MIS Question and Answer of NICMAR

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NICMAR Management Information System Questionnaire

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1

Q. Transaction Processing System

A. Updating the appropriate database records as soon as a transaction (order, payment, etc.) is entered intothe computer. It may also imply that confirmations are sent at the same time.

Transaction processing systems are the backbone of an organization because they update constantly. At any

given moment, someone may need an inventory balance, an account balance or the total current value of afinancial portfolio. Also called "online transaction processing" (OLTP), the OLTP market is a demanding

one, often requiring 24x7 operation and the most reliable computers and networks.

A manual example of transaction processing would be that every time you purchased an item, you added the

amount paid to a running total. Contrast with "batch processing," which means that you save all receipts in a

drawer and add them up at the end of the year for taxes.

The success of commercial enterprises depends on the reliable processing of transactions to ensure that

customer orders are met on time, and that partners and suppliers are paid and can make payment. The field otransaction processing, therefore, has become a vital part of effective business management, led by such

organizations as the Association for Work Process Improvement and the Transaction Processing Performan

Council.

Transaction processing systems offer enterprises the means to rapidly process transactions to ensure the

smooth flow of data and the progression of processes throughout the enterprise. Typically, a TPS will exhib

the following characteristics:

Rapid Processing

The rapid processing of transactions is vital to the success of any enterprise now more than ever, in the fac

of advancing technology and customer demand for immediate action. TPS systems are designed to process

transactions virtually instantly to ensure that customer data is available to the processes that require it.

Reliability

Similarly, customers will not tolerate mistakes. TPS systems must be designed to ensure that not only dotransactions never slip past the net, but that the systems themselves remain operational permanently. TPS

systems are therefore designed to incorporate comprehensive safeguards and disaster recovery systems.

These measures keep the failure rate well within tolerance levels.

Standardization

Transactions must be processed in the same way each time to maximize efficiency. To ensure this, TPS

interfaces are designed to acquire identical data for each transaction, regardless of the customer.

Controlled Access

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Since TPS systems can be such a powerful business tool, access must be restricted to only those employees

who require their use. Restricted access to the system ensures that employees who lack the skills and ability

to control it cannot influence the transaction process.

Transactions Processing Qualifiers

In order to qualify as a TPS, transactions made by the system must pass the ACID test. The ACID tests refe

to the following four prerequisites:

Atomicity

Atomicity means that a transaction is either completed in full or not at all. For example, if funds aretransferred from one account to another, this only counts as a bone fide transaction if both the withdrawal an

deposit take place. If one account is debited and the other is not credited, it does not qualify as a transactionTPS systems ensure that transactions take place in their entirety.

Consistency

TPS systems exist within a set of operating rules (or integrity constraints). If an integrity constraint states thall transactions in a database must have a positive value, any transaction with a negative value would be

refused.

Isolation

Transactions must appear to take place in isolation. For example, when a fund transfer is made between twoaccounts the debiting of one and the crediting of another must appear to take place simultaneously. The fundcannot be credited to an account before they are debited from another.

Durability

Once transactions are completed they cannot be undone. To ensure that this is the case even if the TPS

suffers failure, a log will be created to document all completed transactions.

These four conditions ensure that TPS systems carry out their transactions in a methodical, standardized and

reliable manner.

Types of Transactions

While the transaction process must be standardized to maximize efficiency, every enterprise requires atailored transaction process that aligns with its business strategies and processes. For this reason, there are

two broad types of transaction:

Batch Processing

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Batch processing is not transaction processing. Batch processing involves processing several transactions at

the same time, and the results of each transaction are not immediately available when the transaction is bein

entered; there is a time delay.

Batch processing is a resource-saving transaction type that stores data for processing at pre-defined times.

Batch processing is useful for enterprises that need to process large amounts of data using limited resources

Examples of batch processing include credit card transactions, for which the transactions are processed

monthly rather than in real time. Credit card transactions need only be processed once a month in order to

produce a statement for the customer, so batch processing saves IT resources from having to process eachtransaction individually.

Real Time Processing

In many circumstances the primary factor is speed. For example, when a bank customer withdraws a sum of

money from his or her account it is vital that the transaction be processed and the account balance updated asoon as possible, allowing both the bank and customer to keep track of funds.

Transaction Processing System orTransaction Processing Monitor is a set of information which processthe data transaction in database system that monitors transaction programs (a special kind of program). The

essence of a transaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent state. E.g. if an

electronic payment is made, the amount must be either both withdrawn from one account and added to the

other, or none at all. In case of a failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed transactionmust be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be provided also for batch transaction

processing, it is particularly important for online processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation system isaccessed by multiple operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be locked until threservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a seat is still free while it is actually

being booked at the time. Without proper transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Other

transaction monitor functions include deadlock detection and resolution (deadlocks may be inevitable incertain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' in

case of massive failures.

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2

Q. Executive Information System

A. Executive information systems make a variety of critical information readily available in a highlysummarized and convenient form. Senior managers characteristically employ many informal sources of

information, however, so that formal, computerized information systems are of limited assistance.

Nevertheless, this assistance is important for the chief executive officer, senior and executive vice president

and the board of directors to monitor the performance of the company, assess the business environment, anddevelop strategic directions for the future. In particular, these executives need to compare their organization

performance with that of its competitors and investigate general economic trends in regions or countries for

potential expansion. Often relying on multiple media, executive information systems give their users anopportunity to drill down from summary data to increasingly detailed and focused information.

An Executive Information System (EIS) is a type of management information system intended to facilitateand support the information and decision-making needs of senior executives by providing easy access to bot

internal and external information relevant to meeting the strategic goals of the organization. It is commonly

considered as a specialized form of a Decision Support System (DSS)

The emphasis of EIS is on graphical displays and easy-to-use user interfaces. They offer strong reporting an

drill-down capabilities. In general, EIS are enterprise-wide DSS that help top-level executives analyze,

compare, and highlight trends in important variables so that they can monitor performance and identifyopportunities and problems. EIS and data warehousing technologies are converging in the marketplace.

In recent years, the term EIS has lost popularity in favor of Business Intelligence (with the sub areas of

reporting, analytics, and digital dashboards).

History

Traditionally, executive information systems were developed as mainframe computer-based programs. The

purpose was to package a companys data and to provide sales performance or market research statistics fordecision makers, as such financial officers, marketing directors, and chief executive officers, who were not

necessarily well acquainted with computers. The objective was to develop computer applications that would

highlight information to satisfy senior executives needs. Typically, an EIS provides data that would onlyneed to support executive level decisions instead of the data for all the company.

Today, the application of EIS is not only in typical corporate hierarchies, but also at personal computers on

local area network. EIS now cross computer hardware platforms and integrate information stored onmainframes, personal computer systems, and minicomputers. As some client service companies adopt the

latest enterprise information systems, employees can use their personal computers to get access to the

companys data and decide which data are relevant for their decision makings. This arrangement makes allusers able to customize their access to the proper companys data and provide relevant information to both

upper and lower levels in companies.

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Components

The components of an EIS can typically be classified as:

Hardware

When talking about hardware for an EIS environment, we should focus on the hardware that meet the

executives needs. The executive must be put first and the executives needs must be defined before the

hardware can be selected. The basic computer hardware needed for a typical EIS includes four components:

1. Input data-entry devices. These devices allow the executive to enter, verify, and update data

immediately;

2. The central processing unit (CPU), which is the kernel because it controls the other computer systemcomponents;

3. Data storage files. The executive can use this part to save useful business information, and this part

also help the executive to search historical business information easily;

4. Output devices, which provide a visual or permanent record for the executive to save or read. Thisdevice refers to the visual output device or printer.

In addition, with the advent of local area networks (LAN), several EIS products for networked workstationsbecame available. These systems require less support and less expensive computer hardware. They also

increase access of the EIS information to many more users within a company.

Software

Choosing the appropriate software is vital to design an effective EIS. Therefore, the software componentsand how they integrate the data into one system are very important. The basic software needed for a typical

EIS includes four components:

1. Text base software. The most common form of text is probably documents;

2. Database. Heterogeneous databases residing on a range of vendor-specific and open computerplatforms help executives access both internal and external data;

3. Graphic base. Graphics can turn volumes of text and statistics into visual information for executives

Typical graphic types are: time series charts, scatter diagrams, maps, motion graphics, sequence

charts, and comparison-oriented graphs (i.e., barcharts);

4. Model base. The EIS models contain routine and special statistical, financial, and other quantitative

analysis.

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Perhaps a more difficult problem for executives is choosing from a range of highly technical software

packages. Ease of use, responsiveness to executives' requests, and price are all reasonable considerations.

Further, it should be considered whether the package can run on existing hardware.

User Interface

An EIS needs to be efficient to retrieve relevant data for decision makers, so the user interface is very

important. Several types of interfaces can be available to the EIS structure, such as scheduled reports,

questions/answers, menu driven, command language, natural language, and input/output. It is crucial that theinterface must fit the decision makers decision-making style. If the executive is not comfortable with the

information questions/answers style, the EIS will not be fully utilized. The ideal interface for an EIS would

be simple to use and highly flexible, providing consistent performance, reflecting the executives world, andcontaining help information.

Telecommunication

As decentralizing is becoming the current trend in companies, telecommunications will play a pivotal role innetworked information systems. Transmitting data from one place to another has become crucial for

establishing a reliable network. In addition, telecommunications within an EIS can accelerate the need for

access to distributed data.

Applications

EIS enables executives to find those data according to user-defined criteria and promote information-based

insight and understanding. Unlike a traditional management information system presentation, EIS can

distinguish between vital and seldom-used data, and track different key critical activities for executives, botwhich are helpful in evaluating if the company is meeting its corporate objectives. After realizing its

advantages, people have applied EIS in many areas, especially, in manufacturing, marketing, and finance

areas.

Manufacturing

Basically, manufacturing is the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, or intermediate

processes involving the production or finishing of semi-manufactures. It is a large branch of industry and ofsecondary production. Manufacturing operational control focuses on day-to-day operations, and the central

idea of this process is effectiveness and efficiency. To produce meaningful managerial and operational

information for controlling manufacturing operations, the executive has to make changes in the decision

processes. EIS provides the evaluation of vendors and buyers, the evaluation of purchased materials andparts, and analysis of critical purchasing areas. Therefore, the executive can oversee and review purchasing

operations effectively with EIS. In addition, because production planning and control depends heavily on th

plants data base and its communications with all manufacturing work centers, EIS also provides an approacto improve production planning and control.

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Marketing

In an organization, marketing executives role is to create the future. Their main duty is managing available

marketing resources to create a more effective future. For this, they need make judgments about risk anduncertainty of a project and its impact on the company in short term and long term. To assist marketing

executives in making effective marketing decisions, an EIS can be applied. EIS provides an approach to sale

forecasting, which can allow the market executive to compare sales forecast with past sales. EIS also offers

an approach to product price, which is found in venture analysis. The market executive can evaluate pricingas related to competition along with the relationship of product quality with price charged. In summary, EIS

software package enables marketing executives to manipulate the data by looking for trends, performing

audits of the sales data, and calculating totals, averages, changes, variances, or ratios. All of these salesanalysis functions help marketing executives to make final decisions.

Financial

A financial analysis is one of the most important steps to companies today. The executive needs to usefinancial ratios and cash flow analysis to estimate the trends and make capital investment decisions. An EIS

is a responsibility-oriented approach that integrates planning or budgeting with control of performance

reporting, and it can be extremely helpful to finance executives. Basically, EIS focuses on accountability offinancial performance and it recognizes the importance of cost standards and flexible budgeting in

developing the quality of information provided for all executive levels. EIS enables executives to focus mor

on the long-term basis of current year and beyond, which means that the executive not only can manage a

sufficient flow to maintain current operations but also can figure out how to expand operations that arecontemplated over the coming years. Also, the combination of EIS and EDI environment can help cash

managers to review the companys financial structure so that the best method of financing for an acceptedcapital project can be concluded. In addition, the EIS is a good tool to help the executive to review financialratios, highlight financial trends and analyze a companys performance and its competitors.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Easy for upper-level executives to use, extensive computer experience is not required in operations

Provides timely delivery of company summary information

Information that is provided is better understood

Filters data for management

Improves to tracking information

Offers efficiency to decision makers

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Disadvantages

Functions are limited, cannot perform complex calculations

Hard to quantify benefits and to justify implementation of an EIS

Executives may encounter information overload

System may become slow, large, and hard to manage

Difficult to keep current data

May lead to less reliable and insecure data

Small companies may encounter excessive costs for implementation

Too detailed Oriented

Future Trends

The future of executive info systems will not be bound by mainframe computer systems. This trend allowsexecutives escaping from learning different computer operating systems and substantially decreases the

implementation costs for companies. Because utilizing existing software applications lies in this trend,

executives will also eliminate the need to learn a new or special language for the EIS package. Future

executive information systems will not only provide a system that supports senior executives, but alsocontain the information needs for middle managers. The future executive information systems will become

diverse because of integrating potential new applications and technology into the systems, such asincorporating artificial intelligence (AI) and integrating multimedia characteristics and ISDN technology int

an EIS.

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3

Q. Expert System (ES)

A. An expert system is software that attempts to reproduce the performance of one or more human experts,most commonly in a specific problem domain, and is a traditional application and/or subfield of artificial

intelligence. A wide variety of methods can be used to simulate the performance of the expert however

common to most or all are 1) the creation of a so-called "knowledgebase" which uses some knowledge

representation formalism to capture the Subject Matter Experts (SME) knowledge and 2) a process ofgathering that knowledge from the SME and codifying it according to the formalism, which is called

knowledge engineering. Expert systems may or may not have learning components but a third common

element is that once the system is developed it is proven by being placed in the same real world problemsolving situation as the human SME, typically as an aid to human workers or a supplement to some

information system.

As a premiere application of computing and artificial intelligence, the topic of expert systems has many

points of contact with general systems theory, operations research, business process reengineering and

various topics in applied mathematics and management science.

One advantage of expert systems over traditional methods of programming is that they allow the use of

"confidences", also known as certainty factors. A human, when reasoning, does not always conclude thing

with 100% confidence: he might venture, "If Fritz is green, then he is probably a frog" (after all, he might bea chameleon). This type of reasoning can be imitated by using numeric values called confidences. For

example, if it is known that Fritz is green, it might be concluded with 0.85 confidence that he is a frog; or, if

it is known that he is a frog, it might be concluded with 0.95 confidence that he hops. These numbers are

similar in nature to probabilities, but they are not the same: they are meant to imitate the confidences humanuse in reasoning rather than to follow the mathematical definitions used in calculating probabilities.

Individuals involved with expert systems

There are generally three individuals having an interaction with expert systems. Primary among these is theend-user; the individual who uses the system for its problem solving assistance. In the building and

maintenance of the system there are two other roles: the problem domain expert who builds and supplies the

knowledge base providing the domain expertise, and a knowledge engineer who assists the experts indetermining the representation of their knowledge, enters this knowledge into an explanation module and

who defines the inference technique required to obtain useful problem solving activity. Usually, theknowledge engineer will represent the problem solving activity in the form of rules which is referred to as a

rule-based expert system. When these rules are created from the domain expertise, the knowledge base storethe rules of the expert system.

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4

Q. Office Automation (OA)

A. Office automation refers to the varied computer machinery and software used to digitally create, collect,store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic tasks and goals. Raw data

storage, electronic transfer, and the management of electronic business information comprise the basic

activities of an office automation system.

The history of modern office automation began with the typewriter and the copy machine, which mechanize

previously manual tasks. Today, however, office automation is increasingly understood as a term that refers

not just to the mechanization of tasks but to the conversion of information to electronic form as well. Theadvent of the personal computer revolutionized office automation, and today, popular operating systems and

user interfaces dominate office computer systems. This revolution has been so complete, and has infiltrated

so many areas of business, that almost all businesses use at least one commercial computer businessapplication in the course of daily activity. Even the smallest companies commonly utilize computer

technology to maintain financial records, inventory information, payroll records, and other pertinent busines

information. "Workplace technology that started as handy (but still optional) business tools in the 1980sevolved into a high-priority requirement in the 1990s," summarized Stanley Zarowin inJournal ofAccountancy. "As we enter the new millennium, it has taken another quantum leap, going from a priority to

prerequisite for doing business."

The Basics of Office Automation

Generally, there are three basic activities of an office automation system: data storage of information, data

exchange, and data management. Within each broad application area, hardware and software combine tofulfill basic functions.

Data storage usually includes office records and other primary office forms and documents. Data application

involve the capture and editing of files, images, or spreadsheets. Word processing and desktop presentationpackages accommodate raw textual and graphical data, while spreadsheet applications provide users with th

capacity to engage in the easy manipulation and output of numbers. Image applications allow the capture an

editing of visual images.

Text handling software and systems cover the whole field of word processing and desktop publishing. Word

processing, the most basic and common office automation activity, is the inputting (usually via keyboard)and manipulation of text on a computer. Today's commercial word processing applications provide users

with a sophisticated set of commands to format, edit, and print text documents. One of the most popular

features of word processing packages are their preformatted document templates. Templates automaticallyset up such things as font size, paragraph styles, headers and footers, and page numbers so that the user does

not have to reset document characteristics every time they create a new record.

Desktop publishing adds another dimension to text manipulation. By combining the features of a wordprocessor with advanced page design and layout features, desktop publishing packages have emerged as

valuable tools in the creation of newsletters, brochures, and other documents that combine text and

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photographs, charts, drawings and other graphic images.

Image handling software and systems are another facet of office automation. Examples of visual information

include pictures of documents, photographs, and graphics such as tables and charts. These images areconverted into digital files, which cannot be edited the same way that text files can. In a word processor or

desktop publishing application, each word or character is treated individually. In an imaging system, the

entire picture or document is treated as one whole object. One of the most popular uses of computerized

images is in corporate presentations or speeches. Presentation software packages simplify the creation ofmultimedia presentations that use computer video, images, sound, and text in an integrated information

package.

Spreadsheet programs allow the manipulation of numeric data. Early popular spreadsheet programs such as

Visi Calc and Lotus 123 greatly simplified common business financial record keeping. Particularly useful

among the many spreadsheet options is the ability to use variables in pro forma statements. The pro forma

option allows the user to change a variable and have a complex formula automatically recalculated based onthe new numbers. Many businesses use spreadsheets for financial management, financial projection, and

accounting.

DATA EXCHANGE. While data storage and manipulation is one component of an office automation

system, the exchange of that information is another equally important component. Electronic transfer is a

general application area that highlights the exchange of information between more than one user orparticipant. Electronic mail, voice mail, and facsimile are examples of electronic transfer applications.

Systems that allow instantaneous or "real time" transfer of information (i.e. online conversations via

computer or audio exchange with video capture) are considered electronic sharing systems. Electronicsharing software illustrates the collaborative nature of many office automation systems.

Office automation systems that include the ability to electronically share information between more than on

user simultaneously are sometimes referred to as groupware systems. One type of groupware is an electronimeeting system. Electronic meeting systems allow geographically dispersed participants to exchange

information in real time. Participants in such electronic meetings may be within the same office or building,

or thousands of miles apart. Long-distance electronic sharing systems usually use a telephone line connectioto transfer data; while sharing in the same often involves just a local area network of computers (no outside

phone line is needed). The functional effectiveness of such electronic sharing systems has been one factor in

the growth of telecommuting as an option for workers. Telecommuters work at home, maintaining their tiesto the office via computer.

Electronic transfer software and systems allow for electronic, voice, and facsimile transmission of officeinformation. Electronic mail uses computer based storage and a common set of network communicationstandards to forward electronic messages from one user to another. Most of these systems allow users to

relay electronic mail to more than one recipient. Additionally, many electronic mail systems provide security

features, automatic messaging, and mail management systems like electronic folders or notebooks. Voicemail offers essentially the same applications, but for telephones, not computers. Facsimile transmissions are

limited to image relay, and while usage of this communication option has declined somewhat with the

emergence of electronic mail, fax machines remain standard in almost all business offices in America. In

addition, new technologies continue to transform fax use, just as they have influenced other modes of

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corporate communication. For example, facsimile converters for the personal computer that allows remote

printing of "faxed" information via the computer rather than through a dedicated facsimile machine are now

available. Indeed, these facsimile circuit boards for the microcomputer are slowly replacing stand-alone fax

machines. Simultaneously, other traditional office equipment continues to undergo changes that improvetheir data exchange capacities as well. Digital copiers, for example, are increasingly multifunctional (with

copying, printing, faxing, and scanning capabilities) and connectable to computer networks.

DATA MANAGEMENT. Office automation systems are also often used to track both short-term and longterm data in the realms of financial plans, workforce allocation plans, marketing expenditures, inventory

purchases, and other aspects of business. Task management or scheduling systems monitor and control

various projects and activities within the office. Electronic management systems monitor and control officeactivities and tasks through timelines, resource equations, and electronic scheduling. As in data exchange,

groupware and network computer systems are gaining in popularity for data management. Under such

arrangements, multiple members of the office environment are provided with access to a variety of

information at a central electronic location.

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5

Q. Decision Support System (DSS)

A. All information systems support decision making, however indirectly, but decision support systems areexpressly designed for this purpose. The two principal varieties of decision support systems are model-drive

and data-driven.

In a model-driven decision support system, a preprogrammed model is applied to a limited data set, such as sales database for the present quarter. During a typical session, an analyst or sales manager will conduct a

dialog with this decision support system by specifying a number of what-if scenarios. For example, in

order to establish a selling price for a new product, the sales manager may use a marketing decision supportsystem. Such a system contains a preprogrammed model relating various factorsthe price of the product,

the cost of goods, and the promotion expenseto the projected sales volume over the first five years on the

market. By supplying different product prices to the model, the manager can compare predicted results andselect the most profitable selling price.

The primary objective of data-driven decision support systems is to analyze large pools of data, accumulated

over long periods of time in data warehouses, in a process known as data mining. Data mining searches fosignificant patterns, such as sequences (buying a new house, followed by a new dinner table) and clusters

(large families and van sales), with which decisions can be made. Data-driven decision support systems

include a variety of statistical models and rely on various artificial intelligence techniques, such as expertsystems, neural networks, and intelligent agents.

An important category of decision support systems enables a group of decision makers to work together

without necessarily being in the same place at the same time. These group decision systems include softwartools for brainstorming and reaching consensus. Another category, geographic information systems, can hel

analyze and display data by using digitized maps. By looking at a geographic distribution of mortgage loans

for example, one can easily establish a pattern of discrimination.

A. A computer-based system that enables management to interrogate the computer system on an ad hoc basi

for various kinds of information on the organization and to predict the effect of potential decisions

beforehand. Abbreviated DSS.

A system that supports technological and managerial decision making by assisting in the organization of

knowledge about ill-structured, semi structured, or unstructured issues. A structured issue has a frameworkcomprising elements and relations between them that are known and understood. Structured issues are

generally ones about which an individual has considerable experiential familiarity. A decision support syste(DSS) is not intended to provide support to humans about structured issues since little cognitively based

decision support is generally needed.

Emphasis in the use of a decision support system is upon provision of support to decision makers in terms o

increasing the effectiveness of the decision-making effort. This support involves the systems engineering

steps of formulation of alternatives, the analysis of their impacts, and interpretation and selection of

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appropriate options for implementations.

Decisions may be described as structured or unstructured, depending upon whether or not the decision-

making process can be explicitly described prior to its execution. Generally, operational performancedecisions are more likely than strategic planning decisions to be pre structured. Thus, expert systems are

usually more appropriate for operational performance and operational control decisions, while decision

support systems are more appropriate for strategic planning and management control.

The primary components of a decision support system are a database management system (DBMS), a mode

base management system (MBMS), and a dialog generation and management system (DGMS). An

appropriate database management system must be able to work with both data that are internal to theorganization and data that are external to it. Model-base management systems provide sophisticated analysis

and interpretation capability. The dialog generation and management system is designed to satisfy knowledg

representation, and control and interface requirements

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6

Q. Management Reporting System (MRS)

A. A large category of information systems comprises those designed to support the management of an

organization. Those systems rely on data obtained by transaction processing systems, as well as data acquire

outside the organization (such as business intelligence gleaned on the Internet) and data provided by businespartners, suppliers, and customers.

Information systems support all levels of management, from those in charge of short-term schedules and

budgets for small work groups to those concerned with long-term plans and budgets for the entireorganization. Management reporting systems provide routine, detailed, and voluminous information reports

specific to each managers areas of responsibility. Generally, these reports focus on past and present

performance, rather than projecting future performance. To prevent information overload, reports areautomatically sent only under exceptional circumstances or at the specific request of a manager.

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7

Q. Major functions of Management are planning, Organizing, staffing, Directing and

Controlling.

A. management is an act of keeping and protection of certain things such as office activities

Management is an art of getting things done from others. Its an art as well as a science. There are 5 basicfunctions of management.

1. Planning

2. Organizing

3. Staffing

4. Directing

5. Controlling

Planning is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who is to do it.

WHY IS PLANNING IMPORTANT

A plan is useful in determining and documenting the resources needed to accomplish the target project.

A plan assists in better using those resources in reaching the established goals.

A plan assists in foreseeing som

e of difficulties that are likely to occur.

A plan can keep other people informed and updated if they join the organisation after a program, project, o

venture is under way.

STEPS FOR DEVELOPING A PLAN

Establishing goals

Developing planning assumptions

Collecting information

Identifying and appraising alternatives

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choosing a course of action from alternatives

ORGANIZATION:The planned and intentional structure of roles or positions in an identified unit that seek

to achieve established purposes and objectives.

The purpose of organising is to make human effort productive and effective.

Formal and Informal

Span of control: The number of subordinates that a manager supervises. Narrow and Wide

FACTORS

Task complexity

Experience and maturity of the personnel

Task relationships

STEPS IN ORGANIZING

Identifying specific tasks or activities

Grouping the tasks or activities

Assigning resources and responsibilities

Co-ordinating activities and relationships

STAFFING

Not hire a good person; hire a person who can meet the demands of the position.

JOB DESCRIPTION: a) Goals b) Job content (tasks/activities) c) Job formulation or job analysis d) jobqualifications and e) job specifications

JOB ANNOUNCEMENT

Position title

Job specifications

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Minimum qualifications

Education and special certification, required

Closing date for applying

Starting date of employment

Salary and benefits

How to apply

Description of the community and organisation

DIRECTING (LEADING)

Decision making----

Motivation techniques

Communication

CONTROLLING

Establishing measurable standards

Measuring performance and accomplishment against the standards

Revising or correcting variations from the standards when they occur

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE CONTROL

Tailor controls to specific circumstances

Use both subjective and objective means of evaluation

Be flexible Be economical Aim to improve performance

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8

Q. Transaction Processing System or Transaction Processing Monitor

A. A Transaction Processing System or Transaction Processing Monitor is a set of information which

process the data transaction in database system that monitors transaction programs (a special kind of

program). The essence of a transaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent stateE.g. if an electronic payment is made, the amount must be either both withdrawn from one account and adde

to the other, or none at all. In case of a failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed

transaction must be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be provided also for batchtransaction processing, it is particularly important for online processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation

system is accessed by multiple operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be locke

until the reservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a seat is still free while it isactually being booked at the time. Without proper transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Othe

transaction monitor functions include deadlock detection and resolution (deadlocks may be inevitable in

certain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' incase of massive failures.

Transaction Processing is not limited to application programs. The 'journaled file system' provided with

IBMs AIX Unix operating system employs similar techniques to maintain file system integrity, including ajournal.

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Q. Main areas ofArtificial Intelligence (AI) are expert systems, natural languages, vision systemsrobotics and neural networks.

A. Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence of machines and the branch of computer science which aim

to create it. Major AI textbooks define the field as "the study and design of intelligent agents," where anintelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions which maximize its chances of

success. John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making

intelligent machines."

The field was founded on the claim that a central property of human beings, intelligencethe sapience of

Homo sapienscan be so precisely described that it can be simulated by a machine. This raises philosophic

issues about the nature of the mind and limits of scientific hubris, issues which have been addressed by mytfiction and philosophy since antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of breathtaking optimism,

has suffered stunning setbacks and, today, has become an essential part of the technology industry, providin

the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult problems in computer science.

AI research is highly technical and specialized, so much so that some critics decry the "fragmentation" of th

field. Subfields of AI are organized around particular problems, the application of particular tools and arounlongstanding theoretical differences of opinion. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning,

knowledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.

General intelligence (or "strong AI") is still a long term goal of (some) research.

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Q. Star topology

A. Also known as a star network, a star topology is one of the most common network setups where each ofthe devices and computers on a network connect to a central hub. A major disadvantage of this type of

network topology is that if the central hub fails, all computers connected to that hub would be disconnected.

Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using the star topology.

Also:-

Network topology is the study of the arrangementormappingof the elements (links, nodes, etc.) of anetwork, especially the physical (real) and logical (virtual) interconnections between nodes. A local areanetwork (LAN) is one example of a network that exhibits both a physical topology and a logical topology.

Any given node in the LAN will have one or more links to one or more other nodes in the network and the

mapping of these links and nodes onto a graph results in a geometrical shape that determines the physical

topology of the network. Likewise, the mapping of theflow of data between the nodes in the networkdetermines the logical topology of the network. The physical and logical topologies mightbe identical in an

particular network but they also may be different.

Any particular network topology is determined only by the graphical mapping of the configuration of

physical and/or logical connections between nodes. LAN Network Topology is, therefore, technically a part

of graph theory. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal typesmay differ in two networks and yet their topologies may be identical.

Basic types of topologies

There are six basic types of topology in networks:

1. Bus topology

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2. Star topology

3. Ring topology

4. Mesh topology

5. Tree topology

6. Hybrid topology

Classification of network topologies

There are also three basic categories of network topologies:

physical topologies

signal topologies

logical topologies

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Q. Systems Development Life Cycle

A. Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), orSoftware Development Life Cycle, in systems engineerin

and software engineering refers to the process of creating or altering systems, and the models and

methodologies that people use to develop these systems. The concept generally refers to computer orinformation systems.

In software engineering the SDLC concept underpins many kinds of software rdevelopment methodologies.

These methodologies form the framework for planning and controlling the creation of an information systemthe software development process.

Overview

Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is any logical process used by a systems analyst to develop aninformation system, including requirements, validation, training, and user ownership. An SDLC should resu

in a high quality system that meets or exceeds customer expectations, reaches completion within time and

cost estimates, works effectively and efficiently in the current and planned Information Technologyinfrastructure, and is inexpensive to maintain and cost-effective to enhance.

Computer systems have become more complex and often (especially with the advent of Service-OrientedArchitecture) link multiple traditional systems potentially supplied by different software vendors. To manag

this level of complexity, a number of system development life cycle (SDLC) models have been created:

"waterfall," "fountain," "spiral," "build and fix," "rapid prototyping," "incremental," and "synchronize andstabilize." Although the term SDLC can refer to various models, it typically denotes a waterfall methodolog

In project management a project has both a life cycle and a "systems development life cycle," during which

number of typical activities occur. The project life cycle (PLC) encompasses all the activities of the prrojectwhile the systems development life cycle focuses on realizing the product requirements.

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Short Notes:

Q. Communication Protocols:

A. In the field of telecommunications, a communications protocol is the set of standard rules for datarepresentation, signaling, authentication and error detection required to send information over a

communications channel. An example of a simple communications protocol adapted to voice communicatio

is the case of a radio dispatcher talking to mobile stations. Communication protocols for digital computer

network communication have features intended to ensure reliable interchange of data over an imperfectcommunication channel. Communication protocol is basically following certain rules so that the system

works properly.

Most recent protocols are assigned by the IETF for Internet communications, and the IEEE, or the ISO for

other types. The ITU-T handles telecommunications protocols and formats for the public switched telephon

network (PSTN). The ITU-R handles protocols and formats for radio communications. As the PSTN. radiosystems, and Internet converge, the different sets of standards are also being driven towards technological

convergence.

For marine electronics the NMEA standards are used.

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