1
• The Equation of Exchange– The formula indicating that the number
of monetary units times the number of times each unit is spent on final goods and services is identical to the price level times output (or nominal national income)
MV PY
Monetary Policy and Inflation: Quantity Theory of Money
2
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
The equation of exchange states that the quantity of money (M) multiplied by the velocity of circulation (V) equals GDP, or
MV=PY
3
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
GDP equals the price level (P) times real GDP (Y), or:
GDP = PY
4
• The equation of exchange and the quantity theory: MV = PYM = actual money balances held
by non-banking publicV = income velocity of money; the
number of times, on average, cash monetary units are spent on final goods and services
Monetary Policy and Inflation : Quantity Theory of Money
5
• The equation of exchange and the quantity theory: MV = PYP = price levelY = real national output (real
GDP)
Monetary Policy and Inflation : Quantity Theory of Money
6
• The equation of exchange as an identity
MV PYPY = nominal national income
MV = nominal national spending
Monetary Policy and Inflation : Quantity Theory of Money
7
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
We can convert the equation of exchange into the quantity theory of money by making two assumptions:
1) The velocity of circulation is not influenced by the quantity of money.
2) Potential income is not influenced by the quantity of money.
8
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
The Quantity Theory of Money– The quantity theory of money is the
proposition that in the long run, an increase in the quantity of money brings an equal percentage increase in the price level.
– This theory is based upon the velocity of circulation and the equation of exchange.
9
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
The Quantity Theory of Money The velocity of circulation is the average number of times a dollar of money is used annually to buy goods and services that make up GDP.
10
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
Make the quantity of money M, and the velocity of circulation V is determined by:
V = PY/M
11
The Velocity of Circulation in the United States: 1930–1999
12
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
This can be shown by using the equation of exchange to solve for the price level.
P = (V/Y)M
13
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
In the long run, real GDP equals potential GDP, so the relationship between the change in the price level and the quantity of money is:
MYVP )/(
14
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
Dividing this equation by an earlier one, P = (V/Y)M, gives us
MMPP //
15
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
This equation shows that the proportionate change in the price level equals the proportionate change in the quantity of money.
This gives us the quantity theory of money:In the long run, the percentage increase in the price level equals the percentage increase in the quantity of money.
16
• The crude quantity theory of money and prices–Assume: V is constant
Y is stable
MV = PY
Monetary Policy and Inflation : Quantity Theory of Money
17
• The crude quantity theory of money and prices–Increases in M must be
matched by equal increases in the price level
Monetary Policy and Inflation : Quantity Theory of Money
MV = PY
18Figure 17-5
19
Money Growth andInflation in the United States
20
Money Growth andInflation in the United States
21
Money Growth andInflation in the World Economy
22
Money Growth andInflation in the World Economy
23
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
Historical Evidence on the Quantity Theory of Money–The data are broadly consistent with
the quantity theory of money, but the relationship is not precise.
–The relationship is stronger in the long run than in the short run.
24
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
Correlation, Causation, and Other Influences The evidence shows that money growth and inflation are correlated.
25
Money, Real GDP, andthe Price Level
Correlation, Causation, and Other InfluencesThis does not represent causation.
• Does money growth cause inflation, or does inflation cause money growth?
• Does some other factor cause inflation (deficit spending)?
27
Monetary Policy• The ultimate goal of all macro policy
is to stabilize the economy at its full-employment capacity.
• A government has three basic tools of monetary policy:
–Reserve requirements–Open-market operations–Discount rates
28
• Changes in the reserve requirements– An increase in the required reserve ratio
• Makes it more expensive for banks to meet reserve requirements
• Reduces bank lending
– A decrease in the required reserve ratio• Makes it more expensive for banks
to meet reserve requirements
• Increases bank lending
The Tools of Monetary Policy
29
Reserve Requirements
• A lower reserve requirement increases the size of the money multiplier.– The money multiplier is the number of
deposit (loan) dollars that the banking system can create from $1 of excess reserves.
30
A Decrease in Required Reserves
• A change in the reserve requirement causes:–A change in excess reserves.
–A change in the money multiplier.
31
Required Reserve Ratio 25 percent 20 percent
1. Total deposits $100 billion $100 billion 2. Total reserves 30 billion 30 billion 3. Required reserves 25 billion 20 billion 4. Excess reserves 5 billion 10 billion 5. Money multiplier 4 5 6. Unused lending capacity $20 billion $50 billion
The Impact of Reduced Reserve Requirement
32
The Monetary Base
• The government can control the monetary base which equals
–currency in public circulation plus bank reserves.
33
The Monetary Base
• However, HKMA cannot control the amount of the monetary base that flows outside the country.
34
• Open market operations
–The HKMA changes reserves by buying and selling bonds.
The Tools of Monetary Policy
35
Open Market Activity• The HKMA purchases and sells
government bonds to alter bank reserves.–By buying bonds — HKMA
increases bank reserves.
–By selling bonds — HKMA reduces bank reserves.
36
Determining the Price of Bonds
Quantity of Bondsper Unit Time Period
Pric
e of
Bon
ds
Contractionary Policy• Fed sells bonds• Supply of bonds increases
• Bond prices fall
D
S1
P1
37
Determining the Price of Bonds
Quantity of Bondsper Unit Time Period
Pric
e of
Bon
ds
D
Figure 17-2, Panel (a)
Contractionary Policy• Fed sells bonds• Supply of bonds increases
• Bond prices fall
S1 S1
P1
P2
38
Determining the Price of Bonds
Quantity of Bondsper Unit Time Period
Pric
e of
Bon
ds
Expansionary Policy• Fed buys bonds• Supply of bonds falls• Bond prices rise
D
S1
P1
39
Determining the Price of Bonds
Quantity of Bondsper Unit Time Period
Pric
e of
Bon
ds
D
Expansionary Policy• Fed buys bonds• Supply of bonds falls
• Bond prices rise
Figure 17-2, Panel (b)
S1S3
P1
P3
40
• Relationship between the price of existing bonds and the rate of interest–What happens to the interest on a
bond when the price of a bond increases?
The Tools of Monetary Policy
41
• Example– You pay $1,000 for a bond that pays
$50/year in interest
The Tools of Monetary Policy
Rate of interest =$50
$1000= 5%
42
• Example– Now suppose you pay $500
for the same bond
The Tools of Monetary Policy
Rate of interest =$50
$500= 10%
43
• The market price of existing bonds (and all fixed-income assets) is inversely related to the rate of interest prevailing in the economy.
The Tools of Monetary Policy
44
The Tools of Monetary Policy• Changes in the discount rate
Increasing the discount rate increases the cost of borrowed funds for depository institutions that borrow reserves
Decreasing the discount rate decreases the cost of borrowed funds for depository institutions that borrow reserves
45
• When the money supply increases people have too much money–How can this be?
–Have you ever had too much money?
Effects of an Increasein the Money Supply
46
• If you have a savings account the answer is “yes.”
• We must distinguish between income and money
Effects of an Increasein the Money Supply
47
• Expansionary monetary policy: effects on aggregate demand, the price level, and real GDP
• Monetary policy can be used to move the economy to its full-employment potential.
Tools of Monetary Policy
48
• Monetary policy can generate increases in the equilibrium level of real GDP.
Monetary Policy DuringPeriods of Underutilized Resources
49
Expansionary Policy
• The HKMA can increase AD/AE by increasing the money supply by:–Lowering reserve requirements.–Dropping the discount rate.–Buying more bonds: it increases
bank lending capacity.
50Real GDP per Year($ trillions)
Pric
e Le
vel
0
AD1
10.0
LRAS
SRAS• The contractionary gap is caused by insufficient AD• To increase AD, use expansionary
monetary policy • AD increases and real GDP increases to full employment
Expansionary Monetary Policy with Underutilized Resources
9.5
120E1
Recessionary gap
51Real GDP per Year($ trillions)
Pric
e Le
vel
0
AD1
SRAS
9.5
120E1
Recessionary gap
Expansionary Monetary Policy with Underutilized Resources
Figure 17-3
10.0
LRAS
AD2
125 E2
• The contractionary gap is caused by insufficient AD• To increase AD, use expansionary
monetary policy • AD increases and real GDP increases to full employment
52
Exhibit 4: Expansionary Monetary Policy to Correct a Contractionary Gap
Exhibit 4: Expansionary Monetary Policy to Correct a Contractionary Gap
Price
leve
l
130
125
Potential output
0 7.8 8.0 Real GDP (trillions of dollars)
SRAS 130
AD
Contractionary gap
a
b
AD'
53
• The net export effect– Impact of expansionary monetary policy
• increase the money supply• interest rates fall• value of the local currency falls• net exports increase• the net export effect complements the
effectiveness of monetary policy by making greater income growth
Open Economy Transmission of Monetary Policy
54
• The net export effect– Impact of expansionary fiscal
policy revisited• larger deficit
• higher interest rates
• attracts foreign capital
• value of the local currency appreciates
• net exports fall
• net export effect reduces the effectiveness of fiscal policy by making smaller income growth
Open Economy Transmission of Monetary Policy
55
Adding Monetary Policy to the Keynesian Model
Quantity of Money
Inte
rest
Rat
e
Md
MS
r1
M’S
56
Adding Monetary Policy to the Keynesian Model
Quantity of Money
Inte
rest
Rat
e
Md
r2
M’S At lower rates, a larger
quantity of money will be
demanded
Interest rate falls
Figure 17-7, Panel (a)
MS
r1
57
Adding Monetary Policy to the Keynesian Model
Planned Investment
Inte
rest
Rat
e
I
r1
I1
58
Adding Monetary Policy to the Keynesian Model
Planned Investment
Inte
rest
Rat
e
I
The decrease in interest stimulates investment
Figure 17-7, Panel (b)
r1
r2
I1 I2
59Real GDP per Year($ trillions)
Pric
e Le
vel
0
AD1
SRAS
Adding Monetary Policy to the Keynesian Model
10.0
LRAS
7.0
E1
60Real GDP per Year($ trillions)
Pric
e Le
vel
0
AD1
SRAS
10.0
LRAS
The increase in investment shifts the
AD curve to the right
Adding Monetary Policy to the Keynesian Model
AD2
Figure 17-7, Panel (c)
E2
9.5
E1
61Figure 17-4
Contractionary Monetary Policyvia Open Market Operations
62
• The monetarist’s views of money supply changes– They are those Macroeconomists
who believe that inflation is always caused by excessive monetary growth and that changes in the money supply affect AD both directly and indirectly
Monetary Policy in Action:The Transmission Mechanism
63
• The monetarist’s views of money supply changes– Increase in the money supply
increases aggregate demand directly
– Based on the equation of exchange, prices always rise when the money supply is increased
Monetary Policy in Action:The Transmission Mechanism
64
• Monetarists’ criticism of monetary policy–Time lags are too long to use
monetary policy effectively
–Monetary policy is seen as a destabilizing force
Monetary Policy in Action:The Transmission Mechanism
65
• Monetary Rule– A monetary policy that incorporates a
rule specifying the annual rate of growth of some monetary aggregate
– Example• Increase in the money supply smoothly at a
rate consistent with the economy’s long-run average growth rate measured in terms of NI % change
Monetary Policy in Action:The Transmission Mechanism
66
• What do you think?–What would happen to the effectiveness of the monetary rule if V is not stable?
Monetary Policy in Action:The Transmission Mechanism
67
Price vs. Output Effects
• The success of monetary policy depends on the conditions of aggregate demand and aggregate supply.
68
Aggregate Supply
• The shape of the AS curve determines the effectiveness of expansionary monetary policy in raising output.
69
Aggregate Supply
• Horizontal AS — output increases without any inflation/price change.
• Vertical AS — inflation occurs without changing output.
• Upward sloping AS — both prices and output are affected by monetary policy.
70
Aggregate Supply
• With an upward-sloping AS curve, expansionary policy causes some inflation and restrictive policy causes some unemployment.
71
Q1 QF
P1
Aggregate supply
AD3
AD2
AD1
(a) The Keynesian view
RATE OF OUTPUT (real GDP per time period)
PR
ICE
LE
VE
L (a
vera
ge p
rice
per
unit
of o
utpu
t)
0
P3
Contrasting Views of AS
72
RATE OF OUTPUT (real GDP per time period)
QN
PR
ICE
LE
VE
L (a
vera
ge p
rice
per
unit
of o
utpu
t)(b) The Monetarist view
0
P4
Aggregate supply
AD5
AD4
P5
Contrasting Views of AS
73
Figure 28-10Two Views on the Strength of Monetary Changes
74
RATE OF OUTPUT (real GDP per time period)
Q6
PR
ICE
LE
VE
L (a
vera
ge p
rice
per
unit
of o
utpu
t)
(c) A popular view
0
P6
P7
AD7
AD6
Aggregatesupply
Q7
Contrasting Views of AS
75
Policy Perspectives
• The shape of the aggregate supply curve spotlights a central policy debate.
76
Fixed Rules or Discretion?
• Should the government try to fine-tune the economy with constant adjustments of the money supply?
77
Fixed Rules or Discretion?
• Or should the government instead simply keep the money supply growing at a steady pace?
78
Discretionary Policy
• The economy is constantly beset by expansionary and recessionary forces.
• There is a need for continual adjustments to money supply.
79
Fixed Rules
• Critics of discretionary monetary policy raise objections linked to the shape of the AS curve.
• AS curve could be vertical or at least upward sloping.
80
Fixed Rules
• With an upward-sloping AS curve, too much expansionary monetary policy leads to inflation.
81
Fixed Rules
•Fixed rules for money-supply management are less prone to error than discretionary policy.
82
Fixed Rules
• The money supply should increase by a constant (fixed) rate each year equal to that of potential Y growth.