came from those who once advocated

a. isolationism.b. containment.c. disengagement.d. antiappeasement.e. imperialism.


93. When Serbian troops invaded Kosovo, those who originally favored disengagement changed their view because they believed the helping Albanians was required by the doctrine of

a. isolationism.b. containment.c. antiappeasement.d. human rights.e. reciprocity.




94. Human rights advocates clearly called for U.S. intervention in

a. Kosovo.b. Rwanda.c. China.d. the Soviet Union.e. Israel.


95. The view that defense policy protects everyone, and that everyone pays for it, would typify defense policy making as

a. client politics.b. entrepreneurial politics.c. interest group politics.d. majoritarian politics.e. neo-institutional politics.


96. The text takes the view that national defense policy making is an example of

a. majoritarian politics.b. client politics.c. interest group politics.d. entrepreneurial politics.e. neo-institutional politics.


97. The idea that defense politics is client politics is stressed by those who emphasize the importance of

a. the military-industrial complex.b. the threat of oppressive regimes.c. bureaucratic politics.d. the central role of the president.e. the power elite.


98. Those who see defense as a gigantic boondoggle caused by the pressures of defense contractors and competing special interests would typify defense policy making as

a. majoritarian or entrepreneurial politics.b. entrepreneurial or client politics.c. client or interest group politics.d. interest group or majoritarian politics.e. neo-institutional or interest group politics.




99. According to the text, how much money is spent on defense is best explained by

a. majoritarian politics.b. client politics.c. interest-group (bargaining) politics.d. entrepreneurial politics.e. neo-institutional politics.


100. According to the text, how money spent on defense is divided up is best explained by

a. majoritarian politics.b. client politics.c. interest-group (bargaining) politics.d. entrepreneurial politics.e. neo-institutional politics.


101. The share of the U.S. gross national product devoted to defense remained roughly the same from 1870 to

a. 1914.b. 1921.c. 1929.d. 1935.e. 1965.

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102. As public opinion data show, Americans believe that

a. we should have a small military.b. we spend too much on defense.c. we should only have a military during a time of war.d. we should have no military.e. we spend the right amount or even too little on defense.


103. Growing support for increased military spending in the U.S. in 1980 and 1991 reflected

a. public fears of a sagging economy.b. public fears of Soviet expansionism.c. public fears of Chinese expansionism.d. public fears of Cuban expansionism.e. public fear of the military industrial complex.


104. The reason given by the text for the United States failure to disarm after the Korean War was

a. the possibility of renewed fighting in Korea.b. our antiappeasement policy toward the Soviet Union.c. fear of losing the cold war.d. public opinion favoring our being the world's policeman.e. All of these.




105. Until 1991 any decreases in military spending were limited by

a. the budget deficit.b. reluctance of Congress to oppose the military.c. continuing fear of Soviet domination.d. pressure from the military-industrial complex.e. congressional leaders with ties to multi-national corporations.

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106. By 2000, military spending, expressed in constant (inflation-adjusted) dollars, was

a. the highest it had been since World War II.b. lower than during the Korean War.c. the lowest it had been since World War I.d. the highest it had been since the Korean War.e. about the same as when Jimmy Carter was elected in 1976.


107. A change in Russian policy that occurred after the breakup of the Soviet Union was

a. withdrawal of troops from Afghanistan.b. an end to emigration restrictions.c. placement of Russian troops in Eastern Europe.d. increased defense spending.e. the abolition of the draft.



a. huge cuts in military spending.b. an end to emigration restrictions.c. placement of Russian troops in Eastern Europe.d. increased troops in Afghanistan.e. the abolition of the draft.



a. suspension of aid to Cuba.b. an end to emigration restrictions.c. placement of Russian troops in Eastern Europe.d. increased military spending.e. the abolition of the draft.


110. The effect of Operation Desert Storm and the Kosovo campaign made it clear that military spending was

a. too high.b. about right.c. too low.d. in need of more study.e. irrelevant to our chance of success.




111. The military budget typically covers all of the following except

a. big-ticket hardware such as bombers and aircraft carriers.b. readiness items such as training, food, and fuel.c. military personnel.d. economic aid to foreign armies.e. A and C.


112. The most expensive part of the defense budget is

a. big-ticket items.b. small-ticket items.c. readiness.d. personnel.e. B and D.


113. One factor that threatened the feasibility of an all-volunteer force was the

a. failure of military pay to remain competitive.b. absence of a credible threat to U.S. soil.c. generally low level of skills and education of volunteers.d. absence of qualified women volunteers willing to face combat.e. increased levels of education.


114. One factor that contributed to the feasibility of an all-volunteer force was the

a. absence of a credible threat to U.S. soil.b. rising civilian unemployment.c. generally low level of skills and education of volunteers.d. absence of qualified women volunteers willing to face combat.e. increased levels of education.


115. Female personnel account for approximately ________ percent of the armed forces today.

a. 3b. 14c. 20d. 30e. 46


116. In 1993 Congress passed legislation regarding women in the military that

a. allowed women to serve in all combat roles.b. allowed women to serve in ground combat forces.c. allowed women to serve in Navy and Air Force combat forces.d. allowed women to serve in Navy combat ships.e. allowed women to serve in command positions in the Marines.




117. What was the outcome of President Clinton's campaign promise to lift the ban on homosexuals in the military?

a. The ban was not lifted.b. Stricter screening procedures were put in place.c. A ban became effective in the year 2000.d. The military refused to comply.e. A compromise was reached.


118. During the 1960s, the actual costs of new weapons systems in relation to their estimated costs were

a. three times as much.b. twice as much.c. roughly the same.d. half as much.e. one half of one percent of the previous costs.


119. Which of the following government expenditures would be least likely to incur a cost overrun?

a. building a new high-technology fighter planeb. building a subway system in a major cityc. adding a division of troops to the armyd. conducting a congressional investigation into cost overrunse. B and D


120. Because defense contractors must bid competitively for contracts, and because the military must have its annual budget approved by Congress, there is a tendency to

a. delay the acquisition of costly new hardware.b. overestimate costs and acquire new hardware as quickly as

possible.c. pad the contracts with various nonessential items.d. all of these.e. underestimate the probable costs.


121. A major reason for the cost overruns in big-ticket items that plague military spending is that

a. most spending programs are indexed to the inflation rate.b. the number of items produced is typically quite large.c. gold-plating practices have been outlawed by Congress.d. the costs of many items are hard to predict.e. most spending programs are approved by industrial leaders.




122. A major reason for the cost overruns in big-ticket items that plague military spending is that

a. most spending programs are indexed to the inflation rate.b. the number of items produced is typically quite large.c. gold-plating practices have been outlawed by Congress.d. military chiefs want the best weapons that money can buy.e. most spending programs are approved by industrial leaders.


123. One explanation given by the text for the cost overruns that occur regularly in military procurement is the

a. involvement of underworld crime in military procurement.b. greed and dishonesty of defense contractors.c. large number of competing defense contractors.d. incentive given to defense industries to submit unrealistic bids.e. most spending programs are approved by industrial leaders.



a. large number of competing defense contractors.b. involvement of underworld crime in military procurement.c. greed and dishonesty of defense contractors.d. desire of military officers for the latest technology.e. most spending programs are approved by industrial leaders.


125. The tendency of military officials to ask for equipment that will be outstanding in several categories at once is often referred to as

a. superstandardization.b. contracting out.c. competitive specifications.d. gold plating.e. intra-subjective transmissibility.


126. Sole sourcing is the name for the practice of

a. bailing out defense companies that get into trouble.b. dividing a single contract among many bidders.c. buying several weapons from the same contractor.d. using the same bidding process for all weapons.e. purchasing a single weapon after numerous tests.




127. One explanation given by the text for the cost overruns that occur regularly in military procurement is

a. the involvement of underworld crime in military procurement.b. the greed and dishonesty of defense contractors.c. the large number of competing defense contractors.d. the absence of competition for many defense contracts.e. that most spending programs are approved by industrial

leaders.



a. involvement of underworld crime in military procurement.b. greed and dishonesty of defense contractors.c. large number of competing defense contractors.d. stretching out of purchases over more years to keep annual

budgets down.e. most spending programs are approved by industrial leaders.


129. In military acquisitions the stretch-out is used to

a. increase the productivity of defense workers.b. acquire more weapons for less money.c. induce Congress to approve larger operating budgets.d. purchase fewer weapons for less money.e. delay acquisitions to hold down yearly budgets.


130. The text argues that dealing with all of the following defense-spending problems is possible except

a. low estimates.b. uncertain costs of new weapons.c. sole sourcing.d. stretch-outs.e. A and B.


131. The text comments on reports of a hammer that cost the Navy $435 by saying that the incident

a. was basically true, although the hammer actually cost $240.b. resulted from a misinterpretation of accounting procedures.c. was one more example of congressional bungling.d. represents needless waste in the Pentagon.e. was repeated throughout several administrations until and

accountant was fired.




132. One explanation given by the text for such phenomena as the "$435 hammer" is that such items

a. must be budgeted two or three years in advance of production.b. lend themselves to fraudulent production practices.c. cannot easily be gold plated.d. are typically produced in small quantities.e. are made overseas and shipped in small boats.


133. One explanation given by the text for such phenomena as the "$435 hammer" is that such items

a. must be budgeted two or three years in advance of production.b. lend themselves to fraudulent production practices.c. cannot easily be gold plated.d. are usually designed for very specific purposes.e. are made overseas and shipped in small boats.


134. Often, the lowest priority in military budgets is assigned to

a. personnel.b. big-ticket items.c. small-ticket items.d. readiness.e. A and D.


135. If Congress wishes to cut military costs quickly and with a minimum of opposition by constituents, it is most likely to turn to what area of the military budget?

a. personnelb. big-ticket hardwarec. readinessd. small-ticket itemse. strategy development


136. At one time the opening and closing of military bases was

a. majoritarian politics.b. client politics.c. interest group politics.d. entrepreneurial politics.e. reciprocal politics.




137. The Commission on Base Realignment and Closure revised the procedure pertaining to closing or reducing military bases by

a. requiring Congress to vote on the list of changes as a whole.b. asking the president and secretary of defense to make the

decisions.c. requesting Congress to submit its priorities.d. allowing Congress to amend the list before voting on it.e. requiring members of Congress to justify decisions before

neutral magistrates.


138. The desire to ensure civilian control over the military in the United States goes back to the

a. post-World War II era.b. Reconstruction era after the Civil War.c. founding of the Republic.d. Magna Carta.e. the War of 1812.


139. The Department of Defense was established by the National Security Act of

a. 1965.b. 1947.c. 1916.d. 1860.e. 1789.


140. The National Security Act of 1947 created the

a. Department of Defense.b. Department of War.c. State Department.d. Army, Navy, Air Force, and Marines.e. Navy Seals.


141. One former general who served as secretary of defense was

a. Dwight Eisenhower.b. George Marshall.c. Douglas MacArthur.d. Winfield Scott.e. George Patton.




142. Two major reasons for having separate, uniformed defense forces in the United States were

a. the need for an integrated defense and cost containment.b. cost containment and the fear of a unified military.c. cost containment and congressional enmity.d. each service's desire for autonomy and the need for an

integrated defense.e. the fear of a unified military and each service's desire for

autonomy.


143. Congress's desire to ensure civilian control of the military after World War II led it to create

a. a unified military command under a civilian secretary.b. four separate and competing military branches.c. a badly underfunded, skeletal military structure.d. the National Security Council.e. the Civilian Command Committee.


144. Congress tolerates interservice rivalry and bickering because

a. Congress is incapable of exercising a strong hand in defense decision making.

b. defense politics is client politics.c. it maximizes the amount of information Congress receives.d. only the president, not Congress, has the power to end it.e. Article III does not explicitly mention the military.


145. The chief concern reflected in the structure within which decisions about national defense are made is

a. to prevent, at all costs, the losses caused by war.b. to maintain U.S. isolation from foreign wars.c. to maintain the traditional autonomy of the military services.d. to ensure civilian control over the military.e. to integrate military intelligence.


146. The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) include

a. the uniformed head of each service.b. both unified and specific commands.c. representatives of both houses of Congress.d. most of the combat forces of the United States.e. representatives of Congress and military intelligence.




147. The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is composed of ________ voting members.

a. threeb. fourc. fived. sixe. twenty-three


148. Prior to 1986, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) rarely

a. agreed on most significant issues.b. considered any significant policy questions.c. submitted reports to Congress.d. gave any advice to the president.e. made any important decisions.


149. The 1986 reform of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) helped make that body a more significant one by

a. encouraging each member to remain loyal to his or her service.b. designating its chairman as the president's principal military

advisor. c. moving the headquarters of JCS to the basement of the White

House.d. giving each JCS officer control over one budget center.e. providing high-tech satellite equipments to JCS staff.


150. Prior to 1986, the unified commands of combat forces in various geographical areas were often

a. unified in name only.b. unanswerable to the Pentagon.c. inadequately briefed on the nature of their tasks.d. an object of envy to those in special commands.e. unnecessarily centralized.


151. Each of the military services is headed by

a. a senior military officer only.b. both a senior member of Congress and a uniformed officer.c. both a civilian secretary and a senior military officer.d. a small group of civilian and military bureaucrats.e. a senior member of Congress, an Executive branch official and

a military officer.




152. The result of the 1986 changes in the military structure was

a. an increase in interservice rivalry.b. a decrease in interservice rivalry.c. a decrease in military spending.d. not immediately apparent.e. decreased coordination.

TRUE FALSE QUESTIONS

Ans: TruePage: 554

153. Alexis de Tocqueville thought that the democratic qualities of the United States would handicap its ability to conduct foreign affairs.

Ans: FalsePage: 554

154. Alexis de Tocqueville suggested that the proper conduct of foreign affairs required all the qualities found in democratic nations such as the United States.

Ans: TruePage: 554

155. An arms limitation treaty and military alliances with Western Europe are good examples of the majoritarian political process.

Ans: FalsePage: 554

156. U.S. quotas on imported Japanese steel are the results of majoritarian politics.

Ans: TruePage: 554

157. U.S. quotas on Japanese steel imported into the United States reflect interest group politics.

Ans: TruePage: 555

158. In majoritarian foreign policy issues, the president rather than Congress plays the leading role.

Ans: FalsePage: 555

159. Congress is clearly the dominant force in foreign policy decision-making in issues of a majoritarian role.

Ans: TruePage: 555

160. Congress is the central political arena on those occasions when entrepreneurial politics shapes foreign policy.

Ans: FalsePage: 555

161. Usually, the major foreign policy issues of the day tend to resolve themselves into interest group politics.

Ans: TruePage: 555

162. Generally, the grand issues in foreign policy are majoritarian in nature.



Ans: TruePage: 555

163. The foreign policy powers of the executive and the legislative branches were left without clear boundaries in the U.S. Constitution.

Ans: FalsePage: 555

164. The U.S. Constitution clearly defined and separated the foreign policy of Congress and those of the president.

Ans: FalsePage: 555

165. Congress's constitutional powers to regulate commerce do not extend to commerce with other nations.

Ans: TruePage: 555

166. The U.S. Constitution declares that Congress may regulate commerce with other nations.

Ans: TruePage: 555

167. The power to declare war is exclusively a congressional one.

Ans: FalsePage: 555

168. The U.S. president has the power to declare war.

Ans: TruePage: 555

169. Presidents have asserted the right to send troops abroad on their own authority in more than 125 instances.

Ans: FalsePage: 555

170. All of the thirteen major wars this country has fought have followed a formal declaration of war by Congress.

Ans: TruePage: 555

171. Less than half of the thirteen major wars this country has fought have followed a formal declaration of war by Congress.

Ans: FalsePage: 557

172. The U.S. president has a freer hand in formulating foreign policy than do the heads of most other nations.

Ans: TruePage: 557

173. The U.S. president is more limited in the conduct of foreign affairs than leaders of other democratic nations.

Ans: FalsePage: 557

174. A treaty is a document drawn up by Congress and presented by the president to a foreign power.

Ans: FalsePage: 557

175. The President cannot sign executive agreements without the consent of the Senate.

Ans: True 176. The president can sign executive agreements without the consent of



Page: 557 the Senate, but most are authorized in advance by Congress.

Ans: TruePage: 557

177. The Supreme Court has generally held the view that the conduct of foreign affairs is a political question for Congress and the president to decide.

Ans: FalsePage: 558

178. The Supreme Court frequently adjudicates cases dealing with executive versus legislative powers in the area of foreign policy.

Ans: TruePage: 558

179. The surest tool Congress has to influence foreign policy is its control over the budget.

Ans: FalsePage: 558

180. Congressional power to reorganize the armed forces remains its best tool for restraining presidential power in foreign affairs.

Ans: TruePage: 559

181. The War Powers Act of 1973 was intended to limit the president's ability to initiate military involvements without congressional approval.

Ans: FalsePage: 559

182. The War Powers Act of 1973 was designed to curtail the commitment of U.S. troops in hostile situations by the military without the approval of the president.

Ans: FalsePage: 559

183. The War Powers Act of 1973 has had a substantial effect on the president's conduct of foreign affairs.

Ans: TruePage: 559

184. The War Powers Act of 1973 has had very little influence on American military actions.

Ans: TruePage: 559

185. No president has acknowledged that the War Powers Act is constitutional.

Ans: FalsePage: 559

186. No president has sent troops abroad without explicit congressional authorization since passage of the War Powers Act.

Ans: TruePage: 560

187. Almost every president has sent troops abroad without explicit congressional authorization since the passage of the War Powers Act.

Ans: FalsePage: 560

188. Congressional approval is normally needed for any covert activity by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).



Ans: TruePage: 560

189. The Boland Amendment is an example of a congressional attempt to limit presidential overseas initiatives.

Ans: FalsePage: 560

190. Foreign policy reached its dominant position on the president's agenda in the aftermath of World War I.

Ans: FalsePage: 560

191. Secretaries of state are usually able to coordinate the various parts of the U.S. foreign policy establishment.

Ans: TruePage: 560

192. The role of the National Security Council is to coordinate the overseas activities of various federal agencies.

Ans: FalsePage: 561

193. The importance of the National Security Council diminished after the Eisenhower administration.

Ans: TruePage: 561

194. In recent years the influence of Congress over foreign policy formation has steadily increased.

Ans: TruePage: 561

195. An agency's foreign policy interests tend to be reflected in its policies.

Ans: FalsePage: 561

196. Public opinion was more internationalist prior to World War II than after it.

Ans: TruePage: 561

197. Prior to World War II, the U.S. public clearly opposed an active involvement in world affairs.

Ans: FalsePage: 561

198. World War I was a more popular war for Americans than was World War II.

Ans: TruePage: 562

199. After the attack at Pearl Harbor, Congress approved a declaration of war with one dissenting vote.

Ans: TruePage: 563

200. Isolationism grew throughout the Vietnam War.

Ans: TruePage: 563

201. The text suggests support for an internationalist American foreign policy is highly general and heavily dependent on the phrasing of poll questions.



Ans: TruePage: 562

202. Osama Bin Laden once fought, with American aid, to drive the Soviets out of Afghanistan.

Ans: FalsePage: 562

203. The attacks of September 2001 were the first in which Bin Laden’s network targeted the United States.

Ans: TruePage: 562

204. When the United States struck back at the Taliban in Afghanistan in 2001, Russia assisted in the attacks.

Ans: FalsePage: 564

205. Public opinion provides some specific direction for presidential initiatives in foreign policy.

Ans: FalsePage: 564

206. In times of national crisis, presidents cannot rely on the backing of public opinion.

Ans: TruePage: 564

207. Public opinion tends to support the president in times of military crisis.

Ans: TruePage: 564

208. Presidential popularity often escapes unscathed from foreign policy disasters such as the Bay of Pigs.

Ans: FalsePage: 564

209. A foreign policy fiasco such as the Bay of Pigs generally harms a president's popularity.

Ans: TruePage: 564

210. When President Kennedy accepted responsibility for the Bay of Pigs fiasco, his popularity rose.

Ans: TruePage: 564

211. The tendency to "rally 'round the flag" operates for all foreign policy crisis.

Ans: TruePage: 564

212. The tendency to "rally 'round the flag helped Reagan when he invaded Grenada, but not Clinton when he sent troops to Bosnia or launched bombing attacks on Iraq.

Ans: FalsePage: 564

213. Americans tend to be leery of overseas military expeditions by the United States even after they start.

Ans: TruePage: 564

214. Americans, although leery of overseas military expeditions, support them and want to win once they start, even if it means more intense fighting.

Ans: True 215. A study of casualty rates and public opinion found Americans tend to



Page: 564 desire escalation — not withdrawal — once casualty rates appear to increase.

Ans: FalsePage: 565

216. Mass opinion on world affairs is generally better informed than is elite opinion.

Ans: FalsePage: 565

217. Mass opinion on world affairs tends to be both more liberal and more internationalist than elite opinion.

Ans: TruePage: 565

218. Elite opinion on world affairs tends to be more volatile than mass opinion.

Ans: FalsePage: 565

219. The average American was supportive of antiwar protests taking place on college campuses during the Vietnam War.

Ans: TruePage: 565

220. Foreign policy decision makers are generally more liberal and more internationalist then college-educated people as a whole.

Ans: TruePage: 566

221. The foreign policy elite in the United States is deeply divided.

Ans: FalsePage: 567

222. The strategy of containment toward the Soviet Union grew out of Winston Churchill's famous Iron Curtain Speech.

Ans: TruePage: 566

223. The worldview exposed by "Mr. X" (George Kennan) in a 1947 article was broadly consistent with the public's mood at the time.

Ans: TruePage: 567

224. The nation grew isolationist in the aftermath of World War I.

Ans: TruePage: 568

225. The lesson drawn from Munich was to be prepared to act forcefully against potential aggressors.

Ans: FalsePage: 568

226. For an entire generation, the lessons of Munich taught us that we should avoid involvements because we cannot police the world.

Ans: FalsePage: 568

227. The dominant worldview during the period from the end of World War II to the late 1960s was the disengagement view.



Ans: TruePage: 568

228. The disengagement worldview grew out of the debacle of Vietnam.

Ans: TruePage: 569

229. The Reagan administration was marked by a return to the policies of containment.

Ans: FalsePage: 569

230. Clinton came into office with keen interest in foreign affairs.

Ans: TruePage: 569

231. When Serbia sent troops into neighboring Kosovo to suppress the ethnic Albanians living there, the strongest voices for American military intervention came from those who once advocated disengagement.

Ans: TruePage: 569

232. Those in Congress who once advocated military disengagement during the Gulf War believed that helping the Albanians in Kosovo was required by the doctrine of human rights.

Ans: TruePage: 569

233. Those in Congress who advocated a containment policy in the Gulf War felt that disengagement should be followed in Kosovo.

Ans: TruePage: 572

234. The allocation of the defense budget among the different armed services is the result of interest group politics.

Ans: FalsePage: 572

235. The allocation of the defense budget among the various armed services is the result of client politics.

Ans: TruePage: 572

236. Interest groups are more involved in the allocation than in the overall level of defense spending.

Ans: TruePage: 573

237. Interest groups play a major role in determining total spending on defense.

Ans: TruePage: 571

238. In many cases foreign policy depends on the ability to use military force.

Ans: FalsePage: 571

239. With the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War, military power became less important.

Ans: False 240. The end of the Cold War meant the end of war.



Page: 572

Ans: FalsePage: 572

241. The United States policy is to arm in times of war and disarm when that war ends.

Ans: TruePage: 573

242. The end of the Korean War marked a change in U.S. policy concerning the level of defense spending.

Ans: TruePage: 573

243. Military spending up to 1991 was dominated by our containment policy toward the Soviet Union.

Ans: FalsePage: 573

244. The breakup of the Soviet Union ended the debate about military spending.

Ans: FalsePage: 574

245. Liberals and conservatives agreed that the end of the Soviet threat meant it was time to collect the "peace dividend."

Ans: TruePage: 580

246. Traditionally, our military has not been based on special forces or close inter-service operations.

Ans: FalsePage: 580

247. Traditionally, our military has taken the idea of joint operations very seriously.

Ans: FalsePage: 580

248. Today, separate committees in the House and separate committees in the Senate conduct oversight of each military service.

Ans: TruePage: 580

249. Today, a committee in the House and a Committee in the Senate oversee each military service.

Ans: TruePage: 580

250. Supporters of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) note the logic of mutually assured destruction (MAD) only works with rational leaders.

Ans: FalsePage: 575

251. The United States began to rely on the peacetime draft in 1973.

Ans: FalsePage: 575

252. In recent years, there has been a steady decrease in the number of women in the military.

Ans: TruePage: 575

253. Congress has ended the ban on assignment of women to Navy and Air Force combat duty.



Ans: FalsePage: 576

254. President Clinton lifted the ban on homosexuals in the military.

Ans: TruePage: 576

255. "Don't ask, don't tell" refers to President Clinton's compromise on lifting the ban on homosexuals in the military.

Ans: TruePage: 576

256. One reason weapons and weapons systems cost so much is that they must be invented before they are manufactured.

Ans: TruePage: 576

257. New weapons systems and aircraft often do not carry a shelf price; thus, no one knows how much a weapon or plane will cost until production is underway.

Ans: TruePage: 576

258. The military's insistence on the highest possible quality of weapons is a cause of cost overruns.

Ans: FalsePage: 577

259. One reason for cost overruns is that military leaders are too willing to accept weapons of lower quality.

Ans: FalsePage: 577

260. Stretching-out is an expedient for improving the quality of arms production over a number of years.

Ans: TruePage: 577

261. The "$435 hammer" discussed in the text never actually existed.

Ans: TruePage: 577

262. The Pentagon's equal-allocation formula for new weapons acquisition led to the incident of the $435 hammer.

Ans: FalsePage: 577

263. The high costs of some small-ticket items (such as the "$435 hammer") are typically due to manufacturers' inefficiency or price gouging.

Ans: FalsePage: 578

264. Military readiness typically occupies a high priority in the politics of defense spending.

Ans: TruePage: 578

265. The low priority that military readiness typically occupies in defense spending has much to do with client politics.

Ans: FalsePage: 578

266. The current system for deciding which military bases will be closed down is an example of client politics.



Ans: TruePage: 578

267. The first report of the Commission on Base Realignment and Closure called for the closing of eighty-six military bases.

Ans: TruePage: 578

268. The formal structure within which decisions about national defense are made was in large part created after World War II.

Ans: FalsePage: 578

269. The Defense Department's current organization was created at the time of World War I.

Ans: TruePage: 578

270. The National Security Act of 1947 created the Department of Defense.

Ans: FalsePage: 579

271. Having separate, uniformed services under one department creates less interservice rivalry.

Ans: TruePage: 579

272. Interservice rivalry is a predictable consequence of having separate branches of uniformed service.

Ans: TruePage: 579

273. The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is more an advisory than a command body.

Ans: FalsePage: 579

274. The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) collectively command the U.S. military forces.

Ans: FalsePage: 579

275. The 1986 defense-reorganization plan essentially swept away the earlier organization of the Defense Department.

Ans: FalsePage: 579

276. Members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) should be more loyal to their own services as a result of the 1986 defense-reorganization plan.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS277. List and discuss the kinds of checks on presidential power in foreign policy that Congress has created since

the Vietnam War.

Answer:

a. Limits on ability to give military or economic aid

b. War Powers Act of 1973



c. Reporting requirements for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)

Page: 558-560

278. Discuss the Supreme Court's decisions with respect to presidential power in foreign affairs. How does the Court treat foreign policy disputes?

Answer:

a. Federal government has more powers over foreign affairs than those specifically mentioned in the U.S. Constitution

b. States have few rights in foreign affairs

c. Court is reluctant to interfere in disputes over foreign affairs

d. Truman's seizure of the steel mills was a rare denial of presidential power

Page: 557-560

279. Explain why the National Security Council was created and how it has been used by various presidents.

Answer:

a. Created because neither secretary of state nor president can adequately coordinate all the federal agencies involved in foreign affairs

b. Limited use by Truman and Eisenhower, extensive use by Nixon (Kissinger incumbency), attempted downgrading by Reagan resulted in prominence of adviser Poindexter

Page: 560-561

280. What are the two major consequences of the substance of foreign policy created by the foreign policy making machinery?

Answer:

a. Foreign policy issues are rarely settled because rivalries within the executive branch intensify rivalries between that branch and Congress

b. Interests of participating agencies affect the positions they take

Page: 561

281. Compare and contrast mass and elite opinion in the United States on foreign policy. Discuss the implications.

Answer:

a. Masses poorly informed, elite well informed

b. Masses more supportive of international role of U.S., elite opinion more likely to change rapidly

c. Contrasting views on U.S. involvement in Vietnam

Page: 565

282. Explain the historical and the opposing inferences of the Munich-Pearl Harbor and the Vietnam worldviews. Discuss when each has predominated in U.S. foreign policy making and what adherents each has today.

Answer:

a. Munich-Pearl Harbor: Chamberlain's pact with Hitler, Japanese bombing of U.S. installation; conclusion: do not bargain with aggressors

b. Vietnam: failed U.S. effort to fight off Ho Chi Minh; conclusion: stay out of foreign wars

c. Munich-Pearl Harbor outlook dominant from World War II to Richard Nixon, Vietnam outlook adopted under Carter; Munich-Pearl Harbor outlook adopted by Reagan and Bush



d. Today, liberals who advocated disengagement in Gulf War advocate military intervention in Kosovo on human rights grounds; conservatives who followed containment policy in Gulf War now advocate disengagement in Kosovo

Page: 566-571

283. What is the "peace dividend" and what is the debate over its use?

Answer:

a. Peace dividend: military savings created by the end of the cold war

b. Liberals: sharp cuts in military spending should be diverted to domestic social programs

c. Conservatives: some military cuts but world remains dangerous requiring keeping a strong military

Page: 574

284. Review the major categories of military spending and discuss the problems associated with holding down costs in each category.

Answer:

a. Personnel: difficulty of maintaining all-volunteer force without increasing pay

b. Big-ticket items: unpredictability of costs of new weapons

c. Small-ticket items: accounting procedures sometimes cause seemingly outrageous prices

d. Readiness: politically, the easiest cost to control but perhaps at the greatest cost to military effectiveness

Page: 575-578

285. Explain the phenomena that motivate military officials, defense contractors, and Congress in turn to produce cost overruns for new weapons systems.

Answer:

a. No one knows what a new system will really cost.

b. Military leaders insist on the most advanced specifications.

c. Contractors try for lowest possible bids.

d. Congress preserves contractors by agreeing to overruns.

Page: 576-577

286. What accounts for military overruns in spending?

Answer:

a. Hard to know in advance what something will cost that has never existed

b. Supporters of new weapons have an incentive to underestimate the cost

c. Military wants the best weapon the money can buy (gold plating)

d. Sole sourcing creates absence of competition

e. Congress cuts military spending by stretching out the number of years a weapon is purchased rather than canceling it

Page: 576-577

287. Describe the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS). Explain the reasons behind the creation of this three-service body and the effects the structure has on the allocation of the military budget.

Answer:



a. Description: heads of each service, equally powerful as staff

b. Reasons created: avoid a dangerously unified military, preserve the autonomy of the three services

c. Effects: intended interservice rivalries, criticisms of one another's proposals, incremental and nearly equal growth of budgets

Page: 579

288. Why do separate uniformed services exist within a single department if the result is interservice rivalry?

Answer:

a. Fear that a unified military force might become too powerful politically

b. Desire of each service to preserve its traditional independence and autonomy

Page: 578-579

289. Discuss the changes in the military decision-making structure introduced by the 1986 defense-reorganization plan, and explain the reasoning behind these changes.

Answer:

a. Changes: chair of Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) now principal military adviser to the president, JCS members now more at the service of the chair than of their own services but with the same promotion opportunities as their colleagues in the individual services, more power given to CINCs of various unified commands

b. Rationale: to create more coordination among the separate armed services without unifying them

Page: 579

ESSAY QUESTIONS290. Discuss the four kinds of foreign policy enumerated by the author. Define each kind, distinguish it from the

others, and give concrete examples.

Answer:

a. Majoritarian: wide costs, wide benefits; decisions to go to war, to establish military alliances, arms treaties, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) covert activities

b. Interest group: costs and benefits narrowly distributed; policy on Cyprus (Greek versus Turks), tariff decisions (firm versus firm), ABM (military versus local communities)

c. Client: wide costs, narrow benefits; assistance to U.S. firms operating abroad, support for Israel

d. Entrepreneurial: narrow costs, wide benefits; ITT scandal, communist revolution in China

Page: 554-555

291. If you were president of the United States, how would you go about making a major shift in U.S. foreign policy to ensure success?

Answer:

a. Because the outline of foreign policy is shaped by public and elite opinions, public relations will be important from the beginning.

b. Public opinion is mushy and volatile with a tendency to defer to the president in foreign policy. Thus, it is more susceptible to presidential persuasion. Because public opinion judges success in foreign policy pragmatically, the practical benefits of policy shift must be emphasized.

c. Elite opinion is more informed and thus less subject to manipulation. Because elites judge foreign policy success in moral terms, the ethical dimensions of the proposed policy shift should be stressed along with its pragmatic qualities.



d. National opinion is currently split between two competing worldviews—antiappeasement and disengagement. The antiappeasement segment of the public is concerned with the threat of communism and the spread of Soviet influence. Thus, any policy shift should be packaged as a way to halt a potential or actual communist menace. The disengagement segment of the public is opposed to using the U.S. military as the world's police force and is more liberal overall. Thus, a policy shift should stress helping oppressed and poor people in a nonmilitary manner.

Page: 561-565

292. How has the congressional role in deciding on weapons systems changed from before World War II?

Answer:

a. Before World War II, Congress often made most detailed decisions based on military advice

b. During war, Congress deferred to military opinion

c. After war, Congress again became assertive in favor of different or larger military programs than those proposed by the president

d. In latter 1960s, Congress took a more critical stance toward the military, reflecting the influences of Vietnam and interest groups

Page: 578-579

293. Assume the position of the military chief of the Army with the responsibility of getting a major new weapon system approved. Who must be consulted, and whose approval is needed? What obstacles exist?

Answer:

a. The secretary of the army is responsible for purchasing and for congressional relations. Thus, this secretary must first be convinced to place the new system in the budget request and to lobby on its behalf before Congress.

b. The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) could be an obstacle because the chiefs tend to recommend policies beneficial to all services. A new weapon system could detract from the budget allocations for the other services.

c. Another factor making changing the allocation of funds among the services difficult is that debate is shaped by interest group politics. Many vested interests will be attacked by proposing a new weapon system that could alter the allocation formula among the services.

d. The secretary of defense has ultimate civilian control over the military services. Because the overall size of the defense budget is a product of majoritarian politics, the secretary will be concerned about public opinion toward the new weapon system and how it affects the defense budget overall. The secretary's support is vital in getting the system included in the president's budget submitted to Congress.

e. The president makes the final decision about whether to propose the weapon system to Congress. The president realizes that his control over the cost of a new weapon system is limited. Thus, majoritarian politics will play a decisive role in the president's decision.

f. The House and Senate Armed Services Committees have jurisdiction over military proposals for weapon systems. Each committee has strong advocates of one service or the other. Thus, some form of committee opposition is almost always the reality; yet it is easier to add to a service's budget than to shift a function from one service to another.

g. Once the weapon system reaches Congress, debate will follow ideological lines. If the system is approved, each member will then attempt to derive some part of the program for his or her district (or state).

Page: 578-579


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