Is further divided into: Sympathetic – regulates actions during stressful situations Parasympathetic – regulates actions during nonstressful situations

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The master controlling and communicating system of the body --- cells communicate via electrical and chemical signals. Signals are rapid, specific and cause almost immediate responses. Functions include: 1. Sensory Input – sensory receptors monitor changes

occurring inside and outside the body 2. Integration – process & interprets sensory input and

makes decisions about what to do 3. Motor Output – response that activates muscles or

glands (effector organs)

Organization of Nervous System – 2 subdivisions: Central Nervous (CNS) – consist of the brain and spinal cord. The function is integration Peripheral Nervous (PNS) – consist of nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord to the

body. The functions are sensory input and motor output. The PNS is further divided into:

Nervous Tissue – neuroglia & neurons NEUROGLIA cells – insulate, support & protect; cells are unable to transmit impulses and never lose the ability to mitotically divide

Astrocyte cells – cells in the CNS that contain projections that cling to neurons bracing them and anchoring them to capillaries; serves as a barrier and medium for diffusion between capillaries and neurons. Most abundant, versatile and highly branched glial cells – controls chemical environment around neuron.

Microglia cells – phagocyte cells in the CNS that dispose of debris including dead brain cells and bacteria; needed because the immune system is denied access to CNS

Ependymal cells – cells line cavities of the brain and spinal cord; the beating of their cilia helps to circulate cerebrospinal fluid and forms a protective cushion around CNS

Oligodendrocytes – cells wrap their extensions tightly around nerve fibers in the CNS producing fatty insulating coverings called myelin sheaths

Afferent or Sensory Division

Efferent or Motor Division

Somatic Sensory - Fibers transmit impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles & joints to the CNS

Somatic (SNS) - Fibers send impulses from CNS to control voluntary action of skeletal muscle

Autonomic (ANS) - Fibers send impulses from CNS to regulate involuntary actions of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle & glands

Visceral Sensory - Fibers transmit impulses from visceral organs to the CNS

Sensory receptors on dendrites receive impulse.

Impulse is sent to cell body, then through the axon jumping from node to node.

When impulse reaches terminals, a neurotransmitter is released to stimulate the receptors on dendrites of another neuron.

Schwann cells – cells form the myelin sheaths of

neurons in PNS Satellite cells – cells protect & cushion neurons in

PNS NEURONS (in CNS and PNS) – cells that conduct impulses; exhibit extreme longevity can live 100 years or more. They are amitotic (can’t divide) and have a high metabolic rate – require continuous supply of oxygen and glucose. Processes extend from the cell body of all neurons –

the dendrites and axons. Bundles of processes are tracts in the CNS and nerves in the PNS.

Dendrite: slender fiber extensions containing sensory receptors that conduct impulse toward soma Axon: single fiber extension that generate nerve impulses and conducts impulses away from soma. Transmit impulses along axolemma (cell membrane) to axon terminal (secretory region).

Initial region of axon arises from area of cell body called axon hillock. In motor neurons, the nerve impulse is generated at the junction of the axon hillock and the axon.

In some neurons, the axon is short or absent; in others it is long (up to 3-4 feet). Long axons are called nerve fibers.

Axons occasionally branch forming axon collaterals. Axons branch forming terminal branches – at the distal end of terminal branches are axon terminals (synaptic knobs).

Contains same organelles found in dendrites and cell bodies except the Nissl bodies (Rough ER) and the Golgi – structures involved in protein synthesis and packaging. Axons rely on cell body for necessary proteins and on distribution.

Axon terminal: end branches of axon terminal branches that contain neurotransmitter storage vesicles; neurotransmitters either excite or inhibit neurons. Myelin: white, fatty material that protects and insulates fibers; speeds up impulse transmission. Nodes of Ranvier: gaps between myelin sheaths

Synapse: junction of two neurons; space at synapse is called synaptic cleft

Types of Neurons 1. Sensory or Afferent neurons – carries impulse from sensory receptors on

dendrite endings to CNS; cell bodies in ganglia in PNS. 2. Motor or Efferent neurons – carries impulse from CNS to effector organ;

impulse brings about motor response; most cell bodies in CNS. 3. Interneurons or Mixed neurons– connect motor and sensory neurons in

spinal cord; transmit impulse to and from brain

Neurons are highly irritable. When a neuron is adequately stimulated, an electrical impulse is generated and conducted along the axon. The action potential (nerve impulse) is always the same.

Irritability – ability to respond to stimulus and convert into nerve impulse Conductivity – ability to transmit impulse to other neurons, muscles or glands

1. Plasma membrane of a resting (inactive) neuron is polarized, which means the outside of cell is more positive than the inside. All gated Na+ and K+ channels are closed – this maintains the resting membrane potential.

2. Graded Potentials – short-lived, localized change in membrane potential in response to stimulus; Occurs at the cell bodies and dendrites – light, heat, mechanical pressure or neurotransmitters are stimuli that may generate a graded potential.

3. At the axon, stimulus changes permeability of membrane and Na+ diffuse into cell to change polarity – this is depolarization. For axon to “fire”, depolarization must meet threshold causing action potential.

4. Action potential travels down the axon as opened Na+ gates stimulate neighboring Na+ gates to open.

The action potential is all-or-nothing. When the stimulus fails to produce depolarization that exceeds threshold, no action potential results. When threshold potential is exceeded, complete depolarization occurs.

5. Action potential is created – impulse travels through neuron jumping from node to node.

6. In response to the inflow of Na+, K+ channels open. K+ diffuses out of the cell to restores the electrical conditions – this is called repolarization. Soon after the K+ gates open, the Na+ gates close. Repolarization must occur to conduct another impulse.

7. Na/K pump uses ATP to restore the initial concentrations of Na & K to resting ionic conditions – refractory period.

8. These events continue to spread across the membrane of the neuron until the impulse reaches the axon terminal.

9. At axon terminal, impulse causes Ca ions to enter cell triggering vesicles to release neurotransmitters

10. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on dendrite of next neuron – process occurs again on next neuron.

Cell Death - about 2/3 of neurons die before birth if they do not form synapse with target cells; many cells also die due to apoptosis (programmed cell death) during development

Multiple Sclerosis (MS) – autoimmune disease in which immune system attacks myelin – sheaths in CNS are destroyed and myelin turns to hardened lesions called scleroses. Impulse conduction is slow and eventually ceases. Demyelinated axons increase Na+ channels – causing cycles of relapse and remission.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

BRAIN – 4 parts

Cerebrum Nearly the entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres has elevated ridges of tissue called gyri which are separated by hallow grooves called sulci. Deeper grooves are called fissures --- these grooves separate larger regions of the brain. The cerebrum has 2 hemispheres and 4 lobes.

Cerebral cortex - outermost area consists of GRAY MATTER (unmyelinated fibers) – integration occurs here! o The cerebral cortex contains 3 kinds of functional areas: motor area (controls voluntary movement), sensory areas (conscious awareness of sensation), and association areas (integrate diverse information). o Each hemisphere is concerned with the contralateral (opposite) side of the body. o No functional areas of the cortex work alone -- conscious behavior involves entire cortex in some way.

Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital

conscious intellect – solving complex, multitask problems

primary motor area – consciously move skeletal muscles

Broca’s area – ability to speak

working memory

auditory

memory

olfactory

somatic sensory area – receives general sensory information from skin and skeletal muscle

visual area

Cerebrum

Diencephalon

Cerebellum

Brain Stem

Brain weighs – 3 lbs

Contains 100 billion neurons

& trillions of glial cells

Limbic system – involves cerebral and diencephalon structures that control emotions and memory o Amygdala – recognizes, assesses danger & elicits

fear response; plays a role in memory processing

o Hippocampus – plays a role in memory processing

Lateralization of Cortical Functioning – We use both hemispheres for almost every activity and the hemispheres are almost identical. There is a division of labor between hemispheres (lateralization). One hemisphere dominates each task – cerebral dominance designates the hemisphere dominant for language (left hemisphere - 90% people). Hemispheres communicate almost instantaneously via fiber tracts and functional integration.

Left hemisphere - Controls language, math, and logic

Right hemisphere - Visual-spatial skills, intuition, emotion, and artistic and musical skills Cerebral medulla – inner surface consist of WHITE MATTER (myelinated fiber tracts); responsible for communication between cerebral areas and between the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers.

Basal nuclei – islands of gray matter within white matter Influence muscle movements -important in starting, stopping and monitoring the intensity of

movements executed by the cortex; regulate intensity of slow movements (ex. swinging arms during walking); inhibits antagonistic or unnecessary movement.

Diencephalon Thalamus – gateway to the cerebral cortex sorts, edits and

relays ascending input. Afferent impulses from all senses and body converge on thalamus before passing upward to the cortex.

Epithalamus – contains the pineal gland which regulates day and night cycles.

Hypothalamus – an important ANS center because it regulates body temperature, water balance and metabolism. It is considered part of the limbic system as it serves as the center for drives & emotions. It regulates the pituitary gland and produces two hormones.

Parkinson's disease - degeneration of dopamine-releasing neurons basal nuclei deprived of dopamine become overactive tremors at rest.

Huntington's disease - fatal hereditary disorder caused by accumulation of protein huntingtin leads to degeneration of basal nuclei and cerebral cortex. Symptoms include jerky movements, mental deterioration and treatments include drugs that block dopamine effects.

Alzheimer's disease (AD): a progressive degenerative disease of brain that results in dementia; memory loss, short attention span, disorientation, eventual language loss, irritable, confused, hallucinations; plaques of beta-amyloid peptide form in brain and brain shrinks

Corpus Collosum – large fiber tract (commissures) that connect gray areas of two hemispheres, enabling them to function as a coordinated whole.

o Damage to ventral root results in inability to stimulate muscles (paralysis)

o Damage to dorsal root results in inability to send stimuli to CNS

o Transection between T1 & L1 – become paraplegic

o Injury in cervical – become quadriplegic

Cerebellum Receives and processes input from the motor cortex, brain stem and sensory receptors to allow for smooth, coordinated movements. The cerebellum provides precise timing and appropriate patterns of skeletal muscle contraction for smooth, coordinated movements and agility.

Brainstem The brain stem regions are the midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata. The organization of the brain stem is similar to the spinal cord – deep gray matter surrounded by white matter fiber tracts. The brain stem has nuclei of gray matter embedded in the white matter, not found in the spinal cord. Brain stem centers control automatic behaviors necessary for survival and contain fiber tracts connecting higher and lower neural centers. Midbrain – contains tracts that convey ascending &

descending impulses and reflex centers for vision & hearing Pons – contains tracts involved in the control of breathing Medulla Oblongata – merges with the spinal cord; tracts

contain centers to regulate vital visceral activities and centers to control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, vomiting, etc.

SPINAL CORD – The spinal cord is a continuation of the brain stem with a two-way conduction pathway to &

from the brain and serves as a reflex center. It extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to about the 2nd lumbar vertebrae.

Gray matter – unmyelinated tracts contain synapse of sensory, motor and interneurons which carry impulses for integration to the brain or in the spinal cord (reflexes)

White matter – contains sensory & motor tracts which ascend and descend to the brain

Reticular Formation – gray matter in brainstem involved in motor

control of visceral organs and plays a role in consciousness &

awake/sleep cycles; damage can result in coma

Brainste

m

Protection of CNS Bone - The skull and the vertebral column enclose the brain and spinal cord. Meninges – connective tissue membranes covering CNS. dura mater – double layer attached to bone and covering the brain & spinal cord; limits

excessive movement of brain and cord arachnoid mater – middle layer has web-like extensions spanning the subarachnoid

space for attachment to underlying pia mater; space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) & contains largest vessels serving the brain

pia mater – clings to brain and spinal cord; composed of tiny capillaries Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) – forms a watery cushion that gives buoyancy to the CNS structures; protects the CNS from injury & nourishes the brain; CSF forms and drains at a constant rate so that its normal pressure and volume are maintained. Choroid plexus is a cluster of capillaries that produce CSF at a constant rate and keep it in motion.

Blood-brain barrier – refers to the least permeable capillaries that selectively diffuse materials to neurons. Only water, glucose and essential amino acids pass easily. Metabolic waste and most drugs are prevented from entering brain tissue. Fats, respiratory gases, alcohol, nicotine and anesthetics can easily diffuse.

Developmental Aspects of CNS Gender-specific areas appear in both brain and spinal cord, depending on presence or absence of fetal

testosterone

Age brings some cognitive declines, but not significant in healthy individuals until 80s

Shrinkage of brain accelerates in old age

Hypothalamus one of last areas of CNS to develop -- premature infants poor body temperature regulation

Homeostatic Imbalances of the Brain Meningitis – inflammation of the meninges caused by virus or bacteria. Brain inflammation is called encephalitis. Concussion – occurs when brain injury is slight; temporary alteration in function. Contusion – brain injury causing tissue destruction; permanent damage.

After head injuries, death may occur due to intracranial hemorrhage (bleeding of ruptured blood vessels) or cerebral edema (swelling of brain).

Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA) or Stroke – occurs when blood circulation to brain is blocked either by blood clot or ruptured blood vessel. Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA) – is caused from temporary restriction of blood flow; warning for stroke Hydrocephalus – CSF drainage is obstructed and fluid accumulates exerting pressure on the brain. Anencephaly – failure of cerebrum to develop resulting in a child who cannot hear, see or process sensory inputs and development of Spina bifida where the vertebrae form incompletely

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS) Nerve – consist of a bundle of myelinated and nonmyelinated peripheral axons enclosed by connective tissue. o Each fiber is surrounded by endoneurium, a loose

connective tissue. o Groups of fibers are bound into bundles called fascicles by

a connective tissue wrapping called perineurium. o All fascicles are enclosed by the epineurium to form the

nerve.

Most nerves are mixtures of afferent and efferent fibers and somatic and autonomic (visceral) fibers. 1. Mixed nerves – both sensory and motor fibers; impulses both to and from CNS 2. Sensory (afferent) nerves – impulses only toward CNS 3. Motor (efferent) nerves – impulses only away from CNS

Regeneration of nerve fibers – Mature neurons are amitotic but if soma of damaged nerve is intact, peripheral axon may

regenerate. If peripheral axon damaged: axon fragments; spreads distally from injury; macrophages clean dead axon; myelin sheath intact; axon filaments grow through regeneration tube; axon regenerates; new myelin sheath forms.

Most CNS fibers never regenerate -- CNS oligodendrocytes bear growth-inhibiting proteins that prevent CNS fiber regeneration. Astrocytes at injury site form scar tissue and block axonal regrowth. Treatment: neutralizing growth inhibitors, blocking receptors for inhibitory proteins, destroying chondroitin sulfate promising

Cranial nerves – 12 pairs of nerves originate from the brain to innervate the head and neck. Most cranial nerves are mixed, but some are sensory. Only the vagus nerve extends to thoracic and abdominal cavities. (Cranial nerves are listed in table 7.1.) Spinal nerves – 31 pairs of mixed nerves are formed by the union of dorsal and ventral roots of spinal cord. The spinal nerves divide into dorsal and ventral rami which serve different areas of the body. The dorsal rami serve the skin and muscles of the posterior body trunk. The ventral rami rami serve the skin and muscles of the anterior and lateral trunk. Some ventral rami form networks of nerves called plexus. These plexus serve the needs of the limbs. (Spinal nerves are listed in table 7.2.) Reflexes - Inborn (intrinsic) reflex are rapid, involuntary, predictable motor response to stimulus (ex. maintain posture, control visceral activities). Intrinsic reflexes can be modified by learning and conscious effort. Components of a reflex arc: receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector.

Developmental Aspects of Nervous System

System is formed in 1st month of embryonic development. The hypothalamus is the last to mature. Few neurons are formed after birth, but growth and maturation continues all through childhood, mostly as a result of myelination. The brain reaches it max weight as an adult, as we age, neurons are damaged and die. However, neural pathways are always available and being developed.

Nervous tissue has the highest metabolic rate in the body so lack of oxygen for a few minutes leads to death of neurons. Cerebral Palsy may be caused by a temporary lack of oxygen to the brain resulting in poor control of voluntary muscles.

NERVE