Meaning Cao Ning School of English Language Longdong University.

MeaningMeaning

Cao NingCao NingSchool of English LanguageSchool of English Language

Longdong UniversityLongdong University

IntroductionIntroduction

Views on meaningViews on meaning

Lexical meaningLexical meaning

Sense relations between sentencesSense relations between sentences

Analysis of meaningAnalysis of meaning

OutlineOutline

Semantics isSemantics is

generally considered to generally considered to

be the study ofbe the study of

meaning inmeaning in

languagelanguage. .

What is What is Semantics ?Semantics ?

What does “mean/meaning” in the What does “mean/meaning” in the following sentences mean?following sentences mean?

John John meansmeans to write. to write. A green light A green light meansmeans to go. to go. Health Health meansmeans everything. everything. His look was full of His look was full of meaningmeaning.. What is the What is the meaningmeaning of life? of life? What does ‘capitalist’ What does ‘capitalist’ meanmean to you? to you?

IntroductionIntroduction

MeaningMeaning What a language expresses about What a language expresses about

the world we live in or any possible the world we live in or any possible or imaginary world. or imaginary world.

Central semantic notion defined Central semantic notion defined and used differently depending on and used differently depending on the theoretical approach.the theoretical approach.

Some Views on semanticsSome Views on semantics

One of the oldest views is One of the oldest views is the Naming Theorythe Naming Theory.. Words are names or labels for things. Words are names or labels for things. In other words, the semantic relationship holIn other words, the semantic relationship hol

ding between words and things is the relatioding between words and things is the relationship of naming.nship of naming.

?

Weakpoints of Naming Theories Weakpoints of Naming Theories 1)1) This theory seems to apply only to nouThis theory seems to apply only to nou

ns.ns.2)2) even with nouns, there will be probleeven with nouns, there will be proble

ms, because many nouns such as unicms, because many nouns such as unicorn, fairy, ghost, heaven relate to creaorn, fairy, ghost, heaven relate to creatures or things that do not exist.tures or things that do not exist.


ConceptualismConceptualism According to this theory, there is no direct link. According to this theory, there is no direct link.

between symbol and referent (between language between symbol and referent (between language and the world). The link is via thought or and the world). The link is via thought or reference, the concepts of our minds.reference, the concepts of our minds.

It holds that meaning should be studied in It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context – elements terms of situation, use, context – elements closely linked with language behavior. … the closely linked with language behavior. … the meaning of a word is its use in the language meaning of a word is its use in the language (proposed by J. R. Firth).(proposed by J. R. Firth).


Thought or Reference

Symbol Referent

This can be best illustrated by the Semiotic Triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards.

Thought or Reference

concept

Symbol Referent

Linguistic elements such as words or sentences

The object, etc, in the world of experience

This theory raises a new proThis theory raises a new problem. For example, what is pblem. For example, what is precisely the link between the recisely the link between the symbol and concept?symbol and concept?

Weakpoints ?

During the period roughly from 1930 During the period roughly from 1930 to 1960, linguists gave pre-eminence to 1960, linguists gave pre-eminence to the empirical or observational to the empirical or observational aspect in the study of meaning.aspect in the study of meaning.

This theory holds that meaning This theory holds that meaning should be studied should be studied in terms of in terms of situation, use, context-situation, use, context---elements --elements closely linked with language closely linked with language behaviorbehavior..

Context and Context and behaviorismbehaviorism

Firth, the leading British linguist of Firth, the leading British linguist of the period held the view that “ We the period held the view that “ We shall know a word by the company shall know a word by the company it keeps.”it keeps.”

a piece of papera piece of paper

a daily papera daily paper

an examination paperan examination paper

a white papera white paper

a term papera term paper

Context and Context and behaviorismbehaviorism

Behaviorist theoryBehaviorist theory

According to Bloomfield, the meaning oAccording to Bloomfield, the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as f a linguistic form should be viewed as “ the situation in which the speaker utt“ the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls foers it, and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.”rth in the hearer.”

Behaviorist theoryBehaviorist theory

the famous account of Jack and JillS Rr s

Events before

speech Speech

Events after

speech

S r s R

Events before

speech

Events after

speech Speech

Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it.

MentalismMentalism This approach has been headed by This approach has been headed by

Chomsky since 1960’s.Chomsky since 1960’s. Mentalists believe that data needed Mentalists believe that data needed

for the study of language can be for the study of language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition.supplied by direct resort to intuition.

They argue that people often judge They argue that people often judge which sentences are synonymous, which sentences are synonymous, which sentences are ambiguous, which sentences are ambiguous, which sentences are ill-formed or which sentences are ill-formed or absurd, based on their intuition.absurd, based on their intuition.

Therefore they regard the task of semaTherefore they regard the task of semantics mainly as one to explain those dantics mainly as one to explain those data supplied by direct resort to intuition ta supplied by direct resort to intuition by constructing theories.by constructing theories.

MentalismMentalism

Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981).Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981). Semantics: The Study of Meaning. . Seven types of meaning:Seven types of meaning:

– Conceptual meaning

– Connotative meaning

– Social meaning

– Affective meaning

– Reflected and meaning

– Collocative meaning

– Thematic meaning

AssociativeMeaning

(1) Conceptual meaning(1) Conceptual meaning

Also called ‘denotative’ or Also called ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning.‘cognitive’ meaning.– Refers to logical, cognitive Refers to logical, cognitive

or denotative content.or denotative content.– Concerned with the Concerned with the

relationship between a relationship between a word and the thing it word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.denotes, or refers to.

(2) Connotative meaning(2) Connotative meaning

The communicative value an expression has by The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its pvirtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.urely conceptual content.– A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties,

including not only physical characteristics but also including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typicpsychological and social properties, as well as typical features.al features.

Involving the ‘real world’ experience one Involving the ‘real world’ experience one associates with an expression when one uses associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.or hears it.– Unstable:Unstable: they vary considerably according to they vary considerably according to

culture, historical period, and the experience of culture, historical period, and the experience of the individual.the individual.

Any characteristic of the referent, identified Any characteristic of the referent, identified subjectively or objectively, may contribute to subjectively or objectively, may contribute to the connotative meaning of the expression the connotative meaning of the expression which denotes it.which denotes it.

Step motherStep mother

(3) Social meaning(3) Social meaning What a piece of language conveys about the social What a piece of language conveys about the social

circumstances of its use.circumstances of its use.– Dialect:Dialect: the language of a geographical region or of a the language of a geographical region or of a

social class.social class.– Time:Time: the language of the 18th c., etc. the language of the 18th c., etc.– Province:Province: language of law, of science, of advertising, language of law, of science, of advertising,

etc.etc.– Status:Status: polite, colloquial, slang, etc. polite, colloquial, slang, etc.– Modality:Modality: language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc. language of memoranda, lectures, jokes, etc.– Singularity:Singularity: the style of Dickens, etc. the style of Dickens, etc.

domicile:domicile: very formal, official very formal, official residence:residence: formal formal abode:abode: poetic poetic home:home: general general

steed:steed: poetic poetic horse:horse: general general nag:nag: slang slang gee-gee:gee-gee: baby language baby language

(4) Affective meaning Reflecting the personal feelings of the Reflecting the personal feelings of the

speaker, including his attitude to the listener, speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking or his attitude to something he is talking about.about.– You’re a vicious tyrant and a villainous You’re a vicious tyrant and a villainous

reprobate, and I hate you for it!reprobate, and I hate you for it!– I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if I’m terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if

you would be so kind as to lower your voices a you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. little.

– Will you belt up.Will you belt up.

(5) Reflected meaning(5) Reflected meaning Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, Arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning,

when one sense of a word forms part of our when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense.response to another sense.– When you hear ‘click the mouse twice’, you think of When you hear ‘click the mouse twice’, you think of

Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.Gerry being hit twice by Tom so you feel excited.

Many taboo terms are result of this.Many taboo terms are result of this.

(6) Collocative meaning(6) Collocative meaning

The associations a word acquires on The associations a word acquires on account of the meanings of words whaccount of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.ich tend to occur in its environment.– pretty:pretty: girl, boy, woman, flower, garden, girl, boy, woman, flower, garden,

colour, village, etc.colour, village, etc.– handsome:handsome: boy, man, car, vessel, overco boy, man, car, vessel, overco

at, airliner, typewriter, etc.at, airliner, typewriter, etc.

(7) Thematic meaning(7) Thematic meaning What is communicated by the way in which a What is communicated by the way in which a

speaker or writer organizes the message, in tespeaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.rms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.– Mrs. Bessie Smith donated the first prize.Mrs. Bessie Smith donated the first prize.– The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.– They stopped at the end of the corridor.They stopped at the end of the corridor.– At the end of the corridor, they stopped.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.

Sense

Sense relates to the complex system oSense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the lif relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves; it is connguistic elements themselves; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relaticerned only with intra-linguistic relations.ons.

Cow/hello, sow/boar, ewe/ram, mare/stallion etc. form a pattern indicating a meaning related to sex.

Pairs of words can be formed into certain patterns to indicate sense relations.

Duck/ducking, pig/piglet, dog/puppy, lion/cub, etc. form another pattern indicating a relationship between adult and young.

Narrow/wide, male/female, buy/sell, etc. show a different pattern related to opposition.

Sense relationsSense relations

In fact, when we are talking of senseIn fact, when we are talking of senserelations, we are talking of relations, we are talking of SynonymySynonymy antonymyantonymy hyponymyhyponymy polysemypolysemy homonymyhomonymy

buy/purchase thrifty/economical/stingy autumn/fall flat/apartment tube/underground

SynonymySynonymy refers to the sameness or closerefers to the sameness or close

similarity of meaning.similarity of meaning.e.g. buy / purchasee.g. buy / purchase world / universeworld / universe brotherly / fraternal brotherly / fraternal

!! But total synonymy is rare, The so-called But total synonymy is rare, The so-called synonyms are all context dependent.synonyms are all context dependent.

Synonymy

Context plays an important part in decidiContext plays an important part in deciding whether a set of lexical items is synonng whether a set of lexical items is synonymous.ymous.

" What a nice " What a nice of flowers!“ of flowers!“ The items “range, selection, choice,” etThe items “range, selection, choice,” et

c. are synonymous.c. are synonymous.

Synonymy

" His " His of knowledge is enormou of knowledge is enormous!"s!"

Range, breadth, etc. are synonymousRange, breadth, etc. are synonymous


Difference in meaningDifference in meaningamazeamaze and and astoundastound form a pair of form a pair of

synonyms. Both suggest great synonyms. Both suggest great wonder or bewilderment in the face wonder or bewilderment in the face of something that seems impossible of something that seems impossible or highly improbable.or highly improbable.

A teacher was amazed to find that a lazy A teacher was amazed to find that a lazy student had gained a mark of 100 in an important student had gained a mark of 100 in an important test.test.

A woman may be astounded to learn that her A woman may be astounded to learn that her dearest friend has been spreading malicious gossip dearest friend has been spreading malicious gossip about her.about her.


But they differ in degrees of wonder oBut they differ in degrees of wonder or bewilderment. Amaze denotes difficr bewilderment. Amaze denotes difficulty of belief and astound extreme diffulty of belief and astound extreme difficulty of belief.iculty of belief.


““Anger, rage, fury, indignationAnger, rage, fury, indignation and and wratwrathh” are synonymous in denoting the emot” are synonymous in denoting the emotional excitement induced by intense displional excitement induced by intense displeasure. easure.


""AngerAnger" , the most general term, descri" , the most general term, describes merely the emotional reaction; the bes merely the emotional reaction; the word itself suggests no definite degree oword itself suggests no definite degree of intensity, and carries no necessary impf intensity, and carries no necessary implication of outward manifestation; lication of outward manifestation;

" to conceal one's anger"," to conceal one's anger", " Tom is easily aroused to anger."" Tom is easily aroused to anger."


""RageRage" often implies a loss of self-" often implies a loss of self-control.control.

" " furyfury" , the strongest word in the " , the strongest word in the group, suggests a rage so violent that it group, suggests a rage so violent that it may approach madness.may approach madness.

The insolence of the waiters drove him The insolence of the waiters drove him into a rage, and he flung his plate to into a rage, and he flung his plate to the floor and stalked out of the the floor and stalked out of the restaurant.restaurant.

Mad with fury, John pounded his fists Mad with fury, John pounded his fists on the wall and beat his breast.on the wall and beat his breast.


""IndignationIndignation" denotes anger based on " denotes anger based on a moral condemnation of something felt a moral condemnation of something felt to be wrong and unfair; e.g.to be wrong and unfair; e.g.

Abolitionists viewed the institution of slAbolitionists viewed the institution of slavery with indignation.avery with indignation.

Mary expressed her indignation at beinMary expressed her indignation at being unfairly dismissed.g unfairly dismissed.


English is particularly rich in synonyms for English is particularly rich in synonyms for the historical reason that its vocabulary hathe historical reason that its vocabulary has come from two different sources, from As come from two different sources, from Anglo -Saxon on the one hand and from Frenglo -Saxon on the one hand and from French, Latin and Greek on the other. nch, Latin and Greek on the other.


Since English is considered to be a Since English is considered to be a Germanic language from a historical Germanic language from a historical point of view, with Anglo-Saxon as point of view, with Anglo-Saxon as an earlier stage of its development, an earlier stage of its development, the "Anglo-Saxon" words are often the "Anglo-Saxon" words are often considered "native" while those considered "native" while those from French, Latin or Greek are from French, Latin or Greek are “foreign”, “borrowed” from these “foreign”, “borrowed” from these languages.languages.


Couplets Borrowed words

Answer reply

homely domestic

might power

buy purchase

fiddle violin

Couplets Borrowed words

brotherly fraternally

bodily corporal

house mansion

hearty cordial

driver chauffeur

Native French Latin

kingly royal regal

time age epoch

rise mount ascend

fast firm secure

Triplets

native French Latin

belly stomache abdomen

holy sacred consecrated

fire flame conflagration

fear terror trepidation

ask question interrogate

A) dialectal synonymsSynonyms belonging to different dialects of the language

British English American English

coach bus

garage Service station

Car park parking lot

Lay-by Rest area

tube subway

British English American English

Call box Telephone booth

telephonist operator

vest undershirt

pavement sidewalk

petroleum gasoline

B) words differing in styles or registers

Words having the same cognitive meaning but having different stylistic meanings

Penalties for overdue books will be Penalties for overdue books will be strictly enforced. (written)strictly enforced. (written)

You have got to pay fines for You have got to pay fines for overdue books. (spoken)overdue books. (spoken)

They made a decision to abandon They made a decision to abandon the project. (formal)the project. (formal)

They decided to walk out on the They decided to walk out on the project. (informal)project. (informal)


to chide (literary )to chide (literary ) to berate ( neutral )to berate ( neutral ) to scold ( neutral )to scold ( neutral ) to blame ( neutral )to blame ( neutral ) to carpet ( colloquial, esp. BrE )to carpet ( colloquial, esp. BrE ) to tell off ( colloquial )to tell off ( colloquial ) to bawl out ( AmE, slang )to bawl out ( AmE, slang )


man (neutral )man (neutral ) chap ( colloquial )chap ( colloquial ) fellow ( colloquial )fellow ( colloquial ) bird ( colloquial )bird ( colloquial ) guy ( slang )guy ( slang ) bozo ( slang )bozo ( slang )


domicile (very formal) domicile (very formal) residence (formal) residence (formal) abode (poetic) abode (poetic) home (general)home (general)


steed (poetic)steed (poetic) horse (general)horse (general) nag (slang)nag (slang) gee-gee (baby talk)gee-gee (baby talk)


C) words differing in emotive or evaluative meaning

"little" and "smal"little" and "small" are synonyms. Bl" are synonyms. But if any emotion iut if any emotion is associated with ts associated with the designation, whe designation, we must choose "lite must choose "little".tle".


" A small boy" is as good " A small boy" is as good English as " a little boy." as " a little boy." Yet if you should exclaim" *Poor small boy!", the Yet if you should exclaim" *Poor small boy!", the

phrase is unidiomatic, because the word "small" has no phrase is unidiomatic, because the word "small" has no affective meaning.affective meaning.

Isn't he a little devil! (indicating affectionate regard).� � �Isn't he a little devil! (indicating affectionate regard).� � � What a pretty little house! What a pretty little house! That poor little girl! (indicating sympathy)That poor little girl! (indicating sympathy) ...She is a nice little thing ( indicating tenderness or ...She is a nice little thing ( indicating tenderness or

regard, but possibly patronage, or a feeling of regard, but possibly patronage, or a feeling of superiority)...."superiority)...."


appreciative derogative

frugal miser

bravery foolhardiness

Firm bigheaded

statesman politician

intellectual egghead

D) collocationally-restricted synonyms

These words can be considered as synonThese words can be considered as synonyms only when they occur in conjunction yms only when they occur in conjunction with certain words.with certain words.


rancid, addled, sour, rottenrancid, addled, sour, rotten rancid baconrancid bacon rancid butterrancid butter addled eggaddled egg sour milksour milk rotten butter and eggrotten butter and egg


a flock of, a heard of, a school of, a pride a flock of, a heard of, a school of, a pride ofof

a flock of sheepa flock of sheep a heard of cows, a heard of cows, a school of whales,a school of whales, a pride of lionsa pride of lions


accuse...of, e.g. accuse...of, e.g. The policemen accused him of the arson.The policemen accused him of the arson.

charge...with, e.g. charge...with, e.g. At the meeting he charged his opponent At the meeting he charged his opponent

with evasion of the basic issues.with evasion of the basic issues.


rebuke...for, e.g. rebuke...for, e.g. The teacher rebuked the student for being The teacher rebuked the student for being

impudent.impudent.

reproach...with or for, e.g. reproach...with or for, e.g. He reproached me with ( or for ) extravagaHe reproached me with ( or for ) extravaga

nce.nce.


pretty handsompretty handsomee

girl boygirl boychild manchild manflower carflower cargarden table garden table colour overcoat colour overcoat village airl village airlinerinercottage housecottage house


sail a small boat sail a small boat navigate a linernavigate a liner

teach arithmetic teach arithmetic inculcate doctrineinculcate doctrine

scholarly scholarly intelligence intelligence animal cunninganimal cunning

offering to a church offering to a church dole to the dole to the unemployedunemployed


AntonymyAntonymy is a standard technical ter is a standard technical term used for oppositeness of meaning betm used for oppositeness of meaning between lexemes.ween lexemes.

AntonymyAntonymySense relationsSense relations

A) gradable opposites ( contraries)A) gradable opposites ( contraries) a. They will show different degrees of a. They will show different degrees of

a given quality.a given quality. b. They can be qualified by adverbials b. They can be qualified by adverbials

of degree.of degree. c. Since contraries are gradable, the c. Since contraries are gradable, the

semantic contrast in a contrary pair is semantic contrast in a contrary pair is relative; i.e. there are often relative; i.e. there are often intermediate terms between the two intermediate terms between the two opposites.opposites.



poor rich 0 25 50 75 100...

Thus we have not just rich and Thus we have not just rich and poor, but there are such poor, but there are such gradations as gradations as rich, well-to-do, well-rich, well-to-do, well-off, moderately wealthy, off, moderately wealthy, comfortably off, hard up, poor.comfortably off, hard up, poor.

d. Since they show different d. Since they show different degrees of a given quality, degrees of a given quality, they will allow a middle they will allow a middle ground between them.ground between them.

poor rich

0 50 100...


e. The negation of one does not mean the assertion of the other.

“ He is not rich” does not mean “he is poor.”

They can be used in the structure

“ neither…nor:

for example:

I am neither rich nor poor.


Gradable antonymyGradable antonymy

good ----------------------- badgood ----------------------- bad long ----------------------- shortlong ----------------------- short big ----------------------- smallbig ----------------------- small

– Can be modified by adverbs of degree Can be modified by adverbs of degree like like veryvery..

– Can have Can have comparativecomparative forms. forms.

– Can be asked with Can be asked with howhow..

f. This kind of antonyms can be analyzed f. This kind of antonyms can be analyzed in terms of markedness (in terms of markedness ( 标记）标记）

“ “markedness” is a term originally usemarkedness” is a term originally used to analyse grammatical meaning, for ed to analyse grammatical meaning, for example, “book ” is unmarkedxample, “book ” is unmarked （无标记（无标记词）；“词）；“ books” is a marked wordbooks” is a marked word （有（有标记词）标记词） because it has a marker “s” tbecause it has a marker “s” to show the grammatical meaning of pluro show the grammatical meaning of plurality.ality.


Now the terms “marked” and Now the terms “marked” and “unmarked” have been widely used “unmarked” have been widely used in the analysis of meaning. A word in the analysis of meaning. A word is unmarked if it is semantically is unmarked if it is semantically inclusive, or broader in meaning inclusive, or broader in meaning while a word is marked if it is while a word is marked if it is semantically narrower.semantically narrower.


Unmarked ( long)

Marked(short) Unmarked (long)

Length of the scale


well, badly

A. How badly do you speak English?

B. Very well

C. Very poorly

D. Like a native.

Very often this kind of antonyms are not symmetric in meaning.


old/young

heavy/light

Wide /narrow

deep/shallow

far/near

long/short


Complementary antonymy

alive : deadalive : dead male : femalemale : female present : absentpresent : absent innocent : guiltyinnocent : guilty

odd : evenodd : even pass : failpass : fail boy : girlboy : girl hit : misshit : miss

Antonyms which can not be compared to Antonyms which can not be compared to determine whether they have the same ddetermine whether they have the same degree of a certain property are called ungegree of a certain property are called ungradable opposites. Complementarities arradable opposites. Complementarities are very often ungradable opposites.e very often ungradable opposites.

Complementarity

Sense relations---AntonymySense relations---Antonymy

The negation of one is the assertion of tThe negation of one is the assertion of the other.he other.

For example: alive/deadFor example: alive/dead “ “ He is not alive” means “ He is deaHe is not alive” means “ He is dea

d”.d”.


They can not be used in the structureThey can not be used in the structure “ “ neither…nor” because they do not alloneither…nor” because they do not allo

w possibilities between them, for examplw possibilities between them, for example:e:

I am neither alive nor dead.I am neither alive nor dead.


More examples:

male/female

married/single

boy/girl

brother/sister


Converse antonymyConverse antonymy

buy : sellbuy : sell lend : borrowlend : borrow give : receivegive : receive parent : childparent : child husband : wifehusband : wife

teacher : studentteacher : student above : belowabove : below before : afterbefore : after host : guesthost : guest employer : employeeemployer : employee

They express the reversal of a relationsThey express the reversal of a relationship between items or a contrast of direchip between items or a contrast of directions.tions.

Usually there is an independence of meUsually there is an independence of meaning. One member of the pair presuppaning. One member of the pair presupposes the other member. Therefore they oses the other member. Therefore they form a unity of opposites.form a unity of opposites.

Relational opposites (Conversives)


If A sells a watch to B, B buys a watch from A.

If A gives a pen to B, B receives a pen from A.

If A lends money to B, B borrows money from A.


husband/wife

fiance/fiancee

parent/child

above/below

debtor/creditor

More examples?Sense relationsSense relations

HyponymyHyponymy

InclusivenessInclusiveness A is included in / a kind of B.A is included in / a kind of B. Cf.: Cf.: chairchair and and furniturefurniture, , roserose and and flowerflower

– Superordinate/hypernym:Superordinate/hypernym: the more general term the more general term– Hyponym:Hyponym: the more specific term the more specific term– Co-hyponyms:Co-hyponyms: members of the same class members of the same class

AnimalAnimal

bird fish insect animalbird fish insect animal

human animal human animal

tiger lion elephant ... tiger lion elephant ...

Very often a word is polysemous in nature, therefore, a word may have different corresponding antonyms, for example:

Fresh bread/stale bread

fresh air/stuffy air

fresh flowers/faded flowers


Polysemy and homonymy

Homonymy

In the English language, there are many pairs or groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are pronounced alike or spelled alike, or both. Such words are called homonyms


A. Types of homonyms

English homonyms are classified as follows:1. Perfect homonyms: words identical in sound and spelling but different in meaning are called perfect homonyms;


lie vi make a statement that one knows to be untrue;lie vi be, put oneself flat on a horizontal surface or in a resting position;

page n. one side of a leaf of paper in a book, periodical, etc.;page n. boy servant, usu. in uniform, in a hotel, club, etc.;


base n. the thing or part on which something rests;base adj. having or showing little or no honour, courage or decency;

meet vt. to come upon or encounter;meet n. a meeting, gathering, or assembling as for a sporting event


2. Homophones: Words identical in sound but different in spelling and meaning are called homophones.


air, heir; ear, bare;


pair, pear; son, sun;


compliment,

complement; principal, principle;

stationary, stationery,


3. Homographs: Words identical in spelling but different in sound and meaning are called homographs: e.g.:

lead /li:d/ v. guide or take, esp. by going in front, etc.lead /led/ v. easily melted metal of a dull bluish-grey colour


sow/s u/ v. put (seed) on or in the ground or in soil;plant (land with seed)sow /sau/ n. a fully grown female pig

tear /ti / n. drop of salty water coming from the eyetear / / v. pull sharply apart or to pieces


Polysemy


The word Polysemy is of Greek origin (GK polys, much + sema, meaning). It has been defined as "...A term used in semantic analysis to refer to a lexical item which has a range of different meanings ( Crystal 1980:274)."


The ability of one word to denote several senses is one of the basic peculiarities of human speech. A glance at any English dictionary will give you an idea of how frequent polysemy is. One -meaning words (monosemic words) are very rare. They are very often scientific terms (e.g. oxygen, moonwalk, and earthrise).


fair: (of attitude, behavior ) just and honest ( of results ) average, quite good ( of the weather ) clear and sunny ( of amount ) satisfactory, abundant ( of the skin, hair ) pair; light in colour


Sources of polysemy

A. Shifts in application

Words have a number of different aspects according to the contexts in which they are used.


Shifts in application are particularly noticeable in the use of adjectives since these are apt to change their meaning according to the noun they qualify. The adjective " handsome", for example, has been used, in the course of its history, in the following sense, grouped according to the noun to which they refer:


Persons:a) apt, skilled, cleverb) proper, fitting, decentc) beautiful with dignity

Concretes:a) easy to handleb) of fair sizec) beautiful with dignityd) proper, fitting ( of dress )


Action, speech:a) appropriate, apt, clever

Conduct:a) fitting, seemlyb) gallant, bravec) generous, magnanimous


Sizes, sums:a) fair, moderately largeb) ample, liberal, munificent


B. Specialization in a social milieu

Polysemy often arises through a kind of verbal shorthand. For a lawyer, "action" will naturally mean legal action; for the soldier it will mean a military operation, without any need for a qualifying epithet. In this way the same word may acquire a number of specialized senses, only one of which will be applicable in a given milieu.


C. Figurative language

Many inanimate objects are compared to the parts of the human body.


the eye of a needle 针眼

the eye of a potato 马铃薯的芽眼

the eye of the hurricane 风眼

the eye of a flower 花心

the eye of a peacock’s tail 孔雀翎斑the eye of the revolution 革命中心


An ass: a stupid foolish person

A pig:a dirty, greedy or ill-mannered person


A mouse: a person, esp. A woman, who is quiet and timid

A goose: a silly person, esp. female


A cat: a nasty person

A rat: a low worthless disloyal man


Componential AnalysisComponential Analysis (known as CA) (known as CA) meaning is composed of meaning components meaning is composed of meaning components

called called semantic featuressemantic features. Plus and minus signs . Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a semantic feature is are used to indicate whether a semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word. e.g.present or absent in the meaning of a word. e.g.

woman:woman: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, - MALE+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, - MALE man:man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE boy :boy : +HUMAN, - ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE +HUMAN, - ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE

Componential analysis

Componential Analysis

HUMANHUMAN– man (ADULT, MALE)man (ADULT, MALE)– woman (ADULT, FEMALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE)– boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)– girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)

Animal wordsAnimal words

MALE FEMALE NON-ADULT

bull cow calf

ram ewe lamb

boar sow piglet

English motion verbsEnglish motion verbs

NATURAL HURRIED FORWARD ONE FOOT

ALWAYS ON GROUND

walk + ━ + +

march ━ + + +

run ━ + + ━

limp ━ ━ + +

More complex onesMore complex ones

father:father: PARENT ( PARENT (x, yx, y) & MALE () & MALE (xx))– xx is a parent of is a parent of yy, and , and xx is male. is male.

take:take: CAUSE ( CAUSE (xx, (HAVE (, (HAVE (x, yx, y))))))– xx causes causes xx to have to have yy..

give:give: CAUSE ( CAUSE (xx, (~HAVE (, (~HAVE (x, yx, y))))))– xx causes causes xx not to have not to have yy..

Sense relation between sentences

I. X is synonymous with Y, e.g. X: I am an orphan. Y: I am a child and have no father or mother.

X: I am an orphan. Y: I am a child and have no father or mother.

In terms of truth condition, If X is true, Y is true, and if X is false, Y is false.

e.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life.

X: The boy killed the dog. Y: The dog was killed by the boy.

X is inconsistent with Y

e.g. X: I am an orphan. Y: I have a father.

In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is false, and if X is false, Y is true.

e.g. X: John is married.

Y: John is a bachelor.

X: This is my first visit to your country.

Y: I have been to your country before.

X entails Y. (Y is an entailment of X.) e. g. X: I am an orphan.

Y: I have no father.

In terms of truth condition, if X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false. If Y is true, X may be true or false; If Y is false, X is false.

e. g. X: John married a blond heiress. Y: John married a blond.

X: He has been to France. Y: He has been to Europe.

If X is true, Y is necessarily true, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe.

If X is false, Y may be true or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he has not been to Europe.

If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France.

If Y is false, X is false, e.g. K he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France.

X presupposes Y. (Y is a presupposition of X.)

e. g. X: My father is at home.

Y: I have a father.

In terms of truth condition: If X is true, Y must be true. If X is false, Y is still true. If Y is true, X is either true or false. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X.

e. g. X: John' s bike needs repairing.

Y: John has a bike.

X: The queen of England is old.

Y: England has a queen.

If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John must have a bike.

If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, John still has a bike.

If Y is true, X is either true or false. e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing.

If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John does not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not.

X is a contradiction

When X is a contradiction, it is invariably false, e.g.

This orphan has a father.

My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.

X is semantically anomalous

e.g. The orphan’s mother lives in New York. When X is semantically anomalous, it is absu

rd because it presupposes a contradiction, therefore it makes no sense to ask whether X is true or false.

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Meaning Cao Ning School of English Language Longdong University.

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