MemoryChapter 9

The Seven Dwarves In the corner of your notes: name the Seven Dwarves

Seven Dwarves Take Two

Try Again

Seven Dwarves How did it go?

It probably depends on several things….1. If you like Disney movies?2. When was the last time you have seen the movie?3. Are people around you being loud pain-in-the-butts

so you cannot concentrate?

What is memory The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information.

Memory

Must retrieve the information from your memory Ex. fill-in-the blank or essay tests

Must identify the target from possible targetsEx. multiple-choice tests

Recall Recognition

Memory ModelStructure of Memory

Memory Process Three Step Processing (Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968))1. Encode: Getting information into the brain2. Storage: Retaining information over time3. Retrieval: Getting information out of the brain

Sensory Memory

Short Term

Memory

Long Term Memory

External

Stimuli

Attentionencoding

Further encoding

Retrieval

Step One: Sensory Memory Short term holding spot for all information George Sperling Iconic memory We take pictures of all

information and hold it for a split second

Echoic Memory Split second recording of all

information Ex. “What did I just say?”

Step Two: Short Term Memory Information from sensory memory is encoded into short term memory Encoding can be visual, acoustic, or semantic Limited storage capacity and duration Approx 7 characters (+/- 2) Approx 4 chunks Approx 20 seconds Numbers work better than letters

Step Three: Long Term Memory Unlimited storage space Explicit (declarative) memories Conscious recollection of fact/info

from the outside world Implicit (non-declarative) memories Unconscious memory Ex. Fingers on a keyboard Ex. Reading music

Explicit Memories Episodic Memories Long term memory for specific events, situations, experiences Autobiographical Examples?? Semantic Memories Long term memory from things other than personal experience Facts, locations, etc. Examples?? Flashbulb Memories Distinct, vivid, precise memories of personal circumstances surrounding significant events

Implicit Memories Procedural Memories Knowledge of certain events and

procedures that become automatic through practice

Conditioned Memories Trained automatic responses learned

through association Skills Procedures, skills, habitats

Memory ProcessHow to remember

Working Memory Model

Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents…

Encoding Parallel Processing Different memories are built all at the same time Automatic Processing: processing which requires no effort Space/layout Time/sequence Frequency Effortful processing can become automatic Examples?

Encoding Effortful Processing: processing which uses effort and attention. Produces lasting and accessible memories Techniques to boost effortful processing Rehearsal: conscious repetition H. Ebbinghaus: list of three letters nonsense

words, practised remembering them. Conclusion-the more the list was repeated on

day one, the fewer times it was needed to be repeated on day 2. Amount remembered depends on time spent learning

Other Encoding Strategies Next-in-line Effect We struggle to remember what was said just before we

have to report. Ex. Circle Name Game Why? Timing of sleep Info presented one hour before sleep=remembered well Info presented right before sleep=remembered poorly Sleep learning doesn’t work, although we do hear what

is being played

Even More Encoding Strategies Spacing Effect Rehearsal should be distributed overtime for

optimal learning Bahrick’s foreign language experiments Cramming… Expanding Breaks between review should get

incrementally larger Serial Position Effect (Primacy/Recency Effect) First and last items are remembered best, why? Immediately after input we remember last best,

why? Von Restorff Effect New or different things are more easily recalled How can this help us learn new names?

The Ways We Encode: Levels of Processing

Visual: encoding images or pictures We remember what we see Structural (shallow level)

Acoustic: encoding sound especially the sound of words We remember what we hear Slogans? Phonemic (intermediate level)

Semantic: encoding meaning We remember what was meant, not necessarily what

was literally said or seen Semantic (deepest level)

The Ways We Encode Deep encoding works better—semantics>visual or acoustic Craik and Tulving (1975) Primed one type of encoding Flashed a word Tested later Self-Reference Effect Information with personal

meaning is remembered best

Visual Encoding Earliest memories are mental pictures Elements that can be represented by pictures are easier to remember than elements that cannot. Personal memories are often pictures Best or worst images Rosy Retrospection We recall events more positively than we considered them at the

time So what?

Ways to Organize Information Chunking It’s easier to memorize things in

meaningful chunks Emphasis on meaningful Many mnemonics utilize chunking Hierarchies Broad topics narrowed down to

individual facts Assists in efficient retrieval AHHHHH OUTLINES!

Mnemonics Mnemonics help encode by supporting the ways we encode particularly visualizing Method of Loci Associate a familiar place to each word and imagine moving

from place to place Acoustic Make information into a rhyme or catchy phrase Visual Visually associate “peg-word” to the target

http://www.learningassistance.com/2006/january/mnemonics.html

Encoding Failures Age affects encoding: older adults are not as good at encoding Decreased recall, but

equal recognition Remember: importance is attention! We only encode what is

important to us

Storage Large and diverse storage capacity Storage is not perfect Forgetting often comes from new information

interfering in retrieval and a decay in physical memory trace

Some experts doubt decay LTMemories can survive brain black out!

But WHERE are memories stored?

Synaptic Plasticity: ability of synapses to change their strength How did we get this conclusion Sea snail Aplysia: with conditioning the snail releases more

serotonin at certain synapses, which causes these pathways to change and become more efficient at transmitting signals

Fun Fact: in mammals synaptic plasticity is a product of increased dopamine

Long Term Potentiation (Lynch, 2002) Stimulation of memory connectionsincreased neural sensitivity Increase in receptor sites and increase in sensitivity of existing

receptor sites

Drugs to Enhance Memory Focus: Alzheimer's, mild cognitive impairment CREB (protein) Drug goal: increase CREB CREB switches genes on and off Genes can produce synapse strengthening proteins Glutamate Drug Goal: increase glutamate Enhances LTP Concerns Side Effects Too much memory

Affects of Stress on Storage Arousal Increased glucose and amygdala activation Moments of arousal make it difficult to recall old memories Stronger emotional experiences=stronger and more reliable memories Affect of rehearsal and reliving Reduction of stress hormones=less recall Lasting stress corrodes neural connections and shrinks hippocampus makes it difficult to create new memories

Memory Storage Locations Explicit Memories (declarative): conscious recall Includes facts and personally experienced events Processed in hippocampus and certain parts of the frontal lobes Stored in the hippocampus Damage to right hippocampus=difficulty recalling visual designs and locations Damage to left hippocampus=difficulty recalling verbal information Hippocampus Regions Associating names with faces Spatial mnemonics Rear area: Spatial memory (and this part has actually been observed to grow!) In time (approx. 1 month), memory moves to other areas such as the temporal and frontal lobes

Emotional associations to memory come from amygdala

Memory Storage Locations Implicit Memories (procedural): without conscious recall Processed by cerebellum Includes motor and cognitive skills and classical and

operant conditioning Require fewer connections among cortical storage areas How does this set up relate to childhood learning? Verbal development Hippocampus development

Retrieval Memories are encoded with tags aka retrieval cues

More cues the better Types of cues Words Images Tastes Smells Sights Places Process begins with priming Priming is often

unconscioussubliminal messaging

Importance of Context Memories made in one place are best remembered in the same place Mood Congruent Memories Good or bad events become associated with

corresponding emotions We tag memories with our mood Our moods influence the encoding and

retrieval of memories (good mood=more positive memories)

Feed forward cycle State Dependent Memories We recall best in the same state (situation,

mood, level of consciousness)

Retrieval Failures Interference Proactive Interference: prior learning disrupts recall of new info A cluttered mind phenomenon Retroactive Interference: new information makes it harder to recall prior

info Learning names of new students replaces names of old students Solution: add spacing (e.g. sleep) between interfering events Opposite of interference: positive transfer Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: Remember but can’t recall Motivated Forgetting Revise our own histories Repression: Freud’s psychoanalytical theory of unconsciously forgetting

ForgettingAnd other memory difficulties

Seven Sins of Memory Forgetting Absent-mindness: inattention to details produces encoding failure Transience: storage decay over time of unused info Blocking: inaccessibility of stored information Distortion Misattribution: confusing the source of information Suggestibility: incorporating suggested information into ones

memory Bias: recollections affected by beliefs Intrusion Persistence: unwanted memories

Manipulating Memories Memories are sensitive Car Accident Example How fast were the cars going when they smashed

into each other versus when they hit each other Misinformation Effect: Incorporation of incorrect or misleading info into your memories Effect on eyewitness testimony Gaps are filled in with assumptions and guesses Imagination Inflation: imagined events become real memories

Amnesia Source Amnesia: forgetting source of information

Source is one of the most fragile parts of a memory Retrograde Amnesia: difficulty remembering old information and events Usually accompanies anterograde amnesia or other problems

Anterograde Amnesia: difficulty remembering new information and events Alzheimer’s Disease: severe progressive general amnesia

Starts with anterograde amnesia

True Versus False Memories Interpretations influence memory Memory persistence does not indicate reality Detailed memories indicate reality Gist memories last longer and are easier to

recall Collectively, people often remember incorrectly Ex. Did the man have brown hair? Ex. It was love at first sight or it never really

worked Ex. Recall political views more similar to our

current views

Child Abuse Check out pages 386-390

Be able to apply the principles of memory processing and memory errors to recalling child abuse.

Keep in mind children (and old people) are affected by suggestive memory

How often is it actual recall versus memory errors

Improving Memory

Study Repeatedly: Overlearn, remember Ebbinghaus: we want that curve to level out high! (and time those breaks appropriately) Rehearse: Exercise strengthens new memories, emphasis should be on critical reflection not speed reading Make Info Personal: Put information in your own words! Use the Ask Yourself questions and create personal examples. Build on what you already know or understand and form as many different associations as possible

Improving Memory Mnemonics: use peg words, chunk information into acronyms, create a story with graphic images associated to concepts Activate Retrieval Cues: Mentally re-create the mood and situation of learning Practice Recall Before Misinformation: Record memories before you have influence from outside sources Minimize Interference: Do not study one hour before bed, don’t schedule study sessions back to back of similar material Test yourself: Avoid overconfidence, by answer the objectives, outlining sections as a test, vocab flashcards, take practice tests!