Organizational Behavior Course Code: MBA 6207 Year: I Trimester: II Max. Hours: 30 Unit 1: Introduction to OB: Organizational Behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organization. It is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of Organizations, such as business, government, schools and services organizations. It covers three determinants of behavior in organizations: individuals, groups, and structure. OB is an applied field. It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, and the effect of structure on behavior, In order to make organizations work more effectively. OB covers the core topics of motivation, leadership behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and perception, change process, conflict, job design and work stress. Meaning: “Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and organizational structure have on behavior within the organization, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organizational effectiveness”. IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Organizational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor should be properly emphasised to achieve organisational objectives. Barnard has observed that an organization is a conscious interaction of two or more people. This suggests that since an organisation is the interaction of persons, they should be given adequate importance in managing the organisation. Organisational behaviour provides opportunity to management to analyse human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a particular direction. Understanding Human Behaviour Organisational behaviour provides understanding the human behaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organisational behaviour can be
Transcript
Organizational Behavior
Course Code: MBA 6207 Year: I Trimester: II Max. Hours: 30
Unit 1:Introduction to OB:
Organizational Behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organization. It is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of Organizations, such as business, government, schools and services organizations. It covers three determinants of behavior in organizations: individuals, groups, and structure. OB is an applied field. It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, and the effect of structure on behavior, In order to make organizations work more effectively. OB covers the core topics of motivation, leadership behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and perception, change process, conflict, job design and work stress.
Meaning: “Organizational behavior is a field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and organizational structure have on behavior within the organization, for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an organizational effectiveness”.
IMPORTANCE OF ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
Organizational behaviour offers several ideas to management as to how human factor should be properlyemphasised to achieve organisational objectives. Barnard has observed that an organization is a conscious interaction of two or more people. This suggests that since an organisation is the interaction of persons, they should be given adequate importance in managing the organisation. Organisational behaviour provides opportunity to management to analyse human behaviour and prescribe means for shaping it to a particular direction.Understanding Human Behaviour Organisational behaviour provides understanding the humanbehaviour in all directions in which the human beings interact. Thus, organisational behaviour can beunderstood at the individual level, interpersonal level, group level and inter-group level.Organisational behaviour helps to analyse 'why' and 'how' an individual behaves in a particular way.Human behaviour is a complex phenomenon and is affected by a large number of factors including thepsychological, social and cultural implications. Organisational behaviour integrates these factors to provide simplicity in understanding the human behaviour.
Interpersonal Level: Human behaviour can be understood at the level of interpersonal interaction.Organisational behaviour provides • means for understanding the interpersonal relationships in anorganisation. Analysis of reciprocal relationships, role analysis and transactional analysis are some ofthe common methods, which provide such understanding.
Group Level: Though people interpret anything at their individual level, they are often modified bygroup pressures, which then become a force in shaping human behaviour, Thus, individuals shouldbe studied in groups also.. Research in group dynamics has contributed vitally to organisationalbehaviour and shows how a group behaves in its norms, cohesion, goals, procedures,communication pattern and leadership. These research results are advancing managerial knowledge of understanding group behaviour, which is very important for organisational morale and productivity.
Inter-group Level: The organisation is made up of many groups that develop complex relationshipsto build their process and substance. Understanding the effect of group relationships is importantfor managers in today's organisation. Inter-group relationship may be in the form of co-operation orcompetition.
Key Determinants:
People : People are the main component of any organization that has to be managed. Every individual
has a personal goal to be achieved. Organizations must identify the need spectrum of
individuals and take suitable steps for its fulfillment to enable them to perform effectively
so that they complete their allotted task in time. Relationship between the workers, with
subordinates and superiors should be established based on full understanding and complete
faith based on mutual trust so that it is easy to communicate and understand each other’s
views. Work teams and Groups play a vital role in the organization. Individual may have
to keep his personal interest aside if it conflicts with team or group goals. It is the team
goals, accomplishment of which contribute towards achieving organizational goals.
Structure: Structure defines the official relationships of people in organizations. Different jobs are
required to accomplish all of an organization’s activities. There are managers and
employees, accountants and assemblers. These people have to be related in some
structural way so that their work can be effective. The main structure relates to power and
to duties. For example, one person has authority to make decisions that affect the work of
other people.
Technology :
Organizations have technologies for transforming inputs and outputs. These technologies
consist of physical objects, activities and process, knowledge, all of which are brought to
bear on raw materials labor and capital inputs during a transformation process. The core
technology is that set of productive components most directly associated with the
transformation process, for example, production or assembly line in manufacturing firm.
Technology provides the physical and economic resources with which people work. They
cannot accomplish much with their bare hands, so they build buildings, design machines,
create work processes and assemble resources. The technology that results has a
significant influence on working relationships. An assembly line is not the same as a
research laboratory, and a steel mill does not h ave the same working conditions as a
hospital. The great benefit of technology is that it allows people to do more and better
work, but it also restricts people in various ways. It has costs as well as benefits.
Multidisciplinary roots of OB:
Models of OB:
Autocratic model:: It was the prevailing pattern during the Industrial Revolution. It is based on power, which should have controlled the power to demand. The management is aimed at a formal and official authority that is delegated by law to heads of those whom it applies. Cree that management knows what it does and employees must follow his orders. Employees must be persuaded and pressured to do their work. The management is thinking, they work. Establishing rigid controls. Guidance to the obedience of a pattern and not a manager. Psychological dependence is the result of the head. Performance is minimal, then so are wages. Needs to be satisfied employees are subsistence for themselves and their families. Advantages: A useful way to do the job. Disadvantages: high cost in human aspects.
Model of care: It arises from the recognition of the managers of the feelings of dissatisfaction, insecurity and frustration of the employees against the autocratic model. Began social welfare programs for employees, in order to provide security. It is based on
the economic resources necessary to provide full benefits. Then, the orientation is towards the management of money. Generating unit of the individual to the organization. Maintenance needs are met and performance is passive cooperation. Advantages: provides satisfaction and security for workers. Disadvantage: does not achieve an effective motivation. The workers produce far below capacity and are not motivated to develop to higher levels. Is pleased but not satisfied.Model support: It depends on the leadership. Through this, management creates an environment that helps employees grow and achieve things that they can perform together with the interests of the organization. Managerial guidance is to support the employee in his performance, his role is to help employees solve problems and execute their work. The psychological result in employees a sense of participation and collaboration in the activities of the organization. ( "We" instead of "them" when talking about the organization). This model works better in richer countries.
Collegiale Model : The term refers to a collegial group of people with common purpose, they tend to be more useful in terms of work schedule, intellectual, and circumstances that allow a leeway of work. This depends on the generation by the address of a sense of camaraderie with employees; the result is that these are necessary and useful. It was easy to accept and respect the role of the organization. Instead of being seen as leaders, were seen as collaborators to the managers. This aims to create a strict mutuality in which each person performs their own and appreciate the contributions of others. The guidance addressed the team and the response from employees is the responsibility and feel himself obliged to meet quality standards that represent a recognition for its work for the company. The result of the psychological model in the college is self-employed
autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial
Model depends on Power Economic resources Leadership Partnership
Managerial orientation Authority Money Support Teamwork
Employees needs met Subsistence Maintenance Higher-order Self-actualization
Performance result Minimum Passive cooperation
Awakened drives
Moderate enthusiasm
Emerging Challenges and opportunities for OB.:
Globalization Development of Environment Quality and Productivity Ethics and Social Responsibility Innovation and Change Technological Development Knowledge Management Work Force Diversity Multicultural Effects
Empowerment of Employees
Unit:2
Personality and Individual Differences: Concept
Maddi defines personality as, “A stable set of characteristics and tendencies that determine thoseCommonalities and differences in the psychological behavior and that may not be easily understood as the sole result of the social and biological pressures of the moment".
NATURE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCESIndividual differences are personal attributes that vary from one person to another. Individual differencesmay be physical and psychological. The figure 5.2 shows the attributes of physical and psychologicaldifferences. Physical Differences and Psychological Differences:Height,Weight,Body Shape,Appearance,Complexion
Whenever an organization attempts to assess the individual differences among its employees, itmust consider the situation in which that particular behavior occurs. Individuals who are satisfied in onecontext may prove to be dissatisfied in another context. Assessing both individual differences andcontributions in relation to incentives and contexts, then, is a major challenge for organizations as theyattempt to establish effective psychological contracts with their employees and achieve optimal fits between people and jobs.
Individual differences make the manager's job extremely challenging. In fact, according to a recentresearch, "variability among workers is substantial at all levels but increases dramatically with jobcomplexity. Due to these reasons, growing work force diversity compel managers to view individualdifferences in a fresh way. Leaders now talk frequently about "valuing differences" and learn to "managediversity". So rather than limiting diversity, as in the past, today's managers need to better understand and accommodate employee diversity and individual differences.
IMPORTANT DIMENSIONS OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Self-concept
Personality dimensions
Abilities, and
Personal values and ethics.
Self-conceptSelf is the core of one's conscious existence. Awareness of self is referred to as one's self-concept.Sociologists Viktor Gecas defines self-concept as "the concept the individual has of himself as a physical,social and spiritual or moral being". In other words, every individual recognizes himself as a distinctindividual. A self-concept would be impossible without the capacity to think. This brings us to the role of
cognitions. Cognitions represent, "any knowledge, opinion, or belief about the environment about oneself,or about one's behavior". Among many different types of cognitions, those involving expectation, planning,goal setting, evaluating and setting personal standards are particularly relevant to organizational, behavior.Self-esteem:Self-esteem is a belief over one's own worth based on an overall self-evaluation. Those with low self-esteem tend to view themselves in negative terms. They do not feel good about themselves, tend to have trouble in dealing effectively with others, and are hampered by self-doubts. High self-esteemindividuals, in contrast, see themselves as worthwhile, capable and acceptable. Although, high self-esteem is generally considered a positive trait because it is associated with better performance and greater satisfaction, recent research uncovered flaws among those having high self-esteem. Specifically, high self-esteem subjects tended to become self-centered and boastful when faced with situations underpressure Hence moderate self-esteem is desirable.
Managers can build employee self-esteem in four ways:1. Be supportive by showing concern for personal problems, interests, status and contribution.2. Offer work involving variety, autonomy and challenges that suit the individual's values, skills andabilities.3. Strive for management-employee cohesiveness and trust building.4. Have faith in each employee's self-management ability, reward successes.Self-efficacy
Self-efficacy is a person's belief about his' or her chances of successfully accomplishing a specific task.According to one organizational behavior writer, "Self-efficacy arises from the gradual acquisition ofcomplex, cognitive, social, linguistic, and/or physical skills through experience",There is strong linkage between high self-efficacy expectations and success in terms of physical andmental tasks, anxiety reduction, addiction control, pain tolerance and illness recovery. Oppositely, thosewith low self-efficacy expectations tend to have low success rates.
Self-efficacy Implications for Managers
Managers need to nurture self-efficacy in them and in their employees. Self-efficacy requires constructiveaction in each of the following managerial areas:
To design recruitment selection procedure.
To design interview questions to probe applicant's general self-efficacy for determining orientationand training needs.
For designing job.For systematic self-management training.For goal-setting and quality improvement.To evolve suitable leadership.To design suitable regards.
Personality DimensionsThe big, five personality dimensions are: extroversion, agreeableness, thorough¬ness, emotional stabilityand openness to experience. Ideally, these personality dimensions that correlate positively and strongly with job performance would be helpful in the selection, training and appraisal of employees. The individuals who exhibit; traits associated with a strong sense of responsibility and determination generally perform better than those who do not.
PHYSICAL AND INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES
Physical differences among individuals are the most visible of all differences. They are also relatively easy to assess. Intellectual differences are somewhat more difficult to discern, but they too can be assessed by fairly objective means. The abilities/skills and competencies of employees are both physical and intellectual qualities.Ability refers to an individual's skill to perform effectively in one or more areas of activity, such asPhysical, mental or interpersonal work. Individuals with numerical ability, for example, can be trained to apply their ability in the field of engineering, accounting and computer science. Abilities develop from an individual's natural aptitudes and subsequent learning opportunities. Aptitudes are relatively stable capacities for performing some activity effectively. Learning opportunities translate aptitude into abilities through practice, experience and formal training. Organizations have to ensure that people possess the necessary abilities to engage in the behaviors required for effective performance. This can accomplished either by careful selection of people or by a combination of selection and training.
Skills are generally thought of as being more task-specific capabilities than abilities. For example, anindividual with numerical ability who goes to school to learn accounting develops a numerical skillspecific to that field'. Thus, when a particular ability is applied to a specialized area, (for exampleaccounting), it becomes a skill.
Competencies are skills associated with specialization. Competencies are skills that have beenrefined by practice and experience and that enable, the-individual to specialize in some field. Forexample, an accountant with numerical "ability and accounting skill takes a position in the TaxationDepartment and as time passes, he develops more competency as a tax expert.
Physical abilities such as strength, flexibility, endurance and stamina can be developed with exercise andtraining. Mental abilities such as reasoning, memory visualization, comprehension and inter-personalabilities can also be developed through practice and education. Even in the absence of such formalprograms, many individuals manage their own careers in such a way as to continually upgrade their abilities,skills and competencies in order to remain valuable to their organizations.
PERSONAL VALUES AND ETHICS
According to Milton Rokeach, a value is "an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct orend-stated of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct are end-state of existence".Ethics involve the study of moral issues and choices. It is concerned with right versus wrong andgood versus bad. Relative to the workplace, the terms business ethics and management ethics are oftenheard.
Determinants of personality, : Some personality theorists stress the need 6f identifying person-situation as interaction. This is equivalent to recognizing thd social learning aspects related to personality. Such a social learning analysis is one of the most comprehensive and meaningful ways included in the overall study of organizational behavior. From this perspective, personality means the way people affect others. It also involves people's understanding themselves, as well as their pattern of inner and outer measurable traits, and the person and situation interaction. People affect others depending primarily upon their external appearance such as height,weight, facial features, color and other physical aspects and traits.Personality traits are very important in organizational behavior. In particular, five personality traitsespecially related to job performance have recently emerged from research. Characteristics of these traitscan be summarized as follows:1. Extroversion: Sociable, talkative and assertive.2. Agreeableness: Good-natured, cooperative and trusting.3. Conscientiousness: Responsible, dependable, persistent and achievement-oriented.4. Emotional Stability: Viewed from a negative standpoint such as tense, insecure and nervous.5. Openness to Experience: Imaginative, artistically sensitive and intellectual
Major personality attributes influencing OB.
The Big Five Model,Extraversion – tendency to experience positive emotions and moods and feel good about oneself and the rest of the world
• Managers high in extraversion tend to be sociable, affectionate, outgoing and friendly• Managers low in extraversion tend to be less inclined toward social interaction and have a less
positive outlook
Negative affectivity – tendency to experience negative emotions and moods, feel distressed, and be critical of oneself and others
• Managers high in negative affectivity may often feel angry and dissatisfied and complain about their own and others’ lack of progress
• Managers who are low in negative affectivity do not tend to experience many negative emotions and moods and are less pessimistic and critical of themselves and others
Agreeableness – tendency to get along well with others• Managers high in agreeableness are likable, affectionate and care about others
• Managers with low agreeableness may be distrustful, unsympathetic, uncooperative and antagonistic
Conscientiousness – tendency to be careful, scrupulous, and persevering, Managers high in this trait are organized and self-disciplined
• Managers low in this trait lack direction and self-disciplineOpenness to Experience – tendency to be original, have broad interests, be open to a wide range of stimuli, be daring and take risks
• Managers who are high in openness to experience may be especially likely to take risks and be innovative in their planning and decision making
• Managers who are low in this trait may be less prone to take risks and be more conservative in their planning and decision making
MBTI Theory : MBTI describes four dimensions of Personality Types:
(a) Extroversion versus Introversion: (The ways in which people relate to the world)
(b) Sensing versus Intuition: (Becoming aware of and perceiving information)
(c) Thinking versus feeling: (Ways of deciding and prefer to make judgments)
(d) Judging and Perception: (The amount of control exercising and organizing people)Preference From... ...To
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a) Extroversion and Introversion:
This deals with whether the focus of attention is directed towards outwardly or inwardly.
Where do you prefer to focus your attention?
Extroversion:
Extroverted attention flows outward to the world of objects and people or external ideas.
They are interacting more with people.
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Extraversion are:
· Attuned to external environment
· Prefer to communicate by talking
· Work out ideas by talking them through
· Have broad interests
· Sociable and expressive
· Readily take initiative in work and relationships
Extroverts are usually active, sociable, like variety and stimulation, and are often good
speakers, sales people or public relations professionals.
Introversion:
Introverted attention focused on the subjective, inner world of thoughts, feelings and
ideas. Introverts like quit reflection, can concentrate on one idea or thought for longer
than an extrovert, and are less active and prone to change.
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Introversion are:
· Drawn to their inner world
· Prefer to communicate in writing
· Work out ideas by reflecting on them
· Learn best by reflection, mental “practice”
· Focus in depth on their interest
· Private and contained
Research scientists, academicians and librarians are often introverts.
b) Sensing Versus Intuition:
This aspect deals with the ways of collecting information and ideas.
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Sensing
A person with a sensing preferences focuses on the specific, practical and tangible. The
sensing person relies more on the physical or material reality of the world of the five
senses: touch, sight, sound, taste or smell. Sensing managers take in information through
their senses and attend to the details of the problem. They like to solve problems in
standard ways. They are patient with routine details and are precise in their work. They
distrust creative inspirations and usually work all the way through to reach conclusions.
They emphasize action, urgency and bottom-line results.
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Sensing:
· Oriented to present realities
· Factual and concrete, precise and practical
· Focus on what is real and actual
· Observe and remember specifics
· Build carefully and thoroughly toward conclusions
· Understand ideas and theories through practical applications
· Trust experience
The sensing person is likely to provide a practical solution to problems. They may be
good at repairing machines, sports, building, handicrafts, or keeping the detailed records
of a business.
Sensation Feelers (SF) deal with concrete problems in a methodical way. They have powers of observation regarding the details of how an organization is run. SFs do
not fight the system, but use what is available for problem solving. SFs are non-judgmental of their co-workers and do not look for underlying motives and meanings in
people’s behavior. If organizations do not have adequate SF’s, small problem will go
unattended till they become big.
Possible Shortcomings: SF’s may be reluctant to accept new ideas and are impatient with
abstract theories. They react adversely to radical changes. They have difficult honoring
commitments and decision made in the past since they live full in the present moment.
Intuition
This person relies more on their insights and based on that they guess, assume and draw
the inferences. Ideas, associations or creative process often accompany the presence of
intuition. They focus on the relationships and connections between facts. Intuition
manager like solving new problems and are impatient with routine details. They perceive
the problem in its totality and consider several alternatives simultaneously. They are
imaginative and futuristic, enjoying mind testing games..
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Intuition:
· Oriented to future possibilities
· Imaginative and verbally creative
· Focus on the patterns and meanings in data, sees beyond the surface
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· Remember specifics when they relate to pattern
· Move quickly to conclusions, follow hunches
· Want to clarify ideas and theories before putting them into practice
· Trust inspiration
The intuitive person is likely to have an affinity for music, literature, the arts, higher
mathematics, and science and abstract theories. People with high level of intuition are
also likely to be creative, adaptable and open to new ideas, and they are often artists,
musicians, strategic players or architects.
Intuitive Thinkers (NT) are the architects of progress and ideas. They are interested in the
principle on which the organization is built and seek answers to he significant events.
They have enormous drive and are creative. If organizations do not have adequate
number of NT’s, change will be minimal.
Shortcomings of Intuitive Thinkers: Intuitive Thinkers may not always be aware of the
feelings of others. Unless subordinates are intellectually competent, they may not be
considered valuable. They expect a great of themselves and others and tend to escalate
standards.
c) Thinking versus Feeling:
These deals with the way people make decisions.
Thinking
The person with a preference for thinking tends to be objective, analytical and impersonal
in decision and judgments. Thinking managers are logical and analytical in their problem
solving and search for additional information in a logical manner.
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Thinking:
· Solve problem with logic,
· Use cause and effect reasoning
· Strive for an objective standard of truth
· Can be “tough-minded”
· Fair – want everyone treated equally
As this person is logical in analysis, he is good at organizing, scheduling, comparing,
analyzing and quantitatively evaluating objections and activities.
Sensation Thinkers (ST) are decisive and excellent at decisions involving precise
interpretations of facts and figures. They are persevering and precise. They want the
organization run on an impersonal basis. They are hard working and super dependable.
Organizations run efficiently because of such managers.
Possible Shortcomings: STs cannot tolerate delays due to complications. In periods of
rapid changes they still cling to rules and procedures which is dysfunctional. When
dealing with others, STs may not accurately perceive the interpersonal process. They
withhold rewards unless full deserved others.
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Feeling
People who use feelings to make decision are more likely to be empathetic, loyal, and
appreciative and tactful. Feeling types consider the person and are likely to bend the rules
if the situation warrants. Feeling managers heavily emphasize the human aspects in
dealing with organizational problems and is more process oriented. They enjoy pleasing
people and avoid conflicts.
Intuitive Feelers (NF) have personal charisma and commitments to the people they lead.
They communicate their caring and enthusiasm. They are comfortable in an unstructured,
group-centered management system that lets employees participate in the decision-making process. If adequate NF’s are not available in organization, an organization will
become cold, sterile and dull.
Possible Shortcomings; NF’s make decision on the basis of personal likes and dislikes.
They often try to please others all the time.
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Feeling:
· Empathetic
· Guided by personal values
· Assess impacts of decisions on people
· Strived for harmony and positive interactions
· Compassionate
· May appear “tenderhearted”
They like helping other people and often work as nurses, counselors and artists. They use
past experiences and values and seek harmony when making judgments.
d) Judgment versus Perception
This aspect deals with the amount of control a person has over events and organizing
things.
Judgment
The strong Judgment oriented people tend to live in a planned, decided and orderly way,
wanting to regulate their life and control events. They are given more responsibility and
authority because their operating mode is stable and predictable.
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Judging:
· Scheduled
· Organize their lives
· Systematic
· Methodical
· Make short and long term plans
· Like to have things decided
· Try to avoid last-minute stresses
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The person with a strong orientation for judgment will therefore be good at making
decision and planning. They usually make good managers, engineers and lawyers.
Perception
Perceptive people tend to live in a flexible, spontaneous way, wanting to understand life
and adapt to it. They often appear to be more relaxed and less organized than judging
types and are less attracted to schedules and routines.
Characteristics associated with people who prefer Perceiving:
· Spontaneous
· Flexible
· Casual
· Open-ended
· Adapt, change course
· Like things loose and open to change
· Feel energized by last minute pressures.
The perceptive type, on the other hand, may wait until all the information and aspects of a
situation are seen before they make a decision. Artists, consultants, musicians and
counselors tend to be perception oriented.
Theories of Personality :
Personality: individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
o Four basic perspectives:
1. Psychoanalytic
2. Trait
3. Humanistic
4. Social-cognitive
5. Freud's theory: proposes that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality
PSYCHOANALYTIC PERSPECTIVE Psychoanalysis
Technique of treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret 6. unconscious tensions
Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality sought to explain what he observed during psychoanalysis
7. Free Association
o method of exploring the unconscious
o person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
8. Unconscious
o Freud’s theory: a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings and memories
o Current theory: information processing of which we are unaware
9. Preconscious: information that is not conscious, but is readily retrievable into conscious awareness
Personality Structure
10. ID: reservoir of unconscious psychic energy
o strives to satisfy 11. basic drives … sexual and aggressive
o operates on the 12. pleasure principle; demanding immediate gratification
13. SUPEREGO: part of personality that represents 14. internalized ideals
o provides standards for judgment and for future aspirations
15. EGO: largely conscious, 16. "executive" part of personality
o 17. mediates among the demands of the id, superego and ego
o operates on the 18. reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain
Personality Development
Psychosexual Stages: childhood stages of development during which the pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones
19. Oedipus Complex: boy's sexual desires towards his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the “rival” father
20. Electra Complex: came later…. girl's sexual desires towards her father and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the “rival” mother
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
STAGE FOCUS
21. ORAL (0-18 months) Pleasure center on the mouth … sucking, biting, chewing
22. ANAL (18-36 months) Pleasure focuses on bowel & bladder elimination; coping with demands for control
23. PHALLIC (3-6 years) Pleasure zone is genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
24. LATENCY (6 to puberty) Dormant sexual feelings
25. GENITAL (puberty & on …) Maturation of sexual interests
26. Identification: the process by which children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
27. Gender Identity: one's sense of being male or female
28. Fixation: a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, where conflicts were unresolved … nail biters or gum chewers may be fixated in the Oral Stage.
DEFENSE MECHANISMS
29. Defense Mechanisms: the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
o 30. Repression: basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness
o 31. Regression: individual retreats when faced with anxiety, to a more infantile psychosexual stage where some psychic energy remains fixated … college freshman goes home for Thanksgiving, has mom wash clothes, fix favorite dinner, tuck him in at night, etc……
o 32. Reaction Formation: the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites. People may express feelings that are the opposite of their anxiety-arousing unconscious feelings.
o 33. Projection: people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others
o 34. Rationalization: offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions
o 35. Displacement: shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person.... when angry with your parents, you kick a hole in your bedroom door
NEO-FREUDIANS
36. Alfred Adler: importance of childhood social tension
37. Karen Horney: sought to balance Freud's masculine biases
38. Carl Jung: emphasizes collective unconscious … concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
ASSESSING THE UNCONSCIOUS
39. Projective Test: personality test, such as the Rorschach or T AT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
40. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
41. Rorschach Inkblot Test: most widely used projective test, uses a set of 10 inkblots designed by Hermann Rorschach to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots.
TRAIT PERSPECTIVE
Trait: characteristic pattern of behavior; a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
42. Personality Inventory: questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
Big Five Personality Factors
TRAIT DIMENSION DESCRIPTION
43. EMOTIONAL STABILITY
Calm versus anxious Secure versus insecure Self-satisfied versus self-pitying
44. EXTRAVERSION Sociable versus retiring Fun-loving versus sober Affectionate versus reserved
45. OPENNESS Imaginative versus practical Preference for variety versus
preference for routine Independent versus conforming
46. AGREEABLE Soft-hearted versus ruthless Trusting versus suspicious Helpful versus uncooperative
47. CONSCIENTIOUSNESS Organized versus disorganized Careful versus careless Disciplined versus impulsive
The most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests
o Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use)
o Now used for many other screening purposes
o 49. Empirically Derived Test: test developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups … similar to MMPI
EVALUATING THE TRAIT PERSPECTIVE
Situational influences on behavior are important to consider
People can fake 49.5 desirable responses on self-report measures of personality
Averaging behavior across situations seems to indicate that people do have distinct personality traits
HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
50. Carl Rogers (1902-1987): focused on growth and fulfillment of individuals
Requires three conditions:
51. Genuineness
52. Acceptance- unconditional positive regard: an attitude of total acceptance toward another person
53. Empathy
o Self- 54. Concept: all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question "Who am I"?"
o Self- 55. Esteem: one's feelings of high or low self-worth
o Self- 56. Serving Bias: a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
o 57. Individualism: giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
o 58. Collectivism: giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly.
Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism
EVALUATING THE HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE
Concepts like self-actualization are 68. vague
Emphasis on self may promote self-indulgence and lack of concern for others.
Theory does not address reality of human capacity for 69. evil
Theory has impacted popular ideas on child rearing, education, management, etc.
SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Reciprocal Determinism: 70. interacting influences between personality and environmental factors
Personal Control: 71. our sense of controlling our environments rather than feeling helpless
External Locus of Control: 72. perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determine one's fate
Internal Locus of Control: 73. the perception that one controls one's own fate
Learned Helplessness: 74. hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
EVALUATING THE SOCIAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
Built from research on learning and cognition
CONCEPT INDIVIDUALISM COLLECTIVISM
SELF 59. Independent
(identity from individual traits)
59. Interdependent
(identity from belongings)
LIFE TASK Discover and express one’s uniqueness
Maintain connections
WHAT MATTERS 60. Me, personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties
We, group goals and solidarity; social responsibilities and relationships
MORALITY Defined by individuals (self-based) Defined by 63. social networks (duty-based)
RELATIONSHIPS Many, often temporary or casual;
64. confrontation acceptable
Few, close and enduring;
65. harmony valued
ATTRIBUTING BEHAVIOR Behavior reflects 66. one’s personality and attitudes
Behavior reflects 67. social norm and roles
Fails to consider 75. unconscious motives and individual disposition Today, 76. cognitive-behavioral theory is perhaps predominant psychological approach to explaining human behavior
Psychoanalytical, : Three major systems of personality:
–Id (in unconscious): contains everything psychological that is inherited and psychic energy that powers all three systems. –Id is “Give me, I want,” irrational, self-‐centered. Guided by the pleasure principle.Ego(partly conscious, partly unconscious): mediates between instinctual needs and conditions of the environment to maintain our life and ensure species live on. –Guided by the reality principle.Superego:(Partly conscious, partly unconscious): composed of the conscience that punishes us by Making us feels guilty, and the ego-ideal that rewards us by making us feel proud of ourselves.
.
Type Theory.: ype A
The Type A personality generally lives at a higher stress level. This is driven by
They enjoy achievement of goals, with greater enjoyment in achieving of more difficult goals. They are thus constantly working hard to achieve these.
They find it difficult to stop, even when they have achieved goals. They feel the pressure of time, constantly working flat out. They are highly competitive and will, if necessary create competition. They hate failure and will work hard to avoid it. They are generally pretty fit and often well-educated (a result of their anxiety).
Type B
The Type B personality generally lives at a lower stress level and are typically:
They work steadily, enjoying achievements but not becoming stressed when they are not achieved.
When faced with competition, they do not mind losing and either enjoy the game or back down. They may be creative and enjoy exploring ideas and concepts. They are often reflective, thinking about the outer and inner worlds.
Unit:3
Perception:
Perception is process through which short-run changes are made in behavior in response to inputs from work environment. The process itself consists of two major actions – i)attention to incoming stimuli and ii) translation of such stimuli into a message that leadsto a meaningful behavioral response. Perception is form of behavior and, therefore,influenced by at least the following factors: i) characteristics of the object or source ofincoming stimuli (such as a supervisor issuing work request); ii) the situation orconditions under which the stimuli occur (such as timing of a message) and iii)characteristics of the perceiving person. The last category is extremely important indetermining the way incoming stimuli will be interpreted and subsequent response. Anindividual’s motives, previous learning and personality will influence perception.Managers must take such consideration into account in predicting the way their actionsand order will be perceived by others.
Nature & Importance : The Nature of Perception
A. Perception is a subjective, active, and creative processB. A mental process through which we interpret what we sense
1. The process of assigning meaning to sensory information2. The process by which we understand ourselves and others
C. Perceptions of others affect ways we communicate with them1. “I understand your feelings” is based on perception2. There is no way we can actually feel what another feels3. So to understand, we select, organize, and interpret cues
Five Stages in Perceptual Process:
Stage I: Observation Phase – It depicts the environmental stimuli being observedby the fives senses of the perceived
Stage II: Selection of the Stimuli: This is governed both by factors external to theperceived, such as the characteristics of the stimulus, and internal to the individual, suchas the personality disposition and motivations of the perceiver.Stage III: Organizing Stage – In this stage, the perceiver is influenced by figureand ground, grouping, and several perceptual errors such as stereotyping halo effects,projection and perceptual defense.Stage IV: Interpretation Stage: This stage is governed by the perceiver’sassumptions of people and events and attributions about causes of behavior and feelings.Stage V: Behavior Response: In this stage the response of the perceiver takes onboth covert and overt characteristics. Covert response will be reflected in the attitudes,motives, and feelings of the perceiver and overt responses will be reflected in the actionsof the individual.
Perceptual Errors:
i) Selective PerceptionIt is a tendency to observe people selectively and accordingly interpret based on theirinterest, background, experience and attitudes. For example, a production manager isalways likely to identify the need to strengthen the production system; the marketingmanager will focus only on the marketing research and sales promotions activities. Ingeneral, we tend to notice things which are similar to us. For instance, we are more likelyto notice the type of cars which are similar to ours. The simplest way of avoiding hasty orwrong decision being made due to selective perception is to seek other people’sperceptions of “reality” in the same situation in order to make a better assessment of thesituation.ii) ProjectionIt is a tendency to assign one’s own personal attributes to others. For instance, a managerwho is corrupt will tend to project that all others are also corrupt like him. Similarly, amanager who loves challenging work might project that all others like challenging work.Many times, this is not true, and the manager who tries to enrich all the jobs aschallenging might be leading to wrong motivational technique for other employees.When managers engage in projection, they compromise their ability to respond toindividual differences. They tend to see people as more homogeneous than they really are.Thus, managers should guard themselves against perceptual biases through projection.This watermark does not appear in the registered version - http://www.clicktoconvert.comiii) Stereotyping:It is a tendency to judge people based on the perception of the group to which he belongs.We tend to attribute favorable or unfavorable characteristics to the individual based onupon widely held generalization about the group. For instance, we perceive that Japanesein general are hard working, quality conscious and industrious, and based on that wegeneralize that all Japanese are like that, but in reality it may not be so. There are someJapanese who may not possess the above mentioned characteristics. Similarly we assumethat women in general are soft, kind, caring, affectionate, considerate, gentle, but thereare some women who may not possess these characteristics. Similarly, we may assumeolder people are traditional, conservative, and cranky, but not every elderly person fits
into this mould and hence we are likely to make errors of judgment. Sex-role stereotypesand age-stereotypes adversely affect recruitment, pay, job placement, and promotiondecisions. As a result of which, organizations frequently lose good employees.iv) Halo Effect:It is tendency to draw a general overall impression about an individual based on singlestriking characteristics. For instance, if a person speaks English fluently, we tend toassume that that person is very knowledgeable, intelligent, smart, clever etc. hardworking, smart etc. Similarly, if a man is abrasive, he may also be perceived as bad,awful, unkind, aggressive, harmful, deceitful and wicked. Halo effect, whether it ispositive or negative, will distort our perception and block us from actually perceiving thetrait that is being judged. This phenomenon frequently occurs when students appraisetheir university lecturer.v) Contrast Effect:It is tendency to evaluate a person’s characteristics by just comparing with other peoplewho happened to acquire higher or lower position on the same characteristics. Forinstance, while comparing the presentation of students, a good presentation made by onestudent just before you will probably make you feel that you won’t be as good as youprobably are. This contrast effect can distort our perception. In general, a person will beevaluated in isolation. But our reaction to one person is often influenced by other peopleor events in which we have recently encountered. In interview situation, a job applicant islikely to receive a more favorable evaluation if preceded by mediocre applicants and aless favorable evaluation if preceded by strong applicants.
6.2.2 Methods to overcome such biases in perceptionThe pitfalls listed above can be minimized by enhancing perceptual skills by consciouslyputting effort in the following activities:i) Knowing and perceiving oneself accuratelyii) Being empathiciii) Having positive attitudesiv) Enhancing one’s self-conceptv) Making a conscious effort to avoid the possible common biases in perceptionvi) Open communicationvii) Avoiding Attributions.This watermark does not appear in the registered version - http://www.clicktoconvert.comi) Knowing and Perceiving Oneself Accurately:One of the ways in judging others and situations more accurately are by knowing,perceiving and understanding ourselves accurately. The best way of achieving thisobjective is to obtain information on how others perceive us from as many sources aspossible – supervisors, peers, subordinates and other colleagues. By consciously puttingeffort in getting feedback from others as much as possible about yourself regarding all theactivities will help widen your open self. Similarly, by exposing yourself to othersregarding your opinions, suggestions, beliefs, values, attitudes life styles etc, others maybe able to understand you better and come forward to share their views more frequently.There are two critical things relevant to widening ones open self – i) soliciting feedbackfrom others and ii) exposing or disclosing yourself to others.ii) Being Empathic
Empathy means being able to see a situation as it is experienced by others. If a person isable to view the problems of his employees from the employees’ point of view instead oflooking things from his own perspective, he may be able to understand the real problemsexperienced by them very clearly. The truly effective manager will be able to rise abovehis or her own personal impressions and comprehend problems from others perspectives.This can occur only when the manager can be sensitive to the needs of others andperceive situations from their point of view as well before making final decisions.iii) Having Positive AttitudeThere is a high level of relationships among attitudes, perceptions, beliefs and values.Unless managers can take positive attitudes to whatever situations they find themselves inand see things from a positive angle, their perceptions are likely to be distorted. By beingaware of personal biases, and making a concerted effort to be as unbiased as possible,,manages can consciously try to get rid of any negative feelings they may have of others.This will help them to pout things in their proper perspectives and thus enhance theirperceptual skills.iv) Enhancing one’s Self-ConceptPositive evaluation of oneself by accomplishing a commendable performance orremarkable things will boost good self image. When people handle roles where they canexhibit and enhance their competence and be successful, they will develop a basic senseof self-esteem and have a positive self regard. When our self-concept is enhanced and wehave acquired a positive self-regard, we are apt to respect others more and perceive themmore accurately.v) Avoiding Common Biases in PerceptionBy checking and cross checking the events and spending adequate time and resources tomonitor the various things around, one can consciously raise the overall level ofawareness and this will help considerably minimize our perceptual biases. Self correctionand self renewal process must be continuous within oneself as we interact with situationon a daily basis and based on that one must change and adapt to the current situationsThis watermark does not appear in the registered version - http://www.clicktoconvert.comvi) Open CommunicationEven though mangers may watch out for their own perceptual errors, it is a fact thatemployees at the workplace act in accordance with their own perceptions. Effectivemangers not only have to remember that employees tend to misperceive situations butthey should also be able to effectively communicate to employees the happenings in thework setting such that any misperceptions are dispelled.vii) Avoiding AttributionsInappropriate attributions are frequently made by all of us when we try to make sense ofwhat is happening in our environment. Due to this, our judgment will be wrong and willend up with poor results. By observing keenly certain behavioral principles as laid downin attributions model, people can sharpen their judgment to check whether the causes ofparticular behavioral act is due to personality or situational factors. Based on this, one canenhance their perceptual skills.
Learning: Learning is an important psychological process that-determines human behavior. Learning can be defined
as “relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience or reinforced practice". There are four important points in the definition of learning:
1. Learning involves a change in behavior, though this change is not necessarily an improvement
habits, prejudices, stereotypes, and work restrictions are also learned. 2. The, behavioral change must be relatively permanent. Any temporary change in behavior is not a
part of learning. 3. The behavioral change must be based oh some form of practice or experience. 4. The practice or experience must be reinforced in order so as to facilitate learning to occur.
Nature and Factors affecting Learning
Theories: Classical Conditioning:The work of the famous Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov demonstrated the classical conditioning process. When Pavlov presented a piece of meat to the dog in the experiment, Pavlov noticed a great deal of salivation. He termed the food an unconditioned stimulus and the salivation an unconditioned response. When the dog saw the meat, it salivated. On the other hand, when Pavlov merely rang a bell, the dog did not salivate. Pavlov subsequently introduced the sound of a bell each time the meat was given to the dog. The dog eventually learned to salivate in response to the ringing of the-bell-even when there was no meat. Pavlov had conditioned the dog to respond to a learned stimulus. Thorndike called this the "law of exercise" which states that behavior can be learned by repetitive association between a stimulus and a response. Classical conditioning has a limited value in the study of organizational behavior. As pointed out by Skinner, classical conditioning represents an insignificant part of total human learning. Classical conditioning is passive. Something happens and we react in a specific or particular fashion. It is elicited in response to a specific, identifiable event. As such it explains simple and reflexive behaviors. But behavior of people in organizations is emitted rather than elicited, and it is voluntary rather than reflexive. The learning of these complex behaviors can be explained or better understood by looking at operant conditioning.
Operant Conditioning
An operant is defined as a behavior that produces effects. Operant conditioning, basically a product ofSkinnerian psychology, suggests that individuals emit responses that are either not rewarded or arepunished. Operant conditioning is a voluntary behavior and it is determined, maintained and controlled byits consequences. Operant conditioning is a powerful tool for managing people in organizations. Most behaviors in organizations are learned, controlled and altered by the consequences; i.e. operant behaviors. Management can use the operant condi¬tioning process successfully to control and influence the behavior of employees by manipulating its reward system. Reinforcement is anything that both increases the strength of response and tends to induce repetitions of the behavior. Four types of reinforcement strategies can be employed by managers to influence the behavior of the employees, viz., positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, extinction and punishment.
Cognitive :
Here the primary emphasis is on knowing how events and objects are related to each other. Most of thelearning that takes place in the classroom is cognitive learning. Cognitive learning is important because itincreases the change that the learner will do the right thing first, without going through a lengthy operant conditioning process.
Learning Theory: The relevance of the learning theories for explaining and predicting of organizational behavior is marginal. This does not mean that learning theories are totally irrelevant. Learning concepts provide a basis for changing behaviors that are unacceptable and maintaining those behaviors that are acceptable. When individuals engage in various types of dysfunctional behavior such as late for work, disobeying orders, poor performance, and the manager will attempt to educate more functional behaviors.
Learning theory can also provide certain guidelines for conditioning organizational behavior. Managers know that individuals capable of giving superior performance must be given more reinforces thanThose with average or low performance. Managers can successfully use the operant conditioning process to control and influence the behavior of employees; by manipulating its reward system.
Social Learning Theory : Social learning approach is a behavioural approach. The approach basically deals withlearning process based on direct observation and the experience. It is achieved whileinteracting with individuals. In social learning people observe, alter and even constructa particular environment to fit in the social behavioural pattern. Individuals learn a greatdeal from watching attractive models and they copy their behaviour and display the same.. Social learning is practiced in organizations by observing various cultural,and social practices. This phenomenon is distinctly visible in defence services where cadets opt for a particular regiment based on the performance of their instructors (role model). Inindustrial organizations leader must display a role model so that subordinates copy thestyle of functioning. An appropriate behaviour can be predicted that would contributetowards achieving higher individual satisfaction level and organizational goals. Theinfluence of model is central to the theory of Social Learning. The following processes determine the extent of influence that a model may have.
Attention Process:It is human tendency to get attracted to impressive models especially those, which suits the individual’s temperament and match expectations. This causes social learning.Retention Process
Learning is basically adapting to a change on permanent basis. Models retention willdepend upon the attractiveness of the model. Advertising agencies therefore projectattractive models in promotion to their product or services. The advertisement retentionaspect is at the core of the concept of the theory that the buyer must be able to retainmaximum of what has been projected in the advertisement. Evaluation of such retention(learning) is measured by pre- test and post-test (advertising experiments). This willmeasure the effectiveness of learning through observation of a particular model.
Motor Reproduction Process
Motor reproduction deals with evaluating the impact of the model on individual. Doesindividual display the same behaviour as is displayed by the model? If the learning were
effective then the learner would be able to display a desired (reproduction) pattern ofbehaviour.
Re-inforcement Process
Individuals will be able to display positive behaviour or even attitude if a particular activityis rewarded by way of positive incentives. An accountant would be able to maintain accountscorrectly and produce a balance sheet when needed if he is encouraged, his work isappreciated or he is given monetary or non-monetary incentives. Re-inforcement is beingpracticed by various organizations to achieve a patterned behaviour free of conflictsituations.
Positive Reinforcement theory :
Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the presentation of a desirable consequence(reward). In other words, a positive reinforce is a reward that follows behavior and is capable of increasingthe frequency of that behavior. There are two typos of positive: reinforces: primary and secondary. Primaryreinforcers such as food, water and sex are of biological importance and have effects, which arcindependent of past experiences. For instance, a primary reinforcer like food satisfies hunger need andreinforced food-producing behavior. Secondary reinforcers like job advancement, recognition, praise andesteem result from previous association with a primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers must be learned. Inorder to apply reinforcement procedures successfully, management must select reinforcers that aresufficiently powerful and durable.
Negative Reinforcement
The threat of punishment is known as negative reinforcement. Negative reinforcers also serve to strengthendesired behavior responses leading to their removal or termination. Positive ReinforcementPositive reinforcement strengthens and increases behavior by the presentation of a desirable consequence(reward). In other words, a positive reinforce is a reward that follows behavior and is capable of increasingthe frequency of that behavior. There are two typos of positive: reinforces: primary and secondary. Primary reinforcers such as food, water and sex are of biological importance and have effects, which are independent of past experiences. For instance, a primary reinforcer like food satisfies hunger need and reinforced food-producing behavior. Secondary reinforcers like job advancement, recognition, praise and esteem result from previous association with a primary reinforcer. Primary reinforcers must be learned. In order to apply reinforcement procedures successfully, management must select reinforcers that are sufficiently powerful and durable.
.
Behavior Modification: APPLICATION OF LEARNING AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR
MODIFICATION
Some of the behaviour modification techniques are given below which may be used in the
organization
1. Use of Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism:Attractive prizes can be included in lottery that can be used gainfully to achieve reductionin absenteeism. It has been found that there was no absentee in an organization with the above scheme because management decided that only those individuals could participatein the lottery that has no absenteeism. This has led to individuals attending work regularlyand brought about behaviour modification. Absenteeism reduced to a large extent and workers displayed a sense of responsibility that led to increased productivity and higher job satisfaction.
2. Work pay Vr sick pay:Organizations have leave policy. Apart from other leave, there is a provision for few daysof sick leave in a year. It has been noticed that most of the employees avail sick leave withimpunity whether they are sick or otherwise and therefore organization cannot avail oftheir services. But if sick leave can be converted in to payment of bonus up to a certainextent, the employees would choose to avail of financial benefits and would not absentthemselves under the pretext of being sick. This will improve satisfaction level of employeesand would not hamper productivity.
3. Training and Development
Training and development programmes must be run systematically and in a preplannedmanner. The author had asked employees in an organization as to what are the expectationsof workers from owners of any organization? I was glad to hear that the employeesexpected two things. First, they should be so trained in their profession that they are ableto take up next/ higher job position and the second, employees expect that all theirentitlements be paid on time. This is biggest contribution an organization can make to theemployees. The training and development programmes must be very effective. Sociallearning theory must be applied and a role model displayed during training. Apart fromimparting job related training, it must also enrich value system, adapt a way of life, newlife concept and develop a total ethics based approach to life. If this were achieved, allorganizations would have conflict free behaviour. Employees would develop a sense ofbelonging to the organization. Japanese precisely developed this and followed sociallearning concept. The efficiency of training and development will depend upon the skill of the trainer, the organization culture that management would like to practice and the level of commitment.
4. Mentoring Programmers5. Discipline
Behavior modification can be achieved by laying down minimum standard of discipline inthe organization. Defense organizations are most disciplined organizations because theydo not compromise on the standards, be it related to training, work, supervision, accountingor disbursement of salary and wages etc. The leader should set an example for hissubordinates. In organization be it production intensive or service sector, managers shouldinsist that all his subordinates strictly follow the timing of work, dress code, display courteous behaviour when interacting with others and accomplish their assigned task ontime. Defaulters should be dwelt with strictly. Any lethargy in programme implementationwill not bring behaviour modification. Manager must work in the same environment as
the workers, eat the same food and wear the same dress and should display alertness andphysical toughness. They should be able to work effectively under stress and strain and ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR should not show any signs of tiredness to their subordinates. It is combination of leadership
qualities and role played by the managers that will establish high standards of disciplineamongst all employees of the organization.
5. Self-Management
Learning concepts are meant for modifying the behaviour of others. These theories arealso applicable for self-management. Individuals should lay down personal standards,objectives relating to personal growth, identify various courses of action to adopt andmodify self-attitude and behaviour. Individuals should be able to compromise on self-interests for overall good of the organization. Regulating various activities and achievementof personal as well as organizational goals would be easier in an environment of self-managed organizations.
MID-TERM EXAMINATION
Unit 4:Motivation: Concept,
Nature and Importance. Individual Motivation Theories: Alderfer’s ERG Theory,
McClelland’s Achievement Motivation Theory,
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory,
Porter & Lawler’s Model
Organizational Motivation,
Concept,
Group Motivation Theories – Adam’s Equity Theory,
Goal theory:Unit 5:Attitude: Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral,
Cognitive Dissonance Theory,
Job Satisfaction:
Factors and outcomes affecting Job Satisfaction,
Unit 6:
Organizational Power and politics:
concept,
basis of power,
power tactics,
Factors contributing to organizational political ,
Organizational change: Importance,
types of change,
the change process,
Resistance to change,
Managing change.
* Provision for presentations / assignments / case analysis in additional sessions
Robbins, S.P. (2009). Organizational Behavior. New Delhi: Pearson Education.
Newstorm, J. & David, K. (2007). Organizational Behavior, Human Behavior at Work.
New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Publication.
Greenberg, J. & Baron, R.A. (2005). Behavior in Organizations. New Delhi: Pearson
Singh, K. (2010). Organizational Behavior: Text and Cases. New Delhi: Pearson
Luthans, F. (2005). Organizational Behavior. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill Publication
The IUP Journal of Organizational Behavior- IUP Publications, Hyderabad
Abhigyan: Quest for Excellence; The Quest for Excellence- Foundation for
