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Motivation at Work
Motivation at Work
Motivation
During the time of uncertainty and global competitiveness, motivating employee has become more important.Motivating employees has become more challenging than ever
Corporate restructuring and downsizing damaged the level of trust and commitment necessary for employees to exert effort beyond the minimum requirement
Employee needs are changing and younger generations bring different expectations
Definition of Motivation
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motive,Motivation and Motivating
While motives refer to the inner state that energise, activates and directs the behaviour of individuals towards certain specified goals, motivation is reflected in actual work behaviour (Uma Sekaran)Motivating is the term used when one individual (manager) induces another person(subordinate) to channel his or her energies in the right direction
Four Fundamental Drives
Paul Lawrence and Nitkin Nohria of Harvard Business School proposed 4 fundamental drives1.Drive to acquire: This is the drive to seek, take, retain objects and experiences2.Drive to bond: This is the drive to form social relationships, mutual caring and commitment with others3.Drive to learn : This is the drive to satisfy one’s curiosity, to know the environment4.Drive to defend: This is the drive to protect ourselves physically and socially
Core Phases of the Motivational Process
1. Employeeidentifiesneeds.
2. Employeesearches for ways to satisfythese needs.
3. Employeeselects goal-directed behaviors.
4. Employeeperforms.
5. Employeereceives eitherrewards orpunishments.
6. Employeereassesses needdeficiencies.
Significance of Motivation
Motivated employees always look for better ways of doing a jobThey are quality orientedThey are more productive workers than apathetic workersIn order for the people to remain and stay in the organisationMotivation and commitment are the issues in the organisation process
Theories of Motivation
2 classifications:I. Early Theories of Motivation 1. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy 2. McGregor’s Theory X and Y 3. Two factor theory. Contemporary theories: 1.ERG theory 2. McClelland’s Theory of Needs 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory 4. Goal-setting Theory 5. Reinforcement Theory 6. Equity Theory 7. Expectancy Theory
II. Content Theories or Need based Theories:
1.Maslow’s Hierarchy theory of Motivation
2.Alderfer’s ERG theory
3.David McClelland’s Achievement motivation theory
4.Frederick Herzberg’s Motivation-hygiene theory
Theories of Motivation
Theories of Motivation(Contd)
Process Theories1.Expectancy –Instrumentality-valence model of Victor Vroom2.Adam’s Equity theory3.Porter-Lawler ‘s Satisfaction-performance model
Reinforcement Theories
Early Philosophers of Motivational Theories
♦ Max Weber—work contributes to salvation; Protestant work ethic
♦ Sigmund Freud—delve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs
♦ Adam Smith—“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people
♦ Frederick Taylor—founder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge company profits
Hierarchy of Needs
This was proposed by Abraham Harold Maslow.People are wanting beings whose needs can influence behaviourOnly unsatisfied needs can influence behaviour and satisfied need do not act as motivatorsSince needs are many , they are arranged in an order of importance or hierarchyMore he goes to the top of the hierarchy,more the psychological health he will displayAs the person satisfies a lower level need , the next higher need becomes the motivator. This is known as satisfaction-progression process
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
Lowes
t to
high
est o
rder
Hierarchy of Needs TheoryHierarchy of Needs Theory
Physiological: Includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
Safety:
Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
Social:
Includes affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
Esteem: Includes internal esteem factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement; and external esteem factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
Self-actualization:
The drive to become one is capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving one’s potential, and self-fulfillment.
Assumptions of Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy
A satisfied need ceases to motivate behaviorSeveral needs affect a person’s behavior at any one timeLower level needs must be satisfied before higher level needs are activatedMore ways to satisfy higher level needs than lower level needs
Relating Maslow’s model to work situations
There are a few problems doing this – People do not necessarily satisfy their needs, especially higher-level needs, just through workThere is doubt about the time that elapses between satisfying lower-level & emergence of higher-level needsSome rewards or outcomes may satisfy more than one needThe motivating factors may not be the same for each person
Applying Maslow’s hierarchy
Table 12.1
Source: Steers, R.M. and Porter, L.W., Motivation and Work Behaviour, Fifth edition, McGraw-Hill (1991) p.35. Reproduced with permission from The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Applying Maslow’s hierarchy
Table 12.1
Source: Steers, R.M. and Porter, L.W., Motivation and Work Behaviour, Fifth edition, McGraw-Hill (1991) p.35. Reproduced with permission from The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc.
Evaluation of Maslow’s theory: Merits
This is one of the best known OB theory of motivationThey offer useful ideas to the managers for motivating the subordinatesThis accounts for both interpersonal and intrapersonal variations in human behaviorThis model is dynamic as motivation is presented as a constantly changing force, striving for fulfillment
Evaluation of Maslow’s theory:Merits
This is based on existential approach and he departed from Freud. He was one of the pioneers of humanistic psychologyThis theory deserves appreciation for its simplicity, commonness and humanness.
Evaluation of Maslow’s theory: Demerits
This theory is not a theory of work motivationAssuming the hierarchy does exist among needs, it may not be the same in all countriesThere are variations within countries and among individualsAssumption about psychological health is not acceptable to manyManagers will not have time to leisurely diagnose where every employee is in hierarchy
Theory X and Theory Y of Douglas McGregor:
McGregor concluded that a manager’s view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he or she tends to mold his or her behavior toward subordinates according to these assumptions:
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Assumptions of Theory X
1.Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it;
2.Since employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment to achieve goals;
3.Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible;
4.Most workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition.
Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)
Assumptions of Theory Y
1.Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play;
2.People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives;
3.The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility;
4.The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions.
Implications: Motivational Theories X & Y
Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA Theory Y - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs
Theory X - a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs
Demerits:
No evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid or that accepting theory Y assumptions and altering one’s actions will lead to more motivated workers.
Motivation-hygiene Theory of Frederick Herzberg (Two factor theory)
This model is termed as the two factor theory, dual factor theory and widely accepted by managersAn individual’s relation to work is basic and that one’s attitude towards work can very well determine success or failure.Herzberg and his associates made a survey on 200 accountants and engineers .He employed critical incident method. They were asked two questions on when did they feel particularly good about their job individually and when did they feel exceptionally bad about their job
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
It was revealed that factors which made respondents feel good were totally different from those which made them feel bad Certain factors tend to be consistently related to job satisfaction and others to job dissatisfaction.The former is called intrinsic factors or motivators or content factors and the latter is called extrinsic factors or hygiene factors or maintenance factors or job context factors
Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene FactorsCompany policy and administration;Supervision;Relationship with supervisor;Work conditions;Salary;Relationship with peers;Personal life;Relationship with subordinates;Status;Security
Motivator Factors (Work itself) (intrinsically rewarding)
AchievementRecognition;Work itself;Responsibility;Advancement;Growth
Comparison of Satisfiers and Dissatisfiers
Source: Reprinted by permission of Harvard Business Review. An exhibit from Frederick Herzberg, “One More Time: How Do You Motivate Employees?” Harvard Business Review 81, no. 1 (January 2003), p. 90. Copyright © 1987 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; all rights reserved.
To improve motivation, managers should To improve motivation, managers should cope with both satisfiers and dissatisfies. cope with both satisfiers and dissatisfies. Improve hygiene factors – dissatisfaction will Improve hygiene factors – dissatisfaction will be removed and provide satisfiers thereby be removed and provide satisfiers thereby motivation will take placemotivation will take place
Differences between Maslow’s and Herzberg’s theory
Maslow model is descriptive and Herzberg is prescriptiveThere is hierarchy in Maslow’s and no hierarchy in HerzbergPay is a motivator if satisfies needs according to MaslowMacro level –Maslow ; and micro level –Herzberg as it is with work related motivationRelevant for workers in case of Maslow and only white collar and professionals in case of Herzberg
Criticisms of Two-Factor TheoryCriticisms of Two-Factor Theory1. The procedure that Herzberg used is
limited by its methodology. When things are going well, people tend to take credit themselves. Contrarily, they blame failure on the extrinsic environment.
2. The reliability of Herzberg,s methodology is questioned. Raters have to make interpretations, so they may contaminate the findings by interpreting one response in one manner while treating a similar response differently.
3. No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized. A person may dislike part of his or her job yet still think the job is acceptable.
ERG Theory
This was developed by Clayton Alderfer to overcome the problems with Maslow’s theory through empirical research.ERG stands for existence, relatedness and growth. Existence corresponds to Physiological and safety needs. Relatedness refers to belongingness needs. Growth corresponds to self –esteem and self-actualisation needs.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Physiological
Safety & Security
Love (Social)
Esteem
SA
Existence
Relatedness
Growth
ERG Theory
ERG theory hypothesises only three instead of fiveMore than one need may be operative at the same time unlike rigid hierarchyThis theory contains frustration-regression dimension.Frustration at higher level (eg. Social interaction) can lead to a regression to a lower level need (I.e. desire to satisfy a lower need increases) (eg. desire for more money or better working conditions increases).
ERG Theory: Evaluation
This is more consistent with our knowledge of individual differences among peopleThis theory does not offer clear cut guidelinesThe empirical status of this theory is uncertain at the moment. The theory may not be true to all cultures.
David McClelland’s Theory of NeedsDavid McClelland’s Theory of Needs
This theory focuses on three needs: achievement, power, and affiliation that help explain motivation.
Some people have a compelling drive to succeed. They are for personal achievement rather than the rewards of success.
The need for power is the desire to have impact, to be influential, and to control others.
Affiliation needs are desires to be liked and accepted by others.
nAch
nPow
nAff
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Achievement
Need for AchievementDesire to do things better, take up challenging tasks, they take responsibility for success rather than leaving it to chance, take up projects with 50 -50 chance of success & work hard to make it a success
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Power
Need for Power – enjoy being in-charge, strive for influence over others, prefer to be placed into competitive and status-oriented situations, tend to be more concerned with prestige & gaining influence over others than with effective performance.
McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Affiliation
Need for Affiliation – strive for friendship, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, & desire relationships that involve a high degree of mutual understanding.
David McClelland’s Theory of Needs, Contd.,David McClelland’s Theory of Needs, Contd.,
High Achievers will be Motivated, if
1. High achievers are successful in entrepreneurial activities and managing a self-contained unit within a large organisation.
2. A high need to achieve does not necessarily lead to being a good manager, especially in large organisation.
3. The best managers are high in their need for power and low in their need for affiliation.
4. Employees have been successfully trained to stimulate their achievement need.
Research shows that……
Work preferences of persons with high in need for achievement,affiliation and power
High Need achievements: Field sales person with challenging quota and opportunity to earn bonusHigh Need affiliation : Customer service representative with focus on interpersonal relationships High Need power : Supervisory responsibility or Head of task force with a desire to control over others or seek attention or recognition
Evaluation of learned Needs Theory
Critics question whether motives can be taught to adultsAnother criticism of this theory whether needs are permanently acquiredThe methodology used by him is TAT and the interpretation is subjected to biasOn the plus side that findings highlight the importance of matching individual and the jobOne can raise the achievement need level of subordinates by creating proper work environment and giving more autonomy and challenging assignments followed by a reward
Self-actualization
3 Motivational Need TheoriesMaslow Alderfer McClelland
HigherOrderNeeds
LowerOrderNeeds
Esteem selfinterpersonal
Safety & Security interpersonal
physical
Need for Achievement
Need for Power
Relatedness Need for Affiliation
Existence
Growth
Belongingness(social & love)
Physiological
Cognitive Evaluation TheoryCognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Contd.,Cognitive Evaluation Theory, Contd.,
For example, extrinsic rewards such as, PAY for work effort that had been previously intrinsically rewarding due to the pleasure associated with the content of the work itself would tend to decrease the overall level of motivation.
This theory argues that when extrinsic rewards are used by organizations as payoffs for superior performance, the intrinsic rewards, which are derived from individuals doing what they like, are reduced.
In other words, when extrinsic rewards are given to someone for performing an interesting task, it causes intrinsic interest in the task itself to decline.
Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke, 1960s)Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke, 1960s)
Locke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a major source of work motivation. Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and how much effort will need to be expended.
Specific goals increase performance; that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.
Goal-Setting Theory
• Specific hard goals produce a higher level of output than does the generalised goal of “do your best”.
• People will do better when they get feedback on how well they are progressing toward their goals. Self generated feedback is a more powerful motivator than externally generated feedback.
•If people participate in goal setting, they are more likely to accept even a difficult goal than if they are arbitrarily assigned it by their boss.
Goal-Setting Theory
Contingencies in goal setting theory: (factors influencing goals-performance relationship)
1. Feedback
2. Goal commitment
3. Adequate self-efficacy
4. Task characteristics
5. National culture
Goal commitment is likely to occur if the goals are madePublic, when the individual has an internal locus of control,
And when the goals are self-set rather than assigned.
Goal-Setting Theory
The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task.
Individuals high in self-efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation.
Demerits:
1. This theory applies to North American cultures.
2. There is no evidence that goals are associated with increased job satisfaction.
Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
A counterpoint to Goal-setting theory is Reinforcement Theory. The former is a cognitive approach, proposing that an individual’s purposes direct his or her action.
Reinforcement TheoryReinforcement Theory
Concepts:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Concepts:
Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens to a person when he or she takes some action.
Adam’s Equity Theory
This is alternatively known as social comparison theory and inequity theory.This is on the assumption that individuals are motivated by their desire to be equitably treated in their work relationshipsIf employees feel that they are either overpaid or underpaid , equity theory posits that they will be motivated to restore equity
Adam’s Equity Theory
Inequity is defined as the perceptions that person’s job inputs /outcomes ratio is not equal to the inputs /outcomes ratio of the comparison otherThe basic equity proposal assumes that upon feeling inequity , the person is motivated to reduce it. The greater the felt inequity, the greater the motivation to reduce it
Inequity as a Motivational Process
Individualperceivesinequality
Individualexperiencestension
Individualwants to reducetension
Individualtakesaction
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
1. Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or her current organization.
2. Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his or her current organization.
3. Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s organization.
4. Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the employee’s organization.
Ways to Reduce Tensions Produced by Inequity
Actually change inputsActually change outcomesMentally distort inputs or outcomesLeave organization or transfer to another departmentChange the reference groupDistort others’ inputs or outcomes
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
1. Overrewarded employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.
2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.
3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.
4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees
Equity Theory (cont’d)Equity Theory (cont’d)
Evaluation of the Equity’s theory
On the merit side, it has generated lot of researchThis recognizes the influence of social comparison process on motivation.It posits that a major share of motivated behaviour is based on the perceived situation rather than on the actual set of circumstancesThe central theme is judgment of fair treatment
Evaluation of the Equity’s theory
On the demerits side,Not everyone equally appreciates the concept of fairness.It assumes that people are selfish and they are not all the same time true as they share goals with groupThis theory is not clear about how does a person choose or change the comparison otherSimilarly under what circumstances will each method of inequity resolution be used is not known
Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory
Basic Assumptions of the Expectancy Model
A combination of forces determines behavior
Individuals decide their own behaviors in organizations
Different individuals have different needs and goals,
and want different rewards
Individuals decide among alternatives based on their
perceptions
Key Variables in the Expectancy Model
First-level outcomes—results of doing the job
Second-level outcomes—positive or negative
events produced by first-level outcomes
Expectancy—effort-performance belief .It is a
belief that efforts will lead to completion of task
Instrumentality—relationship between first-level
and second-level outcomes.
Valence—preference for a second-level outcome
or the degree of desirability of outcomes as seen
by the individual
Expectancy Model in Action
Self-confidence
Self-esteem
Personal happiness
Effort Attend class Study Take notes Prepare for exams
Performance:Grade in Class
A B C D F
Expectancy
First-level Outcomes
Overall GPA
Second-level Outcomes
InstrumentalityRespect of others
Approval of others
Vroom’s Model
Motivation is the multiplicative function of expectancy , instrumentality and valenceIn other words, this model postulates that motivation depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the preference of an individual for that outcome
Performance DimensionsPerformance Dimensions
Evaluation of Expectancy Model of Vroom
This is an alternative to content theoriesIt clarifies the relationship between individual and organisational goalsIndividuals are viewed as a thinking and reasoning beings who have beliefs and expectations concerning future events in their lives .This is cognitive theoryThis model implies that managers must make it possible for an employee to see that effort can result in appropriate need satisfying rewards
Potential Problems of the Expectancy Model
Accurate measurement of effort is difficult
Lack of specification of relative importance of second-
level outcomes
Implicit assumption that motivation is a conscious
choice process
Works best in cultures that emphasize internal
attribution rather than fatalism
This will be valid only in situations where the effort-
performance-reward linkages are clearly perceived by
the employees
Managerial Implications of Vroom’s theory
Select people with ability-…….ExpectancyTrain them to use ability……..ExpectancySupport ability with organisational resources…..ExpectancyClarify performance goals..InstrumentalityClarify psychological contracts…InstrumentalityCommunicate performance reward possibilities…Instrumentality
Managerial Implications of Vroom’s theory
Confirm performance reward possibilities by making actual rewards contingent upon performance…InstrumentalityIdentify individual needs or outcomes…ValenceAdjust available rewards to match these…Valence
Porter and Lawler ‘s Performance-Satisfaction model
This is a comprehensive theory of motivationThey posit that motivation, performance and satisfaction are all separate variables and relate in ways different from what was traditionally assumedTo Porter , Value of reward, perceived effort- reward probability and reward do not lead to performance .It is mediated by abilities , traits and role perceptions .The rewards that follow and how they are perceived will determine satisfactionTo him, what happens after performance is more important
Porter and Lawler ‘s Performance-Satisfaction model-Evaluation
Place the right person on the right job so that matching of abilities and traits of individuals to the requirements of jobCarefully explain to the employees what their roles are and ensure that they understand their roles clearlyPrescribe in clear terms the actual performance levels expected of everyoneEnsure that rewards dispensed are valued by people
Evaluation of Theories of Motivation
Any of the theories discussed so far do not bring clearly all the complexities of motivation.Porter and Lawler model is the most comprehensive of all the theories .It covers all the stages in the model, but ignores the needs which are the basic for motivation.However all theories put together contribute to our understanding of the motivational process
Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Integrating Contemporary Theories of Motivation
