NGEN03 Global Ecosystem Dynamics HT 2009 - Lunds ...web.nateko.lu.se/courses/ngen03/NGEN03_Ecosystem...

NGEN03

Global Ecosystem Dynamics

”Ecosystem Services”

Dörte Lehsten

2014

What do Ecosystems

do for us?

We depend on

ecosystem,

ecosystem processes

ecosystem dynamcis

What do Ecosystems

do for us?

We use environmental resources

We are part of the food web:

plants, animals, animal products

reproduction success products like

eggs and milk

top omnivores

What do Ecosystems

do for us?

We use by other species developed strategies

power to carry goods

power to pull tools

power for faster movements/transport

protection against environmental stresses

like cold and wet conditions

What do Ecosystems

do for us?

We use by other species developed strategies

chemicals protection against

diseases, parasites, environmental

stresses like radiation, cancer

sense of smell to identify environmental

risks, location of special food,

individuals, diseases etc.

physical behavior to adapt technical

innovation

What do Ecosystems

do for us?

We use environmental resources

abiotic: water, ores, mineral

biological: oil, gas,

energetic resources: water-, solar-, fuel-

energies

soils as fodd production base

What do Ecosystems

do for us?

We use environmental structures and processes

landscape: for regulation processes, sinks

and sources; movement and

transport

volcanoes and hot springs: energy and

soil fertilation sources

hydrological regime: irrigation, floods and

droughts regulation

History: when did we actively

recognize that we depend on

ecosystems

In the moment it is too late?

Hopefully earlier, when we still can do something about

human impacts on ecosystem dynamics



ecosystems

Platon (424/423 BCE – 348/347 BCE): Greek

philosopher, recognized already 2400 before today

that deforestation changes hydrological regime,

leads to soil erosion and droughts.

Did we learn?



ecosystems

Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834): political /economic

hypotheses in 1798:

‘An Essay on the Principles of population’

Discrepancies between uncontrolled exponential population

growth and reduced food supply lead to catastrophes in form

of diseases, starvation, and wars.

Called the ‘Mathusian catastrophe’. This catastrophe will

regulate population growth, but at the expense of innocent

human individuals: “positive checks” in population growth.

Or self regulating process with high risk on collapse.



ecosystems

Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834): political

/economic hypotheses in 1798:

‘An Essay on the Principles of population’

Hence, need for active popultation growth control to keep a

sustainable level: ”preventive checks” in form of moral

restrains (mariaged approved according financial balance)

Earth has limited resources



ecosystems

George Perkin Marsh (1801 -1882)

published 1864 the book ‘Man and

nature’. http://books.google.se/books?id=q-

7wEQi0Gj0C&printsec=frontcover&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.se/books?id=q-7wEQi0Gj0C&printsec=frontcover&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false





ecosystems



nature’.

Marsh argued that deforestation could lead to deserfication.

Did we learn?



ecosystems



nature’.

Marsh pointed out that that ‘welfare’ is secured as long as

man are able to manage resources

Did we learn?



ecosystems



nature’.

Future generations success depends

on resource management.

Did we learn?



ecosystems


published 1864 the bool ‘Man and

nature’.

Marsh argues that resource scarcity is a result of

unreasonable human action rather by resource scarcity.



ecosystems

Henry Fairfield Osborn (1887 —1969) published 1948 the book ‘Our Plundered Planet’.

About environmental destruction by humans;

Critique about poor rescource management of

human kind;

Revival of Malthusian hypotheses: control

human population

Nature as capital rather than infinite resource

spring



ecosystems

Vogt, W. 1948. Road to Survival. William Sloan: New

York.

Vogt country-wise investigation

relates soil and water resources to agricultural demand,

Agricultural demand describes human population size

Industrial development: higher population size; more

agricultural demand: loss of recources by intensive

farming: reduction in available resources: reduction in

population size:

”parabola misery”



ecosystems

Leopold, A. (1887 1948)

Son published 1949 his book . A Sand

County Almanac and Sketches from

Here and There

responsible relationship between

people and the land: “LAND ETHIC”;

Book is considered as landmark in the

American conservation movement.

Responsible for widespread interest in

ecology as a subject of science.



ecosystems

Leopold, A. (1887 1948)

Son published 1949 his book . A Sand

County Almanac and Sketches from

Here and There

”LAND ETHIC”

"A thing is right when it tends to

preserve the integrity, stability, and

beauty of the biotic community. It is

wrong when it tends otherwise.“

Aldo Leopold 1949

Ehrlich and Ehrlich (1970) suggested that “the most subtle and dangerous threat to man’s existence… is the potential destruction, by man’s own activities, of those ecological systems upon which the very existence of the human species depends” “Environmental services”

‘ecosystem services’ became the

standard in the scientific literature

(Ehrlich and Ehrlich, 1981)



ecosystems

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES?

Are benefits which people obtain from

Ecosystems.

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington

• environmental services

• nature’s services

• ecological services

Synonyms

• There are many types of ecosystem

services and several ways to classify them

• Millenium Ecosystems Assessment

The Millenium Ecosystem

Assessment (MA)

• assessed the consequences of ecosystem change for human well-being

• 2001 to 2005

• 1,360 experts worldwide

• A scientific state-of-the-art of the condition and trends in the world’s ecosystems and the services they provide

• A scientific basis for action to conserve and use them sustainably

Some main findings of MA

• 60% of the world ecosystem services evaluated are

being degraded or used unsustainably.

• >1/4 of all fish stocks are overharvested

• About 20% of corals were lost in just 20 years

• The degradation of ecosystem services often

causes significant harm to human well-being and

represents a loss of a natural asset or wealth of a

country.

• The degradation of ecosystem services could grow

significantly worse during the first half of this century.

The MA divides the ESS into 4 categories,

each of which has several sub-categories:

Provisioning services

Regulatory

services

Food production

Water purification

Cultural

services

Supporting

services

Soil formation

• Provisioning services: products obtained from

ecosystems, including food, fibre, fuel, genetic

resources, ornamental resources, freshwater,

biochemical, natural medicines and

pharmaceuticals.

• About a quarter of the Earth's land surface is

now cultivated (MA 2005)

• 63 % of all wood harvested in world is eventually

burned as fuel (FAO, 1999)

– Even in highly industrial nations such as Sweden,

wood supplies 17% of total energy consumption! (MA,

2005)

• 75% of the world’s population rely on traditional

medicine for primary health (UNDP et al, 2000)

Provisioning services

Regulating Services: benefits obtained from the

regulation of ecosystem processes including air quality

regulation, climate regulation, water regulation,

erosion regulation, water purification and waste

treatment, disease regulation, pest regulation,

pollination and natural hazard regulation.

• Tropical deforestation accounts for ca 20% of

the net increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide

(IPCC, 2001)

• Forests also moderate the runoff from

precipitation, reducing flows during flooding,

increasing flows during drier times and

protecting soil from erosion (UNDP, 2000)

• Deforestation may cause the spread of diseases

• Pest destroy 25 to 50% of world crops before or

after harvest (Pimentel et al., 1989)

Regulating Services

• Cultural Services:

non-material benefits what people obtain from

ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive

development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic

experiences, including cultural diversity, spiritual and

religious values, knowledge systems, educational

values, inspiration, aesthetic values, social relations,

sense of place, cultural heritage values, recreation and

ecotourism.

• Total value of international tourism > 444

Billion (World Bank 1999)

• Ecotourism (Nature based tourism) may

comprise 40-60% of this total

Cultural Services

• Supporting services which are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. They differ from provisioning, regulating, and cultural services in that their impacts on people are often indirect or occur over a very long time, whereas changes in the other categories have relatively direct and short-term impacts on people. Some services, like pollination, can be categorized as both a supporting and a regulating service, depending on the time scale and immediacy of their impact on people.

These services include soil formation, photosynthesis, primary production, nutrient and water cycling

• Pollinators contribute to the production of

food and other agricultural goods

– It is estimated that 90% of all flowering plants

would not exist without animals and insects

transporting pollen from one plant ot another

(UNDP et al, 2000)

Supporting services

Despite their obvious importance, ESS are in

decline in many places of the world, though

some services are increasing in some areas, for

example food production in managed

ecosystems, but always on the cost of other

services.

“Many people have benefited over the last

century from the conversion of natural

ecosystems to human-dominated ecosystems

and from the exploitation of biodiversity. At the

same time, however, these gains have been

achieved at growing costs in the form of

losses in biodiversity, degradation of many

ecosystem services, and the exacerbation of

poverty for other groups of people.”

(MA, 2005)

Why is biodiversity / Ecosystem services loss

a concern?

• Over the past 50 years virtually all of Earth’s

ecosystems have been significantly transformed

through human actions resulting in a substantial and

largely irreversible loss in biodiversity.

Global loss of species from Large Marine ecosystems

Boris Worm, et al. Science 2006

Why is biodiversity / Ecosystem services

loss a concern? • Over the past 50 years virtually all of Earth’s




• Changes in important components of biological

diversity were more rapid in the past 50 years than at

any time in human history.

Ca. 1.3 million known invertebrate species:

ca 30 percent of species at risk of extinction

Most severely threatened: freshwater invertebrates

water pollution, groundwater withdrawal, and water projects;

deforestation, tropical rainforests loss

1/3 of reef building corals globally

2010 evaluation of invertebrates extinction risks

All: insects, corals, molusks and worms

http://www.biologicaldiversity.org/programs/biodiversity/elements_of_biodiversity/extinction_crisis/

300,000 known species of plants,

Ca. 13000 specie evaluated by the IUCN: findings: ca 68 percent of plant

species are threatened with extinction.

habitat destruction which leads to an “extinction debt

Climate change

Primary producers: effects on whole food web

2010 evaluation of plant species


Status of 21 percent of all fish species

described is status at risk of, including

more than a third of sharks and rays.

2010 evaluation in vertebrates extinction risks

Fishes


At least a third of 6,300 known amphibians (6300) are at risk of

extinction. The current extinction rate ranges between 25 and 45

thousand tomes of the background extinction rate.

habitat loss,

water and air pollution,

Too fast climate change,

ultraviolet light exposure,

introduced exotic species and disease.


Amphibians


Globally view: 21 percent at risk to extinction

Island reptile species highest risk and highest extinction rate

during the last 500 years;

On continental scale: mainland transformed into islands of

reptiles populations: time delay of same extinction rate

Habitat destruction

Invasive species species,


Reptiles


BirdLife International: on a global view 12 percent of known ca.

10000 species considered as threatened; 192 species (ca. 2 %)

uunder high risk of extinction

Habitat degradation

Habitat loss

Invasive species

Capture by collectors


Birds


90 percent of primates threatened

50 percent of primates at risk of extinction

Overall mammals on a global view (ca. 5500 species): 50

percent population decrease; 20 percent at risk of extinction

Marine mammals : encounter highest and fastest population

decline;


Mammals


Species Extinction Rates









• Land use change, particularly the expansion of

agriculture, is projected to stay a major direct driver of

biodiversity/ESS losses

Losses of Habitat as a Result of Land Use Change between 1970 and

2050 and Reduction in the Equilibrium Number of Vascular Plant Species

under the MA Scenarios

explores the

possibilities of a

world in which global

economic and social

policies are the

primary approach to

sustainability.

examines the

outcomes of a world in

which protection

through boundaries

becomes paramount.

explores benefits and risks of

environmentally proactive

local & regional management

as the primary approach to

sustainability.

explores potential role of

technology in providing or

improving the provision of

ecosystem services.









• Land use change, particularly the expansion of

agriculture, is projected to stay a major direct driver of

biodiversity/ES losses

• Demands for services is continually growing

World population is projected to reach between approximately 8.1 and 9.6 billion people in 2050 (and between 6.8 and 10.5 billion in 2100), depending on the scenario

As human populations grow, so do the resource demands

imposed on ecosystems. Increased consumption!


loss a concern? • Over the past 50 years virtually all of Earth’s ecosystems have

been significantly transformed through human actions resulting

in a substantial and largely irreversible loss in biodiversity.

• Changes in important components of biological diversity were

more rapid in the past 50 years than at any time in human

history.

• Land use change, particularly the expansion of agriculture, is

projected to stay a major direct driver of biodiversity/ES losses

• Demands for services is continually growing

• Projections and scenarios indicate that these rates will

continue, or accelerate, in the future.

Number of Ecosystem Services Enhanced or Degraded by 2050 in the Four MA Scenarios

"The Figure shows the net change in the number of ecosystem services enhanced or degraded in the MA

scenarios in each category of services for industrial and developing countries expressed as a percentage of the

total number of services evaluated in that category. Thus, 100% degradation means that all the services in the

category were degraded in 2050 compared with 2000, while 50% improvement could mean that three out of six

services were enhanced and the rest were unchanged or that four out of six were enhanced and one was

degraded. The total number of services evaluated for each category was six provisioning services, nine regulating

services, and five cultural services."

http://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/def/ecosystem-services.htm

http://www.greenfacts.org/en/ecosystems/toolboxes/ma-scenarios.htm

http://www.greenfacts.org/en/ecosystems/toolboxes/ma-scenarios.htm

There is a growing consensus among scientists and the

general public that the climate is changing (IPCC, 2001)

Climate change effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services are projected to increase.

What is the value of biodiversity?

Valuation

• The value of all ecosystem services was

estimated globally at US$33 trillion per

year (Costanza et al., 1997), updated for

the year 2000 to US$38 trillion per year,

an amount that is similar to the Gross

National Product of all the world’s

economies (Balmford et al.,2002).

A way of protecting Biodiversity/ ESS:

put a market value on it!!

Trading scheme REDD (Reducing Emissions from

Deforestation and Degradation)

”Countries that are willing and able to reduce emissions

from deforestation should be financially compensated for

doing so”

REDD: A solution to many problems?

• Combat Climate change

– Deforestation currently responsible for up to 20% of global carbon

emissions

• Combat rural poverty

• Combat Biodiversity/ESS loss

– Will help preserve many other ES beyong Carbon storage, such as

watershed protection, water flow regulation, disease regulation...

Failure of civilizations and

ecosystem services

History shows that human well-being and

indeed the persistence of civilizations is

strongly linked to the capacity of their

environments to continue to deliver ecosystem

services at the local to regional scale

Past society: Easter

Island

• is the most remote island in the south

Pacific Ocean belonging to Chile.

• Peak of population ca 7000 inhabitants

• The island is famous for its numerous

moai, the stone statues located along the

coastlines

• Why did this civilization collapse?

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Easter_Isla

nd,_Ahu_Tongariki_(6691281879).jpg

Past society: Easter

Island

• The whole forest is gone!

• Pollinating birds were lost

• Losses of wild-caught foods (Only

chickens!) and decreased crop yields

• No escape possible: lack of large timber

brought an end to the construction of

seagoing canoes

• No wood for fuel to keep themselves warm http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Easter_Isla

nd,_Ahu_Tongariki_(6691281879).jpg

What did we learn?

The wellbeing of humans is integrally linked

to the wellbeing of the other species with

which we share the planet. There is now wide

acceptance that if the current rate of loss of

biological resources is continued, the result

will be catastrophic for humankind within a

few generations.

Further reading Millenium Ecosystem Assessment (2005) Ecosystems

and human well-being: a framwork for assessment.

Island Press, Washington DC, USA.

Diamond, J. (2005). Collapse. How societies choose

to fail or survive.

www.RUBICODE.net

“Science can help ensure that decisions are made with the best available information, but ultimately the future of

biodiversity (and its services) will be determined by society” MA, 2005

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