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Environment, Health and EquityEnvironment, Health and Equity(Cutter, 1995)(Cutter, 1995)

Geography 3432Geography 3432Environment and HealthEnvironment and Health

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Discussion

• What is environmental equity?

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Definitions

environmental justice

• general, but more political than “equity”, born in USA

• emphasis on remedial action to correct inequities

• arose out of environmental racism movement

• principles:– protection from environmental degradation

– prevention of adverse health effects

– culpability – ability to hold polluters responsible

– burden of proof – guilty until proven innocent

– remedial action – in cases of identified injustice

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Definitions

environmental equity• sharing of benefits and burdens of production• two forms

– equal sharing (typical)

– sharing proportional to consumption

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Definitions

procedural equity• emphasis on causal mechanisms for inequitable

outcomes• extent to which governmental rules/regulations,

enforcement, treaties, and sanctions applied in a nondiscriminatory way

• e.g., environmental assessment process

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Definitions

outcome equity• distribution of benefits and burdens• spatial• temporal (generational equity)

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Definitions

social equity• underpins environmental equity• social and economic factors that typically coincide

with environmental equity issues• e.g., class, race, gender, political power• often environmental equity solutions are social

equity solutions (e.g., income assistance)

Case Example

• The case of Camden New Jersey

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Context

• 1970s-80s environmental movement and civil rights movement “merged” – pressure on US federal government – emphasis on waste

• 1990 USEPA – Environmental Equity Workgroup• 1992 – EEW report released – inequities exist• 1994 Clinton – Executive Order – address human

health and environmental effects of all federal agency programs

• no similar legislation in Canada or Ontario

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Discussion

• How would you test for spatial equity?– what challenges?

• How would you test for procedural equity?– what challenges?

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Research Issues forAssessing Outcome Equity

environmental threat• often single exposure type (e.g., MSW)• increasing emphasis on multi-exposure• distance - plume modeling, wind direction etc raregeographic scale/unit• this has proven critical, results often flip flop

depending on scale• e.g., census tract, dissemination area (enumeration

area), county

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Research Issues forAssessing Outcome Equity

subpopulation• race, ethnicity, income, gender, age• research may reflect homogeneity local

subpopulations• e.g., study in the South only, potential false

negatives high proportion people of colour

time• most studies cross-sectional• more longitudinal research needed

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What constitutes “equity”?

Is it procedurally equitable if:• all qualifying sites have equal chance of being

selected

AND/OR• some acceptable amount of benefit accrues to

local community

AND/OR• “outcome” is equitable?

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What constitutes inequity?

outcome is equitable if:• hazardous sites are located in disadvantaged

communities no more frequently than other communities

• What are some implications of each requirement?

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(Example) Evidence for Outcome Equity

Inequities ExistAuthor Exposure Subpopn Finding LimitationsUSGAO (1983)

large hazardous waste facilities in the South

- race - 3 of 4 sites 52%, 66%, and 90% AA

- only 4 sites

- indicative of problem

UCCCRJ (1987)

commercial hazardous waste facilities and “uncontrolled” waste sites

-race

- national, zip code

- communities with 1+ facilities 2 times AA or His popn vs no facility

- use zip codes for spatial unit – may be too large

Mohai and Bryant (1992)

commercial hazardous waste facilities

- race, SES - - Detroit and surrounding counties

-48% AA within 1 mile, 39% 1-1.5 miles, 18% 1.5+ miles

- not SES

-case study

- Detroit predominantly AA, esp. in area studied (74%)

USGAO- US Government Accounting Office; UCCCRJ – United Church of Christ Committee for Racial Justice; AA – African American; His - Hispanic

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Evidence for Outcome Equity

Inequities Exist, Only SometimesAuthor Exposure Subpopn Finding LimitationsAderton et al. (1994)

treatment storage and disposal facilities (TSDF)

- race, SES

- national, census tract

-no inequity within tracts

- inequity increases with scale (AA, His, poverty)

- %employed and %industrial much better predictors of TSDFs

- only waste facilities

- Study funded by Waste Management Incorporated – may bias interpretation

Hird (1993) Superfund NPL sites

-SES

- national, county

- no inequities by SES

- county spatial unit may be too large

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Evidence for Outcome Equity

Inequities Exist, Only SometimesAuthor Exposure Subpopn Finding LimitationsZimmerman (1993)

Superfund NPS sites

-race, ethnicity

- national, county

- fewer AA communities had remedial action plans

- superfund sites only

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Inequity Exists…SometimesAnderton et al (1994)

• differences not as predicted for AA, yes for dwelling value, almost for His %• Controls: industrial employment, employment %, older dwelling also significant ; %

male employed opposite of predicted

Source: Anderton et al. (1994)

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Source: Anderton et al. (1994)

Inequity Exists…SometimesAnderton et al (1994)

• differences not as predicted for AA, yes for His and dwelling value• % industrial employment, employment, %, older dwelling also significant

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Measuring Exposure is Key, GIS Helps!

• proportional assignment through buffering• 80% = 0.8 of a facility; 20% = 0.2 of a facility

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Which Came First

• which came first, disadvantaged or the facility?

• only two significant, and in the opposite direction expected (South Carolina, TRI)

Source: Mitchell et al. (1999)

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Which Came First?

Source: Mitchell et al. (1999)

• which came first, disadvantaged or the facility?• 4 significant in the opposite of expected direction, 2 in expected (both rural)

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Source: Mitchell et al. (1999)

Which Came First?

• by 1990 all significant except rural minority

• few inequities to start and grown over time

• Been 1994, finds no change over time

• Does it matter which came first if the resultant pattern is inequitable?

Nov. 24/2010 12:30pm Geog 3432 24Source: Jerrett et al. (2001)

A Canadian Example

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Canadian Example: Hamilton

Source: Jerrett et al. (2001)

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• Jerrett et al (2001)• air quality, exposure measure through local

monitoring stations NOT distance from facility!• SES inequities as predicted• how you model matters…somewhat:

– SAR drops low income and adds unemployment

• dwelling value most consistent predictor (more stable than income as a measure of SES)

Canadian Example: Hamilton

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Canadian Example: Ethnicity and Pollution in Hamilton

Source: Buzzelli and Jerrett, 2004

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Procedural Equity

• far fewer studies of procedural equity

• What types of methods might be used to assess procedural equity?

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Procedural Equity and Scale

not in my back yard (NIMBY)?• process of opposition whereby facilities are placed

where resistance is least – often disadvantaged• Case of Lincolnville Nova Scotia• NIMBY on a larger scale – movement to

developing world

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Procedural Equity and Scale

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Procedural Equity and Scale

not in my back yard (NIMBY)?“I mean it’s pretty intimidating to have three or four white people in your community and you don’t know what the hell is going on and they’re talking about cells and there is going to be 17 cells. Well I asked one of the elders of the community, “do you know what cells mean?” All they could think was a jail cell. They [the municipality] knew the mentality of what they were working with and they did the minimum to move forward. There was never any consultation about how it would affect the residents of the community.” (Lincolnville resident)

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ImplicationsTriple Jeopardy for the Disadvantaged

1. increased risks from social and behavioural determinants of health (e.g. smoking);

2. higher risks from high ambient pollution exposure;

3. an effect modification that makes exposure to ambient pollutants exert disproportionately large health effects on them compared with advantaged groups.

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Addressing Inequities

• To what extent should concerns about environmental equity/justice guide environmental (or other) policy?

• How might we address the issue of environmental equity/justice in policy at all three levels (national, state/provincial, municipal)?