Motivational Considerations in the Design of Instruction

Anthony R. Artino, Jr.Department of Educational Psychology

Blue Sky State UniversityEPSY 350: Instructional Design

Applying Theories of Motivation to Improve Learning & Performance

2EPSY 350

Are You Motivated?

Retrieved February 2, 2007, from www.cartoonbank.com

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Where We’ve Been…

AnalyzeLearners

AnalyzeContext

AnalyzeTask

Goals/Objectives

Systematic Design of Instruction

Design Instructional Strategies

For VariousLearning

Outcomes

ConsiderMotivation

in the Designof Strategies

Theories of Learning

ConstructivistPerspectives

Theories of Motivation

Keller’sARCS Model

links motivationtheory to ID

• Expectancy-Value Models • Social Cognitive Theory • Attribution Theory • Goal Orientation Theory• Self-Determination &

Intrinsic Motivation• Interest & Affect

…and Where We’re Going

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Overview

• What is Motivation?• Why Should We Care?

– Motivational Influences on Learning & Performance

• Theories of Motivation– Review of Contemporary Theories– Instructional Implications

• Systematic Motivational Design– Keller’s ARCS Model

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Motivation Defined

• How would you define motivation? What is it?• Derived from Latin verb movere (to move)• There are many definitions (product & process)…

– “what moved a resting organism to a state of activity” (Weiner, 1990, p. 617)

– “a willingness, desire, or condition of arousal or activation” (Anderman & Wolters, 2006, p. 369)

– “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and sustained” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 5)

– “an internal state that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior” (Woofolk, 2007, p. 372)

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…But There is Disagreement

• It depends on your theoretical perspective– Drive Theory

• Internal forces act to maintain homeostasis

– Behavioral Theories• Reinforcements sustain or increase behaviors

– Humanistic Theories• Individuals have choices and seek control over their lives

– Cognitive & Social Cognitive Theories• Students’ cognition (mental structures and processing of

information) guide their motivation• Emphasis on students’ thoughts, beliefs, and emotions

(Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

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How Do We Know When Someone Is Motivated?

• We infer it from behavioral indicators…– Choice of Tasks– Latency

• How long it takes before an individual initiates activity– Effort

• How hard a person works at the activity– Persistence

• How long the individual is willing to work at the activity– Achievement

• Students who engage in a task, expend effort, and persist are likely to achieve at a higher level

(Graham & Weiner, 1996; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://www.bibliotheques.uqam.ca/InfoSphere/images/motivation.jpg

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Why Should We Care?How is Motivation Related to Learning?

• “Motivation can influence what, when, and how we learn” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002, p. 6)

• Students who are motivated…– Attend more carefully to instruction– Mentally organize, rehearse, & elaborate info to be learned– Check their level of understanding– Ask for help when they don’t understand

• Taken together, these activities improve learning and performance!

MotivationLearning &

Performance

Mediating Cognitive &Behavioral Activities

…and the relationship is reciprocal

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Contemporary Theories of Motivation & Their

Implications for Instruction

Retrieved February 2, 2007, from www.cartoonbank.com

• Expectancy-Value Models • Social Cognitive Theory • Attribution Theory • Goal Orientation Theory• Self-Determination &

Intrinsic Motivation• Interest & Affect

Our Focus Today

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Instructional Vignette

Mary: I’m really enjoying this course. It’s very interesting, and I think it will be very useful for me in my future career. I hope to be a doctor someday!

Jim: Really? I think it’s extremely boring. Besides, I’m not really getting all the concepts, and I don’t think I’m going to do very well on the test. I prefer history class to this stuff.

Mary: Well, I’m not very good in history. It’s just not that important to me. I’ll stick with math and science.

(Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

What kinds of things are these students discussing?How do they relate to motivation?

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Expectancy-Value ModelsTheory Overview

Achievement BehaviorsStudents’ choice

behaviors, cognitive engagement,

persistence, and performance

Expectancy“Am I able to

do well in this task?”

Task Value“Why should I do this task?”

Interest“I’m interestedin this topic”

Utility Value“This topic isuseful for me”

Importance“This topic is

important to me”

Cost“If I do this I

cannot do that”

+

++

-

X =

(Eccles & Wigfield, 2002)

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Expectancy-Value ModelsInstructional Implications

Expectancy

• Help students maintain accurate but high expectations for success– Use examples of students’ past

success – Use peer models

• Build students’ confidence – Provide opportunities for

success (mastery experiences)– Give accurate feedback– Emphasize that competence is

changeable and controllable

Task Value

• Make value explicit– Embed tasks in real-world

(maybe even controversial) issues

– Discuss importance and utility value as it relates to these issues

• Model personal interest and value

• Activate interest – Provide opportunities for choice

and control w/in instruction

(Bransford et al., 2000; Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

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Social Cognitive TheoryOverview

Key Theoretical Components

• Self-Efficacy– “beliefs in one’s capability to organize

and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3)

– Developed through…• Mastery experiences

• Vicarious experiences

• Verbal persuasion

• Physiological states

• Social Modeling• Self-Regulated Learning

Person(cognition, affect,

motivational beliefs, & biological events)

Environment(physical &

socio-cultural)Behavior

reciprocal causation

“Behavior is a product of both self-generated and external sources of influence” (Bandura, 1986, p. 454)

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Social Cognitive TheoryInstructional Implications

• Build self-efficacy– Provide opportunities for

enactive mastery experiences– Employ successful models (see next slide)– Give positive, yet realistic feedback

• Overly optimistic feedback tends to be ineffective

– Embed realistic, challenging, proximal goals into instruction

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Social Cognitive TheoryInstructional Implications con’t

• Use social modeling– Competent, credible,

enthusiastic, and similar models– Model personal interest and value

(instructor enthusiasm)

• Develop self-regulated learning skills– Explicit instructional prompts for…

• Rehearsal, organization, and elaboration

– Provide chances for self-appraisal and reflection– Model metacognition

• Make visible the instructor’s thinking processes

(Driscoll, 2005)

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Instructional Vignette

Roy is an average student, but algebra isn’t his best subject. Sam is one of the best students and usually gets A’s and occasionally B’s on his algebra assignments.

The teacher returns a recent assignment to both students. Roy didn’t do too well, and as he looks it over it he thinks, “What did I do wrong here? I just don’t get this stuff. It seems so abstract and it’s hard to see how it relates to anything meaningful. I just can’t do this, it’s too hard for me. I think I’m just not cut out for math.”

Sam also had problems on the homework. As he reviews it, he thinks, “I don’t understand this, so I’ll have to ask the teacher about this problem. Maybe I’m just not studying hard enough. I’ll have to go back to my notes and review this again.” He increases the amount of time he spends studying for algebra.

(Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

What kinds of things are these students discussing?How do they relate to motivation?

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Attribution TheoryOverview

– Health onday of exam

– Mood

Controllable Uncontrollable

Internal External

Unstable

Stable

Controllable Uncontrollable

Sta

bilit

y

Locus

– Skills/knowledge– Temporary or

situational efforton exam

– Aptitude– Long-term effort

– Help from friends/instructor

– Instructor bias/favoritism

– Chance

– Ease/difficulty of school or course requirements

Achievement attributions classified by…• Locus (internal/external to the person)• Stability (relatively stable/unstable over time)• Controllability (controllable/uncontrollable by the person)

(Adapted from Weiner, 1986, as cited in Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

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Attribution TheoryInstructional Implications

• Provide accurate feedback– Deemphasize ability

• The “I’m just not smart” attitude

– An emphasis on effort after student failures usually leads to more adaptive attributes

• Effort is unstable, internal, and controllable (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006)

– If effort was high, emphasize lack of skills/ knowledge

• Unstable factors• Can be learned with effort

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Goal OrientationTheory Overview

• Explicitly developed to explain achievement behavior– Why do students engage in achievement behaviors and how they

approach academic tasks?

MasteryOrientation

PerformanceOrientation

Approach Avoid

–Focus on mastering task,learning, understanding

–Use of standards of self-improvement, progress, deep understanding

–Focus on avoiding misunderstanding

–Use of standards of not being wrong, not doing itincorrectly

–Focus on avoiding inferiority, not looking stupid or dumb in comparison to others

–Use of normative standardsof not being lowest performer

–Focus on being superior,besting others, being the smartest

–Use of normative standardssuch as getting the highest grade, being top performer

(Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

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Goal OrientationInstructional Implications

• Create positive goal structures– Emphasize mastery

(learning and understanding), not performance• Students apt to adopt mastery-orientation (Anderman &

Wolters, 2006)

– Ensure assessment is private, not public• Minimizes social comparisons

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://www.corporate-star.com/images/classroom.jpg

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Self-Determination & Intrinsic MotivationTheory Overview

• Integrates “needs” with social-cognitive constructs (Pintrich, 2003)

• Self-determination is…– “using one’s capability to choose how to satisfy

one’s needs” (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2006, p. 359)

• Intrinsic motivation increases when learners are self-determined

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Three Basic Innate Psychological Needs

Self-Determination & Intrinsic MotivationTheory Overview

Self-Determined Learner

CompetenceThe need to feel competentin interactions with others,tasks and activities, and

larger contexts

AutonomyThe need to feel a sense of

control, agency, orautonomy in interactions

with environment

RelatednessThe need to belong to a

group (affiliation)

Intrinsic MotivationExtrinsic Motivation

+

motivationcontinuumUnmotivated motivation

continuum

Learning &Performance

++

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Self-Determination & Intrinsic MotivationInstructional Implications

• Avoid external rewards for intrinsically motivated students– Can undermined intrinsic motivation

• Enhance intrinsic motivation– Challenge students

• Intermediate difficulty activities– Prompt curiosity

• Present slightly discrepant ideas– Provide learner control and choice– Engage students in fantasy, games, simulations

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://academic.reed.edu/motivation/images/pics/kids1.jpg

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Instructional Vignette

John: I’m really fed up. None of my students have any interest in the training. They just don’t care. Some of them even seem angry that they have to be here. I overheard one student yesterday talking about his frustration with the whole training program.

Teri: Well, I don’t know. I do have some students who at least are interested in the training. When I hear them talk in class, some of them seem to like it.

Tony: Yeah, my guys seem relatively interested too, but the problem I have is that some of them just get so wound up about the exams that they bomb the test. You can just see them getting nervous before the test, and during it you can seem them wriggling around. I’m just not sure what to do.

(Adapted from Pintrich & Schunk, 2002)

What kinds of things are these instructors discussing?How do they relate to motivation?

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Interest & AffectOverview

Interest

• Three Types– Characteristic of Person

• Personal

– Characteristic of Context• Situational

– Psychological State• Personal x Situational

• Positively Influences…– Choice, persistence, effort– Attention– Use of deep processing – Performance

Affect

• Moods & Emotions• Academic Emotions

– Positive• Enjoyment, hope, pride

– Negative• Test anxiety, frustration,

boredom

• Positively/Negatively Influence…– All the same processes

(Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002)(Krapp, Hidi, & Renninger, 1992)

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Interest & AffectInstructional Implications

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://www.themindeye.com/images/themindeye-main-image.jpg

• Interest– Use original source material with authentic

content– Model enthusiasm and interest– Use variety, novelty, surprise– Provide some choice based on personal interest– Build/integrate students’ personal interests into

lessons

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Interest & AffectInstructional Implications

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://pbskids.org/itsmylife/images/cheating6.jpg

• Affect– Provide plenty of time for assessments– Order test items from easy to difficult– Minimize social comparisons– Emphasize mastery (learning and

understanding), not performance– Make course value/relevance explicit

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Recurring Themes Instructional Implications

>> Instructional Strategies <<

Opportunities for Choice Accurate Feedback

Learner Control** Realistic, Proximal Goals

Variety, Novelty, Curiosity Private Assessment

Intermediate Difficulty Tasks Authentic Tasks

Peer/Instructor Modeling Emphasize Learning/Mastery

Minimize Social Comparisons Instructor Interest/Enthusiasm

Prompt Self-Regulation Explain Value/Relevance

**Note: Research in multimedia and hypermedia learning environments has revealed that too much learner control can hinder learning and performance, particularly for low ability learners and/or novices who lack domain knowledge (Clark & Feldon, 2005; Lawless & Brown, 1997).

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Systematic Motivational DesignKeller’s ARCS Model

• A systematic, step-by-step approach to designing motivational tactics into instruction

• Integrates well with traditional ID/ISD processes• ARCS steps include…

1. Analyze the Audience

2. Define Motivational Objectives

3. Design a Motivational Strategy

4. Implement and Revise

Image retrieved February 3, 2007, from http://edweb.sdsu.edu/Courses/EDTEC700/ETP/images/addie.jpg

Traditional ID/ISD Processes(ADDIE Model)

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Systematic Motivational DesignKeller’s ARCS Model

• Based on four dimensions of motivation (Keller, 1999):

A Attention• Capturing the interest of learners• Stimulating the curiosity of learners• Sound familiar?

R Relevance• Meeting the personal needs/goals of learners to

effect a positive attitude• Sound familiar?

C Confidence• Helping learners believe/feel that they will succeed

and they control their success• Sound familiar?

S Satisfaction• Reinforcing accomplishments with rewards (internal

and external)

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Systematic Motivational DesignIn-Class Activity Using Keller’s ARCS Model

Case 1: A course in educational psychology is required of all persons seeking teacher certification in the state. Most of the students are juniors and seniors in the University’s teacher preparation program. A few come from programs outside of education, and a few have already taken and failed the teacher certification test.

The course will be delivered as a traditional, face-to-face class and will also use WebCT for online discussions and debates.

Case 2: A literacy course is offered to farmers in an underdeveloped nation. The course is run in the evening and is populated by both men and women from the ages of 15 to 61. None of the students can read.

(Adapted from Driscoll, 2005)

Using the table on the next slide, conduct an abbreviated motivational analysis. Determine the motivational issues and design some tactics to address them.

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Systematic Motivational DesignMotivational Analysis Matrix

Design FactorsARCS Categories

Attention Relevance Confidence Satisfaction

Learner Characteristics

Learning Task (Learners’ Attitude

Toward)

Media/Technology (Learners’ Attitude

Toward)

Motivational Tactics for the Course

(Adapted from Keller, 1999, p. 41)

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Systematic Motivational DesignMotivational Analysis Matrix

Design FactorsARCS Categories

Attention Relevance Confidence Satisfaction

Learner Characteristics

Course elective, high interest (+)

Highly relevant (+)Low skills in typing and in English (-)

Newly formed group of students (-) but familiar teacher (+)

Learning Task (Learners’ Attitude

Toward)

New, attractive, adventurous (+)

Useful in future (+), limited access to computer (-)

Seems difficult (-), first exposure (-)

High applicability of acquired skills (+), exciting outcome (+)

Media/Technology (Learners’ Attitude

Toward)

Interesting, new use as networking tool (+)

Familiar as stand-alone learning tool (+)

Unstable network may make students worried (-)

Immediate feedback (+)

Motivational Tactics for the Course

Minimal tactics required: Emphasize communication opportunities

Minimal tactics required: Demonstrate how it extends one’s communication capabilities

Necessary to build confidence: Set objectives cumulatively from low-high, team teaching with assistant English teacher

Minimal tactics required: Provide reinforcement by receiving messages from “network pals”

(Adapted from Keller, 1999, p. 41)

Example of How Cells Are Filled Using ARCS Model (unrelated scenario)

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Summary

• What is Motivation?• Why Should We Care?

– Motivational Influences on Learning & Performance

• Theories of Motivation– Review of Contemporary Theories– Instructional Implications

• Systematic Motivational Design– Keller’s ARCS Model

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References

Anderman, E. M., & Wolters, C. A. (2006). Goals, values, and affect: Influences on student motivation. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd Ed., pp. 369-389). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.

Bransford, J. D, Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Clark, R. E., & Feldon, D. F. (2005). Five common but questionable principles of multimedia learning. In Mayer, R. (Ed.), Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Driscoll, M. P. (2005). Psychology of learning for instruction (3rd ed.). Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.

Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002) Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 109-132.

Graham, S., & Weiner, B. (1996). Theories and principles of motivation. In D. C. Berliner & R. C. Calfee (Eds.). Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 63-84). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.

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References

Keller, J. M. (1999). Using the ARCS motivational process in computer-based instruction and distance education. New Directions in Teaching and Learning, 78, 39-47.

Krapp, A., Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (1992). Interest, learning, and development. In K. A. Renninger, S. Hidi, & A. Krapp (Eds.), The role of interest in learning and development (pp. 3-25). Hillsdale, NH: Erlbaum.

Lawless, K. A., & Brown, S. W. (1997). Multimedia learning environments: Issues of learner control and navigation. Instructional Science, 25, 117-131.

Pintrich, P. R. (2003). A motivational science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 667-686.

Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37, 99-105.

Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (2002). Motivation in education (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Schunk, D. H., & Zimmerman, B. J. (2006). Competence and control beliefs: Distinguishing the means and ends. In P. A. Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (2nd Ed., pp. 349-367). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Weiner, H. (1990). History of motivational research in education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 616-622.