Neural Circuitry, Hormones, and Synaptic Transmitters Mediate Violence and Aggression

Aggression has different meanings; the primary focus here is physical aggression and violence between individuals, exclusive of predation.

Intermale aggression is aggression between males of the same species.

Androgens seem to increase aggression, but the correlation in humans is less clear.

Two confounding variables:

Experience and dominance can affect testosterone levels; winners show higher levels of testosterone than losers.

The Effects of Androgens on the Aggressive Behavior of Mice

Concept of Stress

•Stressor – anything that causes stress

External sources

Internal “cognitive” sources

Combinations of external and internal

•Stress Reaction

Autonomic Hypothalamus -CRH -ACTH -Cortisol

Behavioral

Cognitive

Characteristics of Stressors

• Eustress “Good Stressors” – Mild

– Predictable

– Controllable

• Distress “Bad Stressors” – Intense

– Unpredictable

– Uncontrollable

Regulation of Hormones Produced by the Adrenal Glands

Stress Activates Two Hormonal Systems

Autonomic Activation during a Stress Situation

Hormonal Changes in Humans in Response to Social Stresses

Factors That Interact during the Development and Progression of Disease

Main Components of the Human Immune System

Examples of Reciprocal Relations of the Nervous, Endocrine, and Immune Systems

The Stress Response and Consequences of Prolonged Stress

Stress Reaction Mediators

•Individual Differences

•Genetics

•Emotional reactions

•Pattern of response

•Intensity of response

•Hardiness

•Resilience

•Developmental

•Exposure to Stressors during early development

•Cognitive Appraisal

•Positive : Think of stressor as a Challenge

•Negative : Think of the stressor as a Threat

• Most people when exposed to extraordinary levels of stress and trauma

• maintain normal psychological and physical functioning without serious mental illness

• Resilience

• an active, adaptive process

• not just the absence of pathological responses

• associated with successful coping responses

• Stress activation of the HPA axis

• Glucocorticoid release activates glucocorticoid receptors in hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex (PFC)

• Short-term helps meet challenges

• Long-term produces damage to neurons

Resilience to Stress

Resilience to Stress• Stress inoculation

• As a result of repeatedly overcoming stress-inducing situations

• It is typical adaptive coping in the face of stress

• For either young children or adults

• Stress mastery

• Adaptive coping leads to a sense of mastery which promotes resilience

• There is an inverted U-shaped relationship between stress and coping

• Both low and high levels of stress reduce coping ability

• Chronic low levels will induce inoculation or mastery

• Chronic high levels will over whelm the systems

• It may be possible to train individuals to master stress

• By Using graded exposure to stress

• Reduce vulnerabilities and promote resilience

Coping with stress

• Direct coping Efforts to remove the stressor– Intentional efforts to change an uncomfortable situation– Confrontation

• Acknowledging stress directly and initiating a solution

– Compromise• Choosing a more realistic goal when an ideal goal cannot be met

– Withdrawal• Avoiding a situation when other options are not practical

• Good cognitive coping skills• Turn to your support network

– emotional– instrumental

• Effectively managing stress reactions

Coping With Stress

• Calm down– Moderate Exercise which is a “good” stressor– Relaxation training

• Reach out– Social support network

• Religion– Studies have shown an association between religion and lower

stress– May be related to social support

• Altruism– Giving to others because is gives you pleasure– Shown to be a good way to reduce stress

Coping With Stress

• Learn to cope effectively– Proactive coping

• Anticipate stressful events and take steps to avoid them

– Positive reappraisal

• Alter the way you think about a stressful situation

• Making the best of a tense or stressful event

– Humor

• Finding the funny things in a situation

Coping With Stress

Tracking restoration in natural and urban field settingsTerry Hartig (2003) Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23 109–123