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Motivation

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Defining Motivation

Key Elements

1. Intensity: how hard a person tries

2. Direction: toward beneficial goal

3. Persistence: how long a person tries

Some Definitions

“Motivation is the result of processes, internal or external to the individual,

that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action”.

“….how behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped and what kind of subjective

reaction is present in the organization while all this is going on.

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1. Motivation refers to a set of forces that energisepeople to behave in certain ways.

2. Motivation is necessary to accomplish tasks, toproduce quality goods and for other related purposes.

3. Motivation is not an easy job. Change ofworkforce, change of job designs and delayering oforganisations make motivation a difficult task.

4. Motivation theories are of two broad categories – earlyand contemporary theories.

5. Scientific management and human relations model fallunder early theories category.

6. Contemporary theories cover content and processmodels.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

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Framework of Motivation

Importance of Motivation

•Leads to Performance

•Quality-oriented Employees

•More productive workers

•Stimulates Decision to participate and to produce at work

•New complex technological advances

•Future human resources – talent bank

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Motivational Model

EARLY THEORIES

Scientific Management – F.W. TaylorScientific study and organization of work at the operations level for the purpose of increasing

efficiency.

Techniques:Scientific method of doing work

Planning the task

Scientific selection, training and remuneration of workers

Standardization

Specialization & division of labor

Time & motion studies

Mental revolution

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Human Relations Model – Elton Mayo

Main points:

Social contacts

Social needs

Informal work groups

Freedom to make own decisions

Interaction among employees and manager’s intentions and operations of

organization.

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Hierarchy of Needs Theory

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

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Maslow’s hierarchy of needs —

Dominance of Physiological Needs

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Flow Diagram of Needs Satisfaction

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Country Need Priority

United States and Japan Self-actualisation, esteem, safety, physiological and social

France Self-actualisation, esteem, physiological, safety and social

Germany Self-actualisation, physiological, esteem, social and safety

India Physiological, self-actualisation, esteem, social and safety

Malawi Physiological, self-actualisation, esteem, safety and social

China Self-actualisation, safety, physiological and social

Ordering of Needs Across Countries

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Two-Factor Theory (Frederick Herzberg)

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Herzberg’s Hygienes and Motivators

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Essence of the two-factor Theory

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Comparison of

Satisfiers and

Dissatisfiers

Factors characterizing events on the job that led to extreme job

dissatisfaction

Factors characterizing events

on the job that led to extreme

job satisfaction

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Contrasting Views of Satisfaction& Dissatisfaction

Presence Absence

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ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)

Core Needs

Existence: provision of basic material requirements.

Relatedness: desire for relationships.

Growth: desire for personal development.

Concepts:

More than one need can be operative at the same time.

If a higher-level need cannot be fulfilled, the desire to satisfy a lower-level need increases.

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Two Key Components of ERG Theory;

Satisfaction— Progression and Frustration-

Regression

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David McClelland’s Theory of Needs

nAch

nPow

nAff

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Matching Achievers and Jobs

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Matching Content Theories

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Goal-Setting Theory (Edwin Locke)

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Equity Theory

Referent Comparisons:

Self-inside

Self-outside

Other-inside

Other-outside

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Equity Theory (cont’d)

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Equity Theory (cont’d)

Choices for dealing with inequity:

1. Change inputs (slack off)

2. Change outcomes (increase output)

3. Distort/change perceptions of self

4. Distort/change perceptions of others

5. Choose a different referent person

6. Leave the field (quit the job)

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Equity Theory (cont’d)

Propositions relating to inequitable pay:

1. Overrewarded employees produce more than equitably rewarded employees.

2. Overrewarded employees produce less, but do higher quality piece work.

3. Underrewarded hourly employees produce lower quality work.

4. Underrewarded employees produce larger quantities of lower-quality piece work than equitably rewarded employees

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Equity Theory (cont’d)

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Expectancy Theory

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Performance Dimensions

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Expectancy Theory

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Variable Objective Applications

E P Expectancies To increase the belief that • Select people with required skills and knowledge.

employees are capable • Provide required training and clarify job requirements.

of performing the job • Provide sufficient time and resources.

successfully • Assign simpler or fewer tasks until employees can master them.

• Provide examples of similar employees who have successfully performed the tasks.

• Provide counseling and coaching to employees who lack self-confidence.

P O instrumentalities To increase the belief that • Measure job performance accurately.

good performance will • Clearly explain the outcomes that will result from

result in valued outcomes successful performance.

• Describe how the employee’s rewards were based on past performances.

Valences of outcomes To increase the expected • Distribute rewards that employees value.

value of outcomes resulting • Individualise rewards.

from desired performance • Minimise the presence of counter-valentoutcomes.

APPLICATION OF EXPECTANCY THEORY

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Inputs Outcomes

Age Challenging job assignment

Attendance Fringe benefits

Interpersonal skills Job perquisites (parking space or office location)

Communication skills Job security

Job effort (long hours) Monotony

Level of education Promotion

Past experience Recognition

Performance Responsibility

Personal appearance Salary

Seniority Seniority benefits

Social status Status symbols

Technical skills Working conditions

EXAMPLES OF INPUTS AND OUTCOMES IN

ORGANISATIONS

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Motivational Theories