mers , Kuiper found himself simultaneously filling several roles: active scientist leader in solar system astronomy, administrator of a major astronomical observa- tory, and interpreter of Soviet scientific research to his government patrons. Often these roles clashed: Kuiper s evaluations , far from reflecting an idealistic view of science , were based on political considerations as well as the need to maintain a competitive edge for his institution. The conflict between these roles was characteristic of American science in the 1950s , and it is a central theme of this essay. smallest of the physical sciences in the United States , with under three hundred active researchers , although it was already experiencing unprecedented growth when Sputnik' s ascent into orbit intensified Cold War rivalries and released a flood of new funding for science. As abundant new federal support supplanted private funds , further significant changes occurred in the practice and adminis- tration of centers of American astronomy. Observatory directors were increas- ingly pressured to serve as entrepreneurs as well as administrators , keenly aware that obtaining new patronage and instruments was a key strategy in the height- ened competition for faculty and graduate students. They no longer expected , as could observatory directors appointed in the early twentieth century, that they held lifelong tenure in their jobs. An episode that serves to bring these competitive practices into focus occurred in November 1958, when Nikolai A. Kozyrev , an astrophysicist at the Pulkovo Observatory in Leningrad , announced that he had obtained spectroscopic proof of active lunar volcanism. The claim astonished American lunar scientists , most of whom believed that the Moon had died geologically bilions of years before. It also worried offcials of the newly formed National Aeronautics and Space Ad- ministration (NASA), already promoting lunar exploration as the arena where Americans could win the emerging race for technological superiority with the So- viet Union. It forced many observatory directors to decide whether to invest val- uable telescope time in the hope of confirming the observation. In this case the problem of evaluating scientific results , a matter always involving personal and social as well as intellectual influences , was enormously complicated by Cold War tensions. The way in which this controversy was resolved holds important impli- cations for the sociology of science, illustrating the significance of phenomeno- logical constraints. I. LUNAR STUDIES . Center for History of Physics , American Institute of Physics , 335 East 45th Street , New York , New York 10017. I would like to thank David DeVorkin , Katharine Doel , Loren R. Graham , Michael Neufeld , Joseph Tatarewicz , Spencer R. Weart and especially John Lankford"for advice and criticism. I Richard Berendzen and Mary Treinen Moslen Manpower and Employment in American Astron- omy, fl Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1972 , 198:46- 65; David H. DeVorkin Back to the Future: The Response of Astronomers to the Prospect of Government Funding for Research in the Decade Following World War II fl in Science and the Federal Patron, ed, David van Keuren and Nathan Reingold (forthcoming) (I thank DeVorkin for providing an advance copy); and Allan A. Needell The Carnegie Institution of Washington and Radio Astronomy: Prelude to an American Na- tional Observatory, fl Journal for the History of Astronomy, 1991 , 22:55- 67. Interest in the Moon rose among military planners in the mid and late 1950s. But not until the dramatic launch of Sputnik I on 4 October 1957 , with its painful po- litical repercussions , did reaching the Moon become a clear target of American of- ficials. In late 1957 and early 1958 various agencies and aerospace corporations that were heavily invested in rocket technology, including the Jet Propulsion Lab- oratory (JPL) in Pasadena , California , began submitting proposals for sending rockets to the Moon. Initially members of President Dwight D. Eisenhower s cab- inet and his most influential science advisors , including those in the President's Science Advisory Committee , opposed such plans , feeling that lunar probes were gimmicks rather than thoughtful responses to the Soviet challenge. Rising popu- lar hysteria over the Sputnik launchings and the perception of U. S. vulnerability and underachievement soon softened such opposition. On 27 March 1958 Neil McElroy, the American secretary of defense , expressed the Eisenhower admini- stration s determination not only to explore Earth from orbit , but also " to deter- mine our capability of exploring space in the vicinity of the Moon , to obtain useful data concerning the Moon , and provide a close look at the Moon. 2 For background on the political and social dimensions of the American space program and its fore- runners , see Walter McDougall the Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age (New York: Basic Books , 1985), pp. 141- 194; Clayton R. Koppes JPL and the American Space Pro- gram: A History of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press , 1982), pp. 62- 133; and Joseph N. Tatarewicz Space Technology and Planetary Astronomy (Bloomington: Indiana Univ. Press , 1990). 3 Daniel J. Kevles The Physicists (New York: Vintage , (979), pp. 386- 387; Craig B. Waff A His- tory of the Deep Space Network fl draft (1990), Ch. I , p. I (I thank Wafffor providing a draft copy); and Koppes JPL and the American Space Program (cit. n. 2). OSIRIS , 2nd series , 1992, 7 : 238- 264 238
Transcript
EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A23
9
By
Ron
ald
E. D
oer
In th
is e
ssay
I e
xam
ine
the
effo
rts
of G
erar
d Pe
ter
Kui
per
(190
5-1973), director
of th
e Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
obse
rvat
orie
s of
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
go, t
o ev
alua
teK
ozyr
evs
clai
ms
of d
isco
very
bet
wee
n 19
58 a
nd 1
961.
The
ava
ilabl
e ar
chiv
also
urce
s lim
it m
y tr
eatm
ent t
o A
mer
ican
per
cept
ions
of
the
Koz
yrev
con
trov
ersy
,bu
t thi
s as
pect
of
the
epis
ode
mak
es a
n ex
celle
nt c
ase
stud
y in
inte
rnat
iona
l rel
a-tio
ns in
sci
ence
dur
ing
the
Col
d W
ar, a
them
e th
at h
as r
ecei
ved
little
atte
ntio
nfr
om h
isto
rian
s. S
ovie
t sci
ence
hel
d an
intr
insi
c fa
scin
atio
n fo
r A
mer
ican
re-
sear
cher
s at
this
tim
e, in
par
t bec
ause
com
mun
icat
ions
bet
wee
n th
ese
lead
ing
na-
tions of science were ex
trem
ely
limite
d, in part because interpreting Soviet
adva
nces
and
set
back
s ac
cura
tely
had
bot
h sc
ient
ific
and
str
ateg
ic v
alue
. Lik
e a
wel
l-pl
aced
mir
ror,
the
Koz
yrev
con
trov
ersy
rev
eals
pro
blem
s th
at A
mer
ican
sci
-en
tists
had
with
mai
ntai
ning
inte
rnat
iona
l sci
ence
dur
ing
the
Col
d W
ar.
In h
is e
ffor
ts to
eva
luat
e K
ozyr
evs
clai
m a
nd th
e w
ork
of o
ther
Sov
iet a
stro
no-
mer
s, K
uipe
r fo
und
him
self
sim
ulta
neou
sly
fillin
g several roles: active scientist
lead
er in
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y, a
dmin
istr
ator
of
a m
ajor
ast
rono
mic
al o
bser
va-
tory
, and
inte
rpre
ter
of S
ovie
t sci
entif
ic r
esea
rch
to h
is g
over
nmen
t pat
rons
.O
ften
thes
e ro
les
clas
hed:
Kui
per
s ev
alua
tions
, far
fro
m r
efle
ctin
g an
idea
listic
view of science, w
ere
base
d on
pol
itica
l con
side
ratio
ns a
s w
ell a
s th
e ne
ed to
mai
ntai
n a
com
petit
ive
edge
for
his
inst
itutio
n. T
he c
onfl
ict b
etw
een
thes
e ro
les
was
cha
ract
eris
tic o
f A
mer
ican
sci
ence
in th
e 19
50s,
and
it is
a c
entr
al th
eme
ofthis essay.
Eva
luat
ing
Sovi
et L
unar
Sci
ence
inC
old
War
Am
eric
a
HE
LA
UN
CH
OF
SPU
TN
IK in
Oct
ober
195
7 m
arke
d a
pivo
tal m
omen
t in
the
grow
th o
f A
mer
ican
ast
rono
my.
In
the
mid
195
0s a
stro
nom
y w
as th
esm
alle
st o
f th
e ph
ysic
al s
cien
ces
in th
e U
nite
d St
ates
, with
und
er th
ree
hund
red
active researchers, a
lthou
gh it
was
alr
eady
exp
erie
ncin
g un
prec
eden
ted
grow
thw
hen
Spu
tnik
's a
scen
t int
o or
bit i
nten
sifi
ed C
old
War
riv
alri
es a
nd r
elea
sed
afl
ood
of n
ew f
undi
ng f
or s
cien
ce. A
s ab
unda
nt n
ew f
eder
al s
uppo
rt s
uppl
ante
dpr
ivat
e fu
nds,
fur
ther
sig
nifi
cant
cha
nges
occ
urre
d in
the
prac
tice
and
adm
inis
-tr
atio
n of
cen
ters
of
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
y. O
bser
vato
ry d
irec
tors
wer
e in
crea
s-in
gly
pres
sure
d to
ser
ve a
s en
trep
rene
urs
as w
ell a
s ad
min
istr
ator
s, k
eenl
y aw
are
that
obt
aini
ng n
ew p
atro
nage
and
inst
rum
ents
was
a k
ey strategy in the height-
ened
com
petit
ion
for
facu
lty a
nd g
radu
ate
stud
ents
. The
y no
long
er e
xpec
ted
, as
coul
d ob
serv
ator
y di
rect
ors
appo
inte
d in
the
early
twen
tieth
cen
tury
, tha
t the
yhe
ld li
felo
ng te
nure
in th
eir
jobs
.A
n ep
isod
e th
at s
erve
s to
bri
ng th
ese
com
petit
ive
prac
tices
into
foc
us o
ccur
red
in N
ovem
ber
1958
, whe
n N
ikol
ai A
. Koz
yrev
, an
astr
ophy
sici
st a
t the
Pul
kovo
Obs
erva
tory
in L
enin
grad
, ann
ounc
ed th
at h
e ha
d ob
tain
ed s
pect
rosc
opic
pro
ofof
act
ive
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
. The
cla
im a
ston
ishe
d A
mer
ican
luna
r sc
ient
ists
, mos
t
of w
hom
bel
ieve
d th
at th
e M
oon
had
died
geo
logi
cally
bili
ons
of y
ears
bef
ore.
It
also
wor
ried
off
cial
s of
the
new
ly f
orm
ed N
atio
nal A
eron
autic
s an
d Sp
ace
Ad-
min
istr
atio
n (N
ASA
), a
lrea
dy p
rom
otin
g lu
nar
expl
orat
ion
as th
e ar
ena
whe
reA
mer
ican
s co
uld
win
the
emer
ging
rac
e fo
r te
chno
logi
cal s
uper
iori
ty w
ith th
e So
-vi
et U
nion
. It f
orce
d m
any
obse
rvat
ory
dire
ctor
s to
dec
ide
whe
ther
to in
vest
val
-ua
ble
tele
scop
e tim
e in
the
hope
of
conf
irm
ing
the
obse
rvat
ion.
In
this
cas
e th
epr
oble
m o
f ev
alua
ting
scie
ntif
ic r
esul
ts, a
mat
ter
alw
ays
invo
lvin
g pe
rson
al a
ndso
cial
as
wel
l as
inte
llect
ual i
nflu
ence
s, w
as e
norm
ousl
y co
mpl
icat
ed b
y C
old
War
tens
ions
. The
way
in w
hich
this
con
trov
ersy
was
res
olve
d ho
lds
impo
rtan
t im
pli-
catio
ns fo
r th
e so
ciol
ogy
of s
cien
ce, i
llust
ratin
g th
e si
gnifi
canc
e of
phe
nom
eno-
logi
cal c
onst
rain
ts.
I. L
UN
AR
ST
UD
IES
. Cen
ter
for
His
tory
of
Phys
ics,
Am
eric
an I
nstit
ute
of P
hysi
cs, 3
35 E
ast 4
5th
Stre
et, N
ew Y
ork
, New
Yor
k 10
017.
I wou
ld li
ke to
than
k D
avid
DeV
orki
n, K
atha
rine
Doe
l, L
oren
R. G
raha
m, M
icha
el N
eufe
ld, J
osep
h
Tat
arew
icz,
Spe
ncer
R. W
eart
and
esp
ecia
lly J
ohn
Lan
kfor
d"fo
r ad
vice
and
cri
ticis
m.
I R
icha
rd B
eren
dzen
and
Mar
y T
rein
en M
osle
n
, "
Man
pow
er a
nd E
mpl
oym
ent i
n A
mer
ican
Ast
ron-
omy,
fl Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
1972
, 198
:46-
65; D
avid
H. D
eVor
kin
, "
Bac
k to
the
Futu
re: T
he R
espo
nse
of A
stro
nom
ers
to th
e Pr
ospe
ct o
f G
over
nmen
t Fun
ding
for
Res
earc
h in
the
Dec
ade
Follo
win
g W
orld
War
II
fl in
Science and the Federal Patron,
ed, D
avid
van
Keu
ren
and
Nat
han
Rei
ngol
d (f
orth
com
ing)
(I
than
k D
eVor
kin
for
prov
idin
g an
adv
ance
cop
y); a
nd A
llan
A.
Nee
dell
, "
The
Car
negi
e In
stitu
tion
of W
ashi
ngto
n an
d R
adio
Ast
rono
my:
Pre
lude
to a
n A
mer
ican
Na-
tiona
l Obs
erva
tory
,fl Journal for the History of Astronomy,
1991
, 22:
55-6
7.
Inte
rest
in th
e M
oon
rose
am
ong
mili
tary
pla
nner
s in
the
mid
and
late
195
0s.
But
not u
ntil
the
dram
atic
laun
ch o
f Sp
utni
k I
on 4
Oct
ober
195
7, w
ith it
s pa
infu
l po-
litic
al r
eper
cuss
ions
, did
rea
chin
g th
e M
oon
beco
me
a cl
ear
targ
et o
f A
mer
ican
of-
fici
als.
In
late
195
7 an
d ea
rly
1958
var
ious
age
ncie
s an
d ae
rosp
ace
corp
orat
ions
that
wer
e he
avily
inve
sted
in r
ocke
t tec
hnol
ogy,
incl
udin
g th
e Je
t Pro
puls
ion
Lab-
orat
ory
(JPL
) in
Pas
aden
a, C
alifo
rnia
, beg
an s
ubm
ittin
g pr
opos
als
for
send
ing
rock
ets
to th
e M
oon.
Ini
tially
mem
bers
of
Pres
iden
t Dw
ight
D. E
isen
how
ers
cab-
inet
and
his
mos
t inf
luen
tial s
cien
ce a
dvis
ors,
incl
udin
g th
ose
in th
e Pr
esid
ent's
Scie
nce
Adv
isor
y C
omm
ittee
, opp
osed
suc
h pl
ans
, fee
ling
that
luna
r pr
obes
wer
egi
mm
icks
rat
her
than
thou
ghtf
ul r
espo
nses
to th
e So
viet
cha
lleng
e. R
isin
g po
pu-
lar
hyst
eria
ove
r th
e Sp
utni
k la
unch
ings
and
the
perc
eptio
n of
U.S
. vul
nera
bilit
yan
d un
dera
chie
vem
ent s
oon
soft
ened
suc
h op
posi
tion.
On
27 M
arch
195
8 N
eil
McE
lroy
, the
Am
eric
an s
ecre
tary
of
defe
nse,
exp
ress
ed th
e E
isen
how
er a
dmin
i-st
ratio
ns
dete
rmin
atio
n no
t onl
y to
exp
lore
Ear
th f
rom
orb
it, b
ut a
lso
"to
dete
r-m
ine
our
capa
bilit
y of
exp
lori
ng s
pace
in th
e vi
cini
ty o
f th
e M
oon
, to
obta
inus
eful
dat
a co
ncer
ning
the
Moo
n, a
nd p
rovi
de a
clo
se lo
ok a
t the
Moo
n.
2 F
or b
ackg
roun
d on
the
polit
ical
and
soc
ial d
imen
sion
s of
the
Am
eric
an s
pace
pro
gram
and
its
fore
-
runn
ers,
see
Wal
ter
McD
ouga
ll
, -..
the
Hea
vens
and
the
Ear
th: A
Pol
itica
l His
tory
of
the
Spac
e A
ge(N
ew Y
ork:
Bas
ic B
ooks
, 198
5), p
p. 1
41-1
94; C
layt
on R
. Kop
pes
JPL
and
the
Am
eric
an S
pace
Pro
-gram: A History of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory
(New
Hav
en: Y
ale
Uni
v. P
ress
, 198
2), p
p. 6
2-13
3;and Joseph N. Tatarewicz
Space Technology and Planetary Astronomy
(Blo
omin
gton
: Ind
iana
Uni
v.Pr
ess,
199
0).
3 D
anie
l J. K
evle
sThe Physicists (
New
Yor
k: V
inta
ge, (
979)
, pp.
386
-387
; Cra
ig B
. Waf
f, "
A H
is-
tory
of
the
Dee
p Sp
ace
Net
wor
kfl
draf
t (19
90),
Ch.
I, p
. I (
I th
ank
Waf
ffor
pro
vidi
ng a
dra
ft c
opy)
;an
d K
oppe
sJPL and the American Space Program
(cit.
n. 2
).
OSI
RIS
, 2nd
ser
ies,
199
2, 7
: 23
8-26
423
8
240
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
241
The
dec
isio
n to
exp
lore
the
Moo
n m
eant
that
vir
tual
ly a
ll av
aila
ble
data
abo
utth
at b
ody
s m
otio
n, s
urfa
ce, a
nd e
nvir
onm
ent b
ecam
e a
mat
ter
of s
igni
fica
nce
for
spac
ecra
ft de
sign
ers.
Sci
entis
ts a
nd e
ngin
eers
at J
PL
, for
exa
mpl
e, n
eede
d to
know
whe
ther
the
Moo
n re
tain
ed e
ven
a tin
y re
sidu
al a
tmos
pher
e, a
pos
sibi
lity
not e
ntir
ely
rule
d ou
t in
stud
ies
by A
mer
ican
and
Fre
nch
astr
onom
ers
in th
e m
id1940s. Even an extremely tenuous lunar atmosphere could cause an appreciable
drag
on
the
mov
emen
t of
artif
icia
l sat
ellit
es th
roug
h th
e m
ediu
m, a
s in
vest
iga-
tions
of E
arth
's fi
rst a
rtifi
cial
sat
ellit
es h
ad s
how
n. F
ew a
stro
nom
ers
belie
ved
that
a lu
nar
atm
osph
ere
of th
is k
ind
wou
ld b
e fo
und.
Thu
s ph
otog
raph
s sh
owin
g w
hat
som
e as
tron
omer
s in
terp
rete
d as
haz
es c
over
ing
the
floo
rs o
f lu
nar
crat
ers,
and
Koz
yrev
s la
te 1
958
anno
unce
men
t of
volc
anic
out
gass
ing,
aro
used
con
side
rabl
ein
tere
st a
nd c
onst
erna
tion
amon
g JP
L s
cien
tists
.V
ario
us a
genc
ies
bega
n fu
ndin
g w
ork
in lu
nar
and
plan
etar
y sc
ienc
e lib
eral
ly.
Som
e gr
ants
wen
t to
a sm
all b
ut g
row
ing
num
ber
of A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s w
ithin
tere
sts
in s
olar
sys
tem
phe
nom
ena.
Whi
le o
ther
fac
ilitie
s sp
ecia
lized
in r
esea
rch
on m
eteo
rs o
r pl
anet
ary
atm
osph
eres
, lun
ar s
tudi
es w
ere
a m
ain
focu
s of
res
earc
hat
the
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d ob
serv
ator
ies
of th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Chi
cago
, aft
er 1
957
under the direction of Gerard P. Kuiper.
Kui
per
was
not
the
first
ast
rono
mer
at Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
to tu
rn to
sol
ar s
ys-
tem
ast
rono
my,
but
he
was
with
out a
dou
bt th
e m
ost i
nflu
entia
l. B
orn
in H
olla
ndK
uipe
r st
udie
d as
tron
omy
at th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Lei
den
in th
e la
te 1
920s
und
erEjnar Hertzsprung, Jan Woltjer, a
nd W
illem
de
Sitte
r. W
ith a
Ph.
D. t
hesi
s in
hand
on
the
stru
ctur
e of
bin
ary
star
s, a
fir
m c
omm
and
of E
nglis
h, a
nd e
xtra
ordi
-na
ry s
tam
ina
for
obse
rvat
iona
l wor
k, K
uipe
r tr
avel
ed to
the
Lic
k O
bser
vato
ry in
Cal
ifor
nia
in 1
933.
Fin
ding
per
man
ent a
ppoi
ntm
ent t
here
blo
cked
by
rese
ntm
ent
agai
nst f
orei
gner
s, K
uipe
r m
oved
to a
pos
ition
at H
arva
rd U
nive
rsity
in 1
935
be-
fore
acc
eptin
g an
invi
tatio
n to
join
the
staf
f of
the
new
McD
onal
d O
bser
vato
ry,
loca
ted
in T
exas
. Lik
e m
ost m
embe
rs o
f th
ese
join
tly a
dmin
iste
red
obse
rvat
orie
sK
uipe
r m
ade
his
hom
e in
Will
iam
s B
ay, W
isco
nsin
(w
here
the
Yer
kes
Obs
erva
-to
ry is
loca
ted)
, com
mut
ing
once
or
twic
e a
year
to T
exas
for
his
sch
edul
ed ti
me
on th
e M
cDon
ald
tele
scop
e.
Vir
tual
ly a
ll of
Kui
per
s re
sear
ch b
etw
een
1933
and
194
5 de
alt w
ith s
tella
r ph
e-no
men
a. H
e fi
rst m
oved
tow
ards
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y, a
n ea
rlie
r in
tere
st b
uton
e di
ffcu
lt to
pur
sue,
in 1
944
, whe
n he
dis
cove
red
that
Tita
n, a
larg
e sa
telli
te o
fSa
turn
, pos
sess
es a
met
hane
-ric
h at
mos
pher
e. T
his
was
a s
urpr
isin
g di
scov
ery,
lade
n w
ith w
hat m
any
scie
ntis
ts r
egar
ded
as im
port
ant i
mpl
icat
ions
for
cos
mog
-on
y. F
or a
sho
rt ti
me
the
disc
over
y pu
t him
in a
qua
ndar
y: T
itan
s at
mos
pher
epo
sed
enou
gh q
uest
ions
to s
ugge
st a
ric
h lin
e of
res
earc
h in
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
n-om
y, b
ut p
ursu
ing
them
wou
ld r
equi
re h
im to
aba
ndon
oth
er p
rom
isin
g av
enue
sof
ste
llar
astr
onom
y in
whi
ch h
e w
as d
eepl
y in
vest
ed. T
he d
ilem
ma
was
res
olve
d
whe
n he
was
off
ered
Nav
y fu
nds
in 1
946
to m
ake
infr
ared
stu
dies
of
the
atm
os-
pher
es o
f E
arth
and
oth
er p
lane
ts, u
sing
inst
rum
enta
l adv
ance
s de
velo
ped
duri
ngW
orld
War
II.
Kui
per
chos
e th
e ou
tsid
e fu
nds.
The
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d ob
serv
ato-
ries
had
com
e th
roug
h th
e w
ar w
eake
ned
, par
ticul
arly
in c
ontr
ast t
o ph
ysic
s at
Chi
cago
, who
se s
tatu
re a
nd f
inan
cial
sec
urity
wer
e en
hanc
ed b
y pa
rtic
ipat
ion
inth
e M
anha
ttan
Proj
ect.
Otto
Str
uve ,
Kui
pers superior at Yerkes, h
ad w
orrie
dth
roug
hout
the
war
that
lack
of
fund
s or
res
earc
hers
mig
ht f
orce
the
obse
rvat
orie
sto
clo
se, w
ithou
t suf
fcie
nt w
ar-r
elat
ed s
uppo
rt. S
imila
r fe
ars
still
gui
ded
rem
arks
he m
ade
in 1
947.
Dec
larin
g th
at th
e G
erm
an V
- 2 r
ocke
t , in
frar
ed d
etec
tor
cells
mic
row
ave
and
radi
o de
tect
ors
, and
adv
ance
s in
ele
ctro
nics
pro
mis
ed to
rev
olu-
tioni
ze A
mer
ican
ast
rono
my,
he
adde
d a
cave
at: "
It is
cle
ar th
at w
e m
ust r
eorie
ntou
rsel
ves
to ta
ke a
ccou
nt o
f th
ese
chan
ges.
A n
ew p
lan
mus
t be
devi
sed
and
a ne
wpo
licy
mus
t be
adop
ted
if th
e Y
erke
s O
bser
vato
ry is
to r
etai
n its
pla
ce a
mon
g th
ele
adin
g re
sear
ch c
ente
rs o
f th
e U
nite
d St
ates
."7
Fort
unat
ely
for
Kui
per ,
sola
r sy
s-te
m r
esea
rch
fit t
he b
ill.
Kui
per
dem
onst
rate
d bo
th a
kee
n un
ders
tand
ing
of p
hysi
cal p
robl
ems
rela
ted
to s
olar
sys
tem
res
earc
h an
d st
rong
ent
repr
eneu
rial
ski
ls in
sec
urin
g fe
dera
l pa-
tron
age
for
this
wor
k. B
etw
een
1946
and
194
8, w
ith th
e st
rong
sup
port
of S
truv
eK
uipe
r bu
ilt a
pro
mis
ing
prog
ram
for
the
stud
y of
pla
neta
ry a
tmos
pher
es a
t the
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d fa
cilit
ies
, inv
olvi
ng n
early
a q
uart
er o
f the
sta
ff pa
rt-
or fu
ll-time. This program collapsed in 1948
, lar
gely
bec
ause
the
infr
ared
spe
ctro
met
erK
uipe
r ha
d de
sign
ed h
ad li
mite
d se
nsiti
vity
, and
bec
ause
Ger
hard
Her
zber
g, a
tale
nted
Ger
man
-bor
n sp
ectr
osco
pist
who
m S
truv
e ha
d hi
red
to r
evita
lize
the
Yer
kes
spec
tros
copi
c la
bora
tory
, res
igne
d. (
Her
zber
g ha
d id
entif
ied
man
y of
the
atm
osph
eric
abs
orpt
ion
lines
that
Kui
pers instrument detected.) Afterwards
Kui
per
turn
ed h
is a
ttent
ion
to s
olid
bod
ies
in th
e so
lar
syst
em. W
ith f
unds
fro
mth
e O
ffce
of
Nav
al R
esea
rch
, the
Air
For
ce, a
nd th
e N
atio
nal S
cien
ce F
ound
a-tio
n, h
e la
unch
ed a
maj
or s
tudy
of
aste
roid
s an
d be
gan
editi
ng a
n in
tern
atio
nally
auth
ored
com
pend
ium
of
sola
r sy
stem
res
earc
h. H
e al
so s
tart
ed tr
aini
ng g
radu
ate
stud
ents
in th
e fie
ld.
Thi
s re
sear
ch o
n as
tero
ids
led
Kui
per
to h
is in
tere
st in
the
Moo
n. A
maj
or q
ues-
tion
that
con
fron
ted
both
ast
rono
mer
s an
d ge
oche
mis
ts in
the
1950
s w
as d
eter
-m
inin
g th
e ab
solu
te a
bund
ance
s of
the
elem
ents
, sin
ce m
any
scie
ntis
ts th
ough
tth
at th
e co
ncen
trat
ion
of r
adio
activ
e po
tass
ium
, ura
nium
, and
thor
ium
wou
ld in
-di
cate
whe
ther
suf
fcie
nt h
eat e
xist
ed w
ithin
pla
neta
ry in
teri
ors
to c
ause
cor
e fo
r-m
atio
n an
d gl
obal
mel
ting.
The
Moo
n, E
arth
' s n
eare
st c
eles
tial n
eigh
bor,
was
seen
as
a te
st c
ase
for
this
idea
. Aft
er in
vest
igat
ing
the
luna
r su
rfac
e th
orou
ghly
with
the
larg
e 82
-inc
h te
lesc
ope
at M
cDon
ald
, Kui
per
anno
unce
d in
195
4 th
at it
show
ed e
vide
nce
of s
uch
mel
ting.
His
fin
ding
s dr
ew f
ire
from
Har
old
C. U
rey,
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
go c
hem
ist a
nd N
obel
laur
eate
, who
had
turn
ed h
is a
ttent
ion
4 E
. P. M
art t
o G
. P. K
uipe
r, 12
Nov
. 196
0, a
nd K
uipe
r to
Mar
tz, 2
3 N
ov. 1
960
, bot
h B
ox 1
8Gerard P. Kuiper papers, U
nive
rsity
of
Ari
zona
Lib
rary
, Tuc
son
(her
eaft
er K
uipe
r pa
pers
); a
ndD
insm
ore
Alte
r, "
Sci
entif
ic A
spec
ts o
f the
Lun
ar S
urfa
cePr
ocee
ding
s oJ
the
Lun
ar a
nd P
lane
tary
Ex-
ploration Colloquium,
1958
1(1)
:3-1
0., H
enry
Nor
rs R
usse
ll to
Ann
in O
. Leu
schn
er, 2
5 F
eb. 1
935
, Box
28
, Dep
artm
ent o
f Ast
rono
my
re-
cord
s, B
ancr
oft L
ibra
ry, B
erke
ley;
and
Dal
e P.
Cru
iksh
ank
, "
Ger
ard
Pete
r K
uipe
r, 19
05-1
973"
(dr
aft
for
Biographical Memoirs oJthe National Academy oJSciences,
1992
62; I
than
k C
ruik
shan
k fo
r pr
o-viding an advance copy).
, Cru
iksh
ank, "
Kui
per"
(ci
t. no
. 5);
Ron
ald
E. D
oel
Inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y R
esea
rch
and
Sola
r Sy
stem
As-
tron
omy,
192
0-19
60
(New
Yor
k: C
ambr
idge
Uni
v. P
ress
, for
thco
min
g); a
nd K
uipe
r to
Sub
ram
anya
nC
hand
rase
khar, 16 Jan. 1941
, Box
28
, and
Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
r, "
Mem
oran
dum
to D
ean
Bar
tky
in r
eN
avy
Con
trac
ts" 20 June 1946
, Box
29
, bot
h in
Kui
per
pape
rs.
7 O
tto S
truv
e, "
The Story of an Observatory," Popular Astronomy,
1947
55:2
83-2
94, o
n p.
291
; and
Dav
id H
. DeV
orki
n
, "
The
Mai
nten
ance
ofa
Sci
entif
ic In
stitu
tion:
Otto
Str
uve
, the
Yer
kes
Obs
erva
-to
ry, a
nd It
s O
ptic
al B
urea
u du
ring
the
Sec
ond
Wor
ld W
arM
iner
va19
80, 1
8:59
5-62
3.. D
oel
Solar System Astronomy
(cit.
n. 6
); a
nd "
Gen
eral
Con
trac
t Inf
onna
tion
" B
ox 3
3, K
uipe
rpa
pers
.
242
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
243
to p
lane
tary
evo
lutio
n in
195
0. T
heir
dis
pute
wid
ened
into
a r
ift t
hat w
as n
ever
agai
n br
idge
d. K
uipe
r ha
d ho
ped
that
Ure
y w
ould
lead
col
labo
rativ
e, i
nter
disc
i-pl
inar
y w
ork
invo
lvin
g pl
anet
ary
geoc
hem
istr
y; th
eir
brea
k, i
nvol
ving
pro
fes-
sion
al a
s w
ell a
s m
etho
dolo
gica
l and
dis
cipl
inar
y is
sues
, ins
tead
esc
alat
ed to
one
of th
e m
ost p
ainf
ul a
nd s
igni
fican
t con
trov
ersi
es in
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
y in
the
mid
- tw
entie
th c
entu
ry. K
uipe
r em
erge
d fr
om th
e di
sput
e m
ore
conv
ince
d th
anever that astronomical, rather than geochemical, e
vide
nce
was
par
amou
nt in
solv
ing
the
ridd
le o
f th
e so
lar
syst
ems
orig
in, a
nd th
at th
e lu
nar
surf
ace
was
a k
eypi
ece
to it
s so
lutio
n.A
n eq
ually
sig
nifi
cant
fac
tor
in K
uipe
rs
inte
rest
in th
e M
oon
was
the
pros
pect
of g
reat
ly in
crea
sed
patr
onag
e fo
r lu
nar
rese
arch
. As
dire
ctor
of
one
of th
e na
-tio
ns
larg
est o
bser
vato
ries
, Kui
per
saw
him
self
in a
str
ong
posi
tion
to h
elp
dire
ctsu
ch p
rogr
ams
and
to o
btai
n fu
nds
need
ed to
mai
ntai
n th
e co
mpe
titiv
e st
andi
ngof
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d. A
lthou
gh n
ot a
s in
volv
ed in
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Geo
phys
ical
Yea
r (I
GY
) as
ast
rono
mer
s en
gage
d in
upp
er a
tmos
pher
ic r
esea
rch
or s
olar
phy
s-ic
s , h
e w
as w
ell a
war
e be
fore
the
laun
ch o
f Sp
utni
k th
at g
over
nmen
t and
mili
tary
plan
s w
ere
conv
ergi
ng o
n th
e M
oon.
In
1955
he
had
pers
uade
d m
embe
rs o
f th
epl
anet
ary
com
mis
sion
of
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
to e
ndor
se h
ispr
opos
al to
dev
elop
a p
hoto
grap
hic
luna
r at
las ,
exp
lain
ing
that
suc
h an
atla
sw
ould
ben
efit
futu
re s
pace
act
iviti
es a
nd lu
nar
astr
onom
y. I
n hi
s le
tters
to o
ther
astr
onom
ers
Kui
per
dem
onst
rate
d a
keen
app
reci
atio
n th
at a
stro
nom
y w
ould
burg
eon
once
pla
nned
sat
ellit
es w
ere
laun
ched
dur
ing
the
IGY
. Whe
n Sp
utni
k I
bega
n ci
rclin
g th
e E
arth
in O
ctob
er 1
957
, he
seem
ed le
ss s
urpr
ised
than
man
y of
his
colle
ague
s th
at th
e pu
blic
and
the
gove
rnm
ent c
lam
ored
for
spa
ce r
esea
rch
and
plan
etar
y ex
plor
atio
n.K
uipe
r sa
w tw
o pa
rtic
ular
adv
anta
ges
in b
ring
ing
larg
e gr
ants
for
sol
ar s
yste
mas
tron
omy
to Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald.
The
82-
inch
tele
scop
e of
McD
onal
d ha
d be
enth
e se
cond
larg
est a
stro
nom
ical
inst
rum
ent i
n th
e U
nite
d St
ates
aft
er W
orld
War
but t
he c
ompl
etio
n of
the
200-
inch
Pal
omar
tele
scop
e , o
pera
ted
by th
e C
alif
or-
nia
Inst
itute
of T
echn
olog
y, a
nd s
ever
al o
ther
maj
or u
nive
rsity
inst
rum
ents
had
eroded Chicago
s in
stru
men
tal e
dge.
Kui
per
pres
sed
this
poi
nt in
com
mun
ica-
tions
to U
nive
rsity
of C
hica
go o
ffci
als.
War
ning
that
"a
revo
lutio
nary
pac
e is
sweeping astronomy,
" he
arg
ued
that
"w
ithou
t con
stan
t add
ition
s of
maj
or a
ndex
pens
ive
equi
pmen
t , a
stro
nom
ers
get b
ehin
d so
fas
t and
so
far
as to
bec
ome
rap-
idly
obs
olet
e an
d in
effe
ctiv
e. .
. . (
TJh
ey a
re w
atch
ing
eage
rly
and
som
etim
es a
nx-
ious
ly f
or b
reak
thro
ughs
or
maj
or p
rogr
ess
at r
ival
inst
itutio
ns."
Kui
per
also
rais
ed th
e sp
ecte
r of
inte
rnat
iona
l com
petit
ion.
The
"present race
" he
dec
lare
dw
as a
ccel
erat
ed b
y th
e ne
ed to
mak
e pr
ogre
ss "
vis
a vi
s th
e U
SS
R."
II I
ncre
asin
gly
he lo
oked
to s
uch
patr
ons
as th
e N
atio
nal S
cien
ce F
ound
atio
n an
d th
e A
ir F
orce
Cam
brid
ge R
esea
rch
Cen
ter
to p
rovi
de n
ew, s
peci
aliz
ed te
lesc
opes
for
the
Chi
-ca
go a
stro
nom
ers.
He
also
rec
ogni
zed
that
man
y of
his
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d co
l-
Figu
re
1.
Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
rat the 40-in
ch r
efra
ctin
gtelescope of Yerkes Observa-
tory
, Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
goci
rca
1955
. Courtesy of
Stephen Lewellyn and the
Uni
vers
ity o
f Ariz
ona
Library Special
Col
lect
ions
.
9 D
oelSolar SyslemAslronomy.
On
Ure
ys
luna
r re
sear
ch s
ee, e
., S
teph
en B
rush
, "
Nic
kel f
or Y
our
Tho
ught
s: U
rey
and
the
Orig
in o
f the
Moo
nSc
ienc
e19
8821
7:89
1-89
8.10
"Pr
ojec
t: A
tlas
of th
e M
oon,
" 22
Oct
. 195
6 , B
ox 1
4; K
uipe
r to
E. C
. Abe
rnda
non
, 20
Feb
. 195
6B
ox 1
0; a
nd K
uipe
r to
Ger
ard
Van
Dor
en, 3
Oct
. 195
7, B
ox 1
4; a
ll in
Kui
per
pape
rs.
II K
uipe
r to
Law
renc
e K
impt
on, I
Nov
. 195
9; a
nd K
uipe
r to
R. W
ende
ll (P
atJ
Har
riso
n, 1
6 A
pril
1960; both Box 18
ibid
,
leag
ues
wer
e pr
inci
pally
inte
rest
ed in
ste
llar
and
gala
ctic
ast
rono
my
and
rese
nted
the
incr
easi
ng d
evot
ion
of s
hop
faci
litie
s an
d te
lesc
ope
time
to s
olar
sys
tem
re-
sear
ch. L
arge
gra
nts-
and
the
poss
ibili
ty, n
ever
rea
lized
, of b
uild
ing
a di
stin
ct in
-st
itute
of
plan
etar
y st
udie
s w
ithin
the
obse
rvat
ory-
wer
e th
e to
ols
Kui
per
soug
htto
kee
p hi
s fi
eld
both
com
petit
ive
with
in th
e di
scip
line
and
secu
re w
ithin
the
con-
fine
s of
his
ow
n in
stitu
tion.
Sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my
flou
rish
ed a
t Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d un
der
Kui
per
s le
ader
-sh
ip in
the
late
195
0s. A
n in
fusi
on o
f new
NS
F a
nd A
ir F
orce
fund
s (f
ive
times
the
amou
nt r
ecei
ved
befo
re th
e la
unch
of
Sput
nik)
mad
e po
ssib
le in
tens
ifie
d Ju
nar-
map
ping
stu
dies
, and
Kui
per
recr
uite
d to
Yerkes a core group of cartograp
ers
and geodicists-an unprecedented in
terd
isci
plin
ary
arra
ngem
ent a
t Am
enca
nob
serv
ator
ies-
to s
uper
vise
the
wor
k. T
he Y
erke
s gr
oup
bega
n w
orki
ng o
n lu
nar
map
s on
a s
cale
of I
: I ,
000
000
, em
ploy
ed th
e Y
erke
s 40
-inc
h re
frac
tor
to d
eter
-m
ine
the
Moo
ns
mom
ents
of
iner
tia, a
nd la
unch
ed s
yste
mat
ic a
ttem
pts
to in
ter-
pret
the
orig
ins
of lu
nar
surf
ace
feat
ures
. Kui
per
pers
uade
d L
awre
nce
Kim
pton
chan
cello
r of
the
Uni
vers
ity o
f C
hica
go, t
o fo
rmal
ize
the
hybr
id m
arri
age
of a
s-tr
onom
y an
d ge
olog
y by
aw
ardi
ng jo
int P
h.s
from
thes
e de
part
men
ts. (
Geo
-ch
emis
try,
bec
ause
of
his
rupt
ure
with
Ure
y, w
as o
ut.)
Des
pite
his
wor
ry th
at th
eY
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
prog
ram
s w
ere
built
on
the
shif
ting
sand
s of
tem
pora
ry r
e-
12 K
uipe
r, "
Pro
posa
l (to
NS
FI f
or a
'Cen
ter'
or '
Inst
itute
' of
Plan
etar
y an
d L
unar
Stu
dies
" July
1958
, Box
13
ibid
.
244
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
245
sear
ch c
ontr
acts
rat
her
than
on
endo
wed
fun
ds, K
uipe
r re
aliz
ed th
at h
is r
esea
rch
ambi
tions
wer
e cl
osel
y lin
ked
with
the
new
, em
ergi
ng f
eder
al a
nd m
ilita
ry p
atro
nsof
the
field
.E
ach
of K
uipe
rs
prog
ram
s pr
omis
ed to
pro
vide
gov
ernm
ent a
nd m
ilita
ry a
gen-
cies
cri
tical
info
rmat
ion
need
ed to
dev
elop
spa
cecr
aft e
xped
ition
s. Y
et K
uipe
rqu
ickl
y ca
me
to u
nder
stan
d th
at th
e go
vern
men
t lun
ar e
ffor
t, d
rive
n by
pol
itica
lex
igen
cies
and
the
desi
re to
sco
re tr
ium
phs
agai
nst t
he S
ovie
ts in
the
shor
test
pos
-si
ble
time,
req
uire
d kn
owle
dgea
ble
scie
ntis
ts to
rev
iew
and
coo
rdin
ate
wor
k at
Am
eric
an in
stitu
tions
as
muc
h as
it d
id h
ard
data
. Spa
ce r
esea
rch
, inc
ludi
nglunar science, w
as f
ar la
rger
than
the
capa
city
of
any
sing
le in
stitu
tion
to p
rovi
deit.
By
the
late
195
0s th
e pr
ospe
ct o
f ob
tain
ing
larg
e gr
ants
insp
ired
ast
rono
mer
sat many academic centers-
Har
vard
, Cal
tech
, and
Joh
ns H
opki
ns U
nive
rsity
among them-
to ta
ilor
exis
ting
rese
arch
pro
gram
s in
way
s to
gai
n gr
ants
fro
mN
ASA
and
fro
m th
e A
ir F
orce
. Whi
le m
any
ofth
ese
prop
osal
s w
ere
solid
ly d
evel
-op
ed, a
few
wer
e ev
iden
tly d
esig
ned
to p
ry lo
ose
fund
ing
from
gen
erou
s re
view
panels. 14
Aw
are
that
man
y le
ader
s of
the
emer
ging
U.S
. spa
ce p
rogr
am w
ere
engi
neer
s by
trai
ning
or
scie
ntis
ts tr
aine
d in
fie
lds
othe
r th
an a
stro
nom
y, K
uipe
r so
ught
tose
rve
as a
n ad
viso
r on
ast
rono
mic
al r
esea
rch
in s
uppo
rt o
f ro
cket
-bas
ed lu
nar
missions. For him such advice giving was a golden op
port
unity
to p
rom
ote
his
sci-
entif
ic r
esea
rch.
It w
ould
als
o he
lp a
llay
his
anxi
etie
s ab
out m
aint
aini
ng p
rofe
s-si
onal
sta
ndar
ds in
this
bro
adly
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y, r
apid
ly e
xpan
ding
fiel
d.
Incr
easi
ngly
Kui
per
com
plai
ned
that
the
sudd
en f
lood
of
fund
s fo
r so
lar
syst
emre
sear
ch m
ade
the
fiel
d a
"hap
py h
untin
g gr
ound
" fo
r re
sear
cher
s di
ssat
isfi
edwith their own areas of work.
Des
pite
his
eag
erne
ss to
rec
ruit
new
con
trac
ts, K
uipe
r di
d no
t wav
e th
e fl
ag o
fA
mer
ican
-Sov
iet c
ompe
titio
n in
sol
ar s
yste
m r
esea
rch
mor
e th
an h
is c
olle
ague
s.H
e di
sagr
eed
with
Don
ald
E. M
enze
l, d
irec
tor
of th
e H
arva
rd C
olle
ge O
bser
va-
tory
, who
dec
lare
d to
pat
rons
that
mor
e as
tron
omer
s w
ere
enga
ged
in lu
nar
and
plan
etar
y st
udie
s in
the
Sovi
et U
nion
than
any
oth
er c
ount
ry, i
ncluding the
Uni
ted
Stat
es; K
uipe
r pu
t the
ir r
anks
at a
bout
equ
al. N
ever
thel
ess
he d
id f
eel t
hat
Sovi
et r
esea
rche
rs h
ad m
ade
larg
e st
ride
s in
the
fiel
d. H
e w
ishe
d to
eva
luat
e th
eir
rese
arch
res
ults
in o
rder
to g
uide
his
ow
n in
vest
igat
ions
.It
was
in th
is c
onte
xt th
at K
uipe
r fi
rst l
earn
ed o
f th
e co
ntro
vers
ial c
laim
by
Koz
yrev
, one
of
near
ly 1
25 a
stro
nom
ers
empl
oyed
at t
he P
ulko
vo O
bser
vato
ry in
Len
ingr
ad, t
hat h
e ha
d ob
tain
ed s
pect
rogr
aphi
c ev
iden
ce f
or a
n ac
tive
volc
ano
onth
e M
oon.
Kui
per
belie
ved
that
the
find
ing,
if a
ccur
ate,
wou
ld h
ave
sign
ific
ant
impl
icat
ions
for
the
desi
gn a
nd c
onst
ruct
ion
oflu
nar
spac
ecra
ft, a
nd r
equi
re n
ew
kind
s of
sys
tem
atic
luna
r ob
serv
atio
ns. I
t wou
ld a
lso
serv
e as
a w
indo
w in
to a
fiel
d of
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
y th
at h
ad in
tens
e in
tere
st to
sci
entis
ts a
s w
ell a
s to
na-
tiona
l pol
icym
aker
s. K
uipe
r w
ell u
nder
stoo
d th
e co
mpe
titiv
e va
lue
of k
now
ing
whe
ther
to c
once
ntra
te r
esou
rces
on
this
que
stio
n in
the
hope
of
mak
ing
furt
her
impo
rtan
t dis
cove
ries
, or to steer clear of an unfruitful path. Evaluating
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
bec
ame
one
of K
uipe
rs
maj
or g
oals
.
II. E
VA
LU
AT
ING
TH
E E
VID
EN
CE
: EM
ER
GIN
G C
ON
TR
OV
ER
SY
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
that
the
Moo
n w
as v
olca
nica
lly a
ctiv
e to
ok m
any
Am
eric
an a
s-tr
onom
ers
by s
urpr
ise.
By
the
late
195
0s m
ost'A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s ha
d co
me
to a
ccep
t tha
t mos
t lun
ar c
rate
rs a
nd th
e fa
r la
rger
luna
r "s
eas"
res
ulte
d fr
om im
-
pact
s by
met
eori
tes
at h
igh
velo
city
, aba
ndon
ing
the
idea
that
they
wer
e ca
used
by
larg
e vo
lcan
ic e
xplo
sion
s, w
hich
had
bee
n th
e le
adin
g vi
ew a
mon
g A
mer
ican
as-
tron
omer
s in
the
earl
y tw
entie
th c
entu
ry. T
his
shif
t in
cons
ensu
s ca
n la
rgel
y tr
aced
to th
e pu
blic
atio
n by
the
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
er R
alph
B. B
aldw
in in
194
9of
The Face of the Moon.
In th
is w
ork
Bal
dwin
gav
e a
pain
stak
ing
anal
ysis
of
the
dept
h-ve
rsus
-dia
met
er m
easu
rem
ents
of c
rate
rs p
rodu
ced
by b
omb
shel
ls d
urin
gW
orld
War
II,
then
ext
rapo
late
d th
e cu
rve
to la
rge-
scal
e fe
atur
es th
e si
ze o
flun
arcr
ater
s.l?
A fe
w W
este
rn a
stro
nom
ers
(join
ed b
y m
any
geol
ogis
ts)
reje
cted
this
in-
terp
reta
tion
, arg
uing
that
mor
phol
ogic
al s
imila
ritie
s be
twee
n vo
lcan
ic c
alde
ras
and lunar craters suggested that the lunar su
rfac
e w
as m
olde
d pr
inci
pally
by
volc
anis
m. M
any
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers
also
rej
ecte
d B
aldw
ins
argu
men
ts. A
t the
Len
ingr
ad U
nive
rsity
the
Sovi
et s
choo
l led
by
the
astr
onom
ers
V. V
. Sha
rono
v
and
N. N
. Syt
insk
aya
argu
ed th
at n
onra
ndom
dis
trib
utio
n of
cra
ters
was
con
trar
yto
the
impa
ct h
ypot
hesi
s, a
nd th
at p
olar
izat
ion
mea
sure
men
ts o
f th
e M
oon
s su
r-
face
str
ongl
y in
dica
ted
lava
flow
s. T
his
diffe
renc
e in
opi
nion
was
wel
l kno
wn
toA
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s. E
ven
so, v
irtu
ally
all
luna
r sc
ient
ists
had
agr
eed
that
the
luna
r la
ndsc
ape
was
anc
ient
; eve
n ad
voca
tes
of th
e vo
lcan
ic th
eory
had
not
pre
-di
cted
con
tem
pora
ry e
rupt
ions
. W
hat a
lso
surp
rised
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
(alth
ough
the
nove
lty o
f fin
ding
the
new
s th
ere
was
rap
idly
fad
ing)
was
that
fir
st r
epor
ts o
f K
ozyr
evs
disc
over
y ap
-
pear
ed in
the
popu
lar
pres
s ra
ther
than
in e
stab
lishe
d sc
ient
ific
jour
nals
. The
firs
tne
ws
of K
ozyr
evs
repo
rted
dis
cove
ry w
as m
oved
out
on
the
wire
s of
the
Sov
iet
new
s ag
ency
TA
SS o
n 12
Nov
embe
r 19
58; i
t was
sub
sequ
ently
car
ried
in s
ever
alAmerican newspapers, including the
New York Times,
whi
ch f
eatu
red
it on
pag
e
one.
Ini
tial d
etai
ls w
ere
sket
chy.
The
TA
SS
rep
ort n
oted
onl
y th
at K
ozyr
ev, w
hile
obse
rvin
g at
the
Cri
mea
n A
stro
phys
ical
Obs
erva
tory
on
the
nigh
t of
3 N
ovem
ber
had
foun
d th
e sp
ectr
ogra
phic
sig
natu
re o
f vo
lcan
ic a
ctiv
ity w
ithin
the
luna
r cr
a-te
r A
lpho
nsus
, a c
ircu
lar
depr
essi
on a
bout
six
ty m
iles
in d
iam
eter
nea
r th
e ce
nter
of th
e M
oon
s vi
sibl
e di
sk. K
ozyr
ev w
as q
uote
d as
dec
lari
ng th
at h
is d
isco
very
re-
13 K
uipe
r, "
Prop
osal
" (c
it. n
. 12)
; and
Kui
per
to J
an O
ort, I July 1958, Box 13
ibid
.14
Kui
per
to A
. R. H
ibbs
, 21
Nov
. 196
0; a
nd K
uipe
r, "
Rev
iew
of
JPL
Tec
hnic
al M
emo
33-
" I
Mar. 1961; both Box 18
ibid
.IS
Kui
per
to H
ibbs
, 21
Nov
. 196
0, p
. 2; a
nd K
uipe
r to
Ale
ksan
dr M
ikha
ilov
24 A
pr. 1
960
Box
II
ibid
.16
Don
ald
E. M
enze
l and
Ger
ard
de V
auco
uleu
rs to
E. R
. Dye
r, Jr
., 2
Dec
. 195
9, p
. 2, B
ox 3
2, P
aper
s
of th
e D
irec
tor,
Har
vard
Col
lege
Obs
erva
tory
, Har
vard
Uni
vers
ity A
rchi
ves
(her
eaft
er H
CO
dir
ecor
pape
rs);
and
Kui
per
to C
entr
al In
telli
genc
e A
genc
y, 1
0 A
pril
1959
, Box
33
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
17 F
red
L. W
hipp
le to
Ral
ph B
. Bal
dwin
, I S
ept.
1949
, Box
I, F
red
L. W
hipp
le C
olle
ctio
n, H
arva
rd
Uni
vers
ity A
rchi
ves;
Don
ald
E. M
enze
l to
Zde
nek
Kop
al, I
I A
pril
1960
, Box 41
, HC
O d
irec
tor
s pa
-
pers
; and
Ral
ph B
. Bal
dwin
, int
ervi
ew b
y R
onal
d D
oel,
25 O
ct. 1
989
, pp.
34-
, Nie
ls B
ohr
Lib
rary
,
Am
eric
an I
nstit
ute
of P
hysi
cs, N
ew Y
ork
(her
eaft
er A
lP).
IS O
Uo
Str
uve
to H
arol
d C
. Ure
y, 7
Jan
. 195
3, B
ox 8
7, H
arol
d C
. Ure
y pa
pers
, Cen
tral
Uni
vers
ityL
ibra
ry, M
ande
vile
Dep
artm
ent o
f Sp
ecia
l Col
lect
ions
, Uni
vers
ity o
f C
alif
orni
a at
San
Die
go (
here
-
afte
r U
rey
pape
rs).
For
Am
eric
an r
esea
rch
invo
lvin
g im
pact
cra
ters
see
Wili
am G
rave
s H
oyt
Coo
n
Mountain Controversies: Meteor Crater and the Development of Impact Theory
(Tuc
son:
Uni
v. A
ri-
zona
Pre
ss, 1
987)
; and
Kat
hlee
n M
ark
Meteorite Craters
(Tuc
son:
Uni
v. A
rizo
na P
ress
, 198
7). F
or
Sovi
et v
iew
s se
e A
. V. M
arko
v, e
d.The Moon: A Russian View
(Chi
cago
: Uni
v. C
hica
go P
ress
, 196
2).
246
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
247
fute
d th
e id
ea th
at th
e M
oon
was
"a
dead
cel
estia
l bod
y."
The
rep
ort a
lso
quot
edA
leks
andr
A. M
ikha
ilov ,
dire
ctor
of t
he P
ulko
vo O
bser
vato
ry a
nd w
ell k
now
n by
repu
tatio
n to
man
y A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s , to
the
effe
ct th
at K
ozyr
evs
obse
rva-
tion
was
of
grea
t im
port
ance
in s
how
ing
that
the
impa
ct th
eory
was
"en
tirel
y er
ro-
neou
s"
and
that
vol
cani
sm r
emai
ned
an a
ctiv
e ge
olog
ic p
roce
ss o
n th
e M
oon.
Dir
ect c
omm
unic
atio
ns b
etw
een
Am
eric
an a
nd S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s w
ere
con-
stra
ined
by
the
Col
d W
ar, n
ot to
men
tion
lingu
istic
bar
rier
s an
d ve
ry r
ealli
mita
-tions on mail and telephone calls-bo
th d
irec
t reg
ulat
ions
and
the
less
ove
rt f
ear
of g
over
nmen
tal n
otic
e. A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s th
us tr
ied
to g
auge
the
subs
tanc
ean
d si
gnif
ican
ce o
f th
e re
port
muc
h as
they
had
new
s of
the
laun
ch o
f Sp
utni
k I
one
year
ear
lier ,
thro
ugh
info
rmal
con
tact
s w
ith o
ne a
noth
er. T
he f
irst
sub
stan
tial
deta
ils c
ame
from
a C
zech
oslo
vaki
an a
stro
nom
er th
en w
orki
ng in
Man
ches
ter
Eng
land
: Zde
nek
Kop
al. K
opal
suc
ceed
ed in
pla
cing
a lo
ng- d
ista
nce
tele
phon
ecall to Mikhailov. Reporting on the conversation in the British journal
New
Sci
en-
list,
Kop
al w
rote
that
Koz
yrev
, usi
ng th
e C
rim
ean
50-i
nch
tele
scop
e, h
ad s
potte
da
redd
ish
glow
in A
lpho
nsus
whi
le m
akin
g sp
ectr
ogra
phic
stu
dies
of t
he M
oon
and
had
imm
edia
tely
beg
un a
new
pla
te, t
hen
expo
sed
a th
ird
plat
e on
ce th
e vi
s-ua
l act
ivity
sub
side
d. T
he s
econ
d pl
ate
appe
ared
to s
how
inte
nse
emis
sion
s at
737 angstroms
, cha
ract
eris
tic o
f th
e Sw
an b
ands
of
mol
ecul
ar c
arbo
n, a
t the
poin
t whe
re th
e sl
it of
the
spec
trog
raph
had
inte
rsec
ted
the
crat
ers
cent
ral p
eak.
With
in tw
o m
onth
s ad
ditio
nal d
etai
ls w
ere
pres
ente
d in
an
artic
le K
ozyr
ev s
ub-
mitted to
Sky
and
Tel
esco
pe,
a se
mi p
opul
ar m
agaz
ine
wid
ely
read
by
Am
eric
anas
tron
omer
s.A
lthou
gh m
ost A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s be
lieve
d th
e im
pact
theo
ry o
flun
ar c
ra-
ters
to b
e co
rrec
t , a
num
ber
of th
em th
ough
t tha
t con
tem
pora
ry v
olca
nic
erup
-tio
ns w
ere
poss
ible
. By
earl
y 19
59 s
ever
al A
mer
ican
and
Eur
opea
n re
sear
cher
sin
clud
ing
Kop
al, v
oice
d su
ppor
t for
Koz
yrev
s ev
iden
ce a
nd in
terp
reta
tion.
Ure
ys
new
mod
el o
f th
e lu
nar
inte
rior
, whi
ch p
ostu
late
d in
hom
ogen
eous
com
po-
sitio
n of
the
luna
r in
teri
or a
s th
e m
ost p
rom
isin
g m
eans
of
expl
aini
ng th
e M
oon
eart
h-facing bulge, c
ould
acc
omm
odat
e lo
cal v
olca
nic
erup
tions
, and
Ure
ypo
inte
d to
Koz
yrev
s ob
serv
atio
n as
impo
rtan
t evi
denc
e fo
r hi
s th
eory
in a
195
9pa
per.
Din
smor
e A
lter ,
dire
ctor
of
the
Gri
ffth
Obs
erva
tory
and
Pla
neta
rium
inL
os A
ngel
es, w
ho h
ad in
itiat
ed lu
nar
surf
ace
stud
ies
in th
e ea
rly
1950
s , a
lso
sup-
port
ed K
ozyr
evs
inte
rpre
tatio
n an
d w
ante
d to
use
the
larg
e te
lesc
opes
at M
ount
Wils
on, w
here
he
enjo
yed
gues
t obs
erve
r pr
ivile
ges
, to
sear
ch f
or a
dditi
onal
in-
stan
ces.
Oth
er a
stro
nom
ers
cons
ider
ed la
unch
ing
sim
ilar
prog
ram
s. A
lthou
ghm
any
wis
hed
to e
valu
ate
a fu
ll-le
ngth
jour
nal p
ublic
atio
n de
scri
bing
the
disc
ov-
ery
(Koz
yrev
s ar
ticle
incl
uded
a p
hoto
grap
h co
py o
f the
pla
te b
ut fe
w te
chni
cal
deta
ils),
ther
e w
as g
ener
al a
war
enes
s th
at th
e in
tens
e co
mpe
titio
n of the space
race
bro
ught
gre
at p
ress
ures
on
rese
arch
ers
to a
nnou
nce
prel
imin
ary
resu
lts
whi
le a
ful
l rep
ort m
ight
be
dela
yed
for
mon
ths,
pos
sibl
y fo
r re
ason
s of
nat
iona
lad vantage. 22
Kui
per
perc
eive
d K
ozyr
evs
anno
unce
d di
scov
ery
as a
mat
ter
of c
onsi
dera
ble
prof
essi
onal
impo
rtan
ce, w
ith c
lear
impl
icat
ions
for
his
luna
r re
sear
ch p
rogr
ams
at Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald.
Unl
ike
Ure
y an
d A
lter,
Kui
per
soon
took
a d
im v
iew
of t
heac
cura
cy o
f th
e ev
iden
ce th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad p
rovi
ded.
Kui
per
s im
pres
sion
s w
ere
part
ly s
hape
d by
his
com
mitm
ent t
o th
e m
olte
n-m
oon
hypo
thes
is h
e ha
d de
vel-
oped
in th
e m
id 1
950s
, whi
ch a
rgue
d th
at th
e M
oon
had
beco
me
mol
ten
thro
ugh
radi
oact
ive
heat
ing
earl
y in
its
hist
ory
and
then
rap
idly
coo
led
, mak
ing
inst
ance
sof
con
tem
pora
ry a
ctiv
e vo
lcan
ism
mos
t unl
ikel
y. B
ut h
e al
so d
istr
uste
d ph
oto-
grap
hic
obse
rvat
ions
that
Alte
r ha
d m
ade
of th
e M
oon
at d
iffe
rent
wav
elen
gths
,w
hich
Alte
r be
lieve
d sh
owed
the
exis
tenc
e of
luna
r ha
zes.
To
Kui
per,
Alte
rpl
ates
indi
cate
d no
mor
e th
an c
hang
ed c
ondi
tions
in E
arth
's a
tmos
pher
e du
ring
thei
r ex
posu
re. P
artic
ular
ly ir
rita
ting
to K
uipe
r w
as th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad a
ckno
wl-
edge
d th
e in
flue
nce
of A
lter
s ob
serv
atio
ns o
n hi
s ow
n w
ork.
Kuiper worried
that
blin
d ac
cept
ance
ofK
ozyr
evs
findi
ngs
(if u
nsub
stan
tiate
d) w
ould
lead
Am
er-
ican
ast
rono
mer
s on
a w
ild g
oose
cha
se a
nd ta
rnis
h th
e re
puta
tions
and
inst
itu-
tiona
l am
bitio
ns o
f so
lar
syst
em a
stro
nom
ers
in th
e ey
es o
f th
eir
chie
f pa
tron
s.
layi
ng h
is c
laim
s be
fore
the
gene
ral p
ublic
, Koz
yrev
, in
Kui
per
s vi
ew, h
ad c
om-
mitt
ed a
bre
ach
of d
isci
plin
ary
stan
dard
s.K
uipe
r co
nfid
ed h
is d
oubt
s ab
out t
he a
ccur
acy
of K
ozyr
evs
repo
rt in
a s
erie
s of
conf
iden
tial l
ette
rs to
Jos
eph
Ash
broo
k, an editor of
Sky and Telescope
and
a pr
o-fe
ssio
nal a
stro
nom
er b
y tr
aini
ng. I
n la
te J
anua
ry 1
959
Ash
broo
k se
nt K
uipe
r th
eph
otog
raph
ic p
rint
of
the
spec
trum
that
Koz
yrev
had
pro
vide
d to
acc
ompa
ny h
isar
ticle
, pre
pare
d fr
om h
is o
rigi
nal p
late
. Sho
rtly
aft
erw
ard
, Kui
per
used
one
of
his
assigned nights on the 82-in
ch te
lesc
ope
at M
cDon
ald
to e
xpos
e tw
enty
-fiv
e
plat
es o
f A
lpho
nsus
with
a s
pect
rogr
aphi
c re
solu
tion
of 5
0 an
gstr
oms
per
mili
-m
eter
, the
sam
e th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad r
epor
ted.
The
res
ults
wer
e fr
ustr
atin
gly
inco
n-cl
usiv
e: K
uipe
r be
lieve
d th
at th
e ap
pare
nt e
mis
sion
line
s m
ight
hav
e be
en c
ause
dby
fau
lty g
uidi
ng o
f th
e So
viet
tele
scop
e, b
ut th
e re
solu
tion
was
too
low
for
cer-
tain
ty. R
elat
ed s
pect
ral l
ines
that
Kui
per
expe
cted
to f
ind-
assu
min
g th
at th
ebr
ight
fea
ture
nea
r 4
700
angs
trom
s w
as in
deed
the
Swan
ban
ds o
f ca
rbon
-did
not a
ppea
r. B
ut p
erha
ps th
ey w
ere
sim
ply
buri
ed in
the
nois
e of
the
copy
. "O
nly
insp
ectio
n of
the
orig
inal
pla
te w
il te
ll"
Kui
per
wro
te. O
ther
ast
rono
mer
s w
hoex
amin
ed th
e co
py c
ame
to s
hare
this
vie
w.24
Koz
yrev
s pl
ate
was
not
onl
y a
sin-
gular event (the observation could not be repeated) but geographically isolated
as w
ell.
How
then
wer
e A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s to
judg
e its
val
ue?
For
Kui
per,
the
mat
-te
r in
volv
ed a
num
ber
of c
onsi
dera
tions
, ind
udin
g th
e ch
arac
ter
of th
e ob
serv
er.
19 "Eruption ofa Volcano on Moon Reported by Russian Scientist,"
New York Times,
13 N
ov. 1
958
pp. A
-, A
-12.
20 Z
dene
k K
opal
, "
Volcano on the Moon?"
New
Sci
entis
t19
58, 4
: 136
2-1
364;
and
N. A
. Koz
yrev
Observation of a Volcanic Process on the Moon,"
Sky and Telescope,
1959
18:1
84-1
86. O
ne m
ea-
sure
of
the
sign
ific
ance
of
the
cont
rove
rsy
is th
e nu
mbe
r of
pub
licat
ions
it in
spir
ed: t
hirt
y-si
x ar
ticle
sdevoted to lunar volcanism were reported in the
Astronomischer Jahresbericht
in 1959
, mor
e th
anth
ree
times
the
num
ber
devo
ted
to th
e to
pic
betw
een
1956
and
195
8.21
H. C
. Ure
y, W
. M. E
lsas
ser ,
and
M. G
. Roc
hest
er
, "
Not
e on
the
Inte
rnal
Str
uctu
re o
f the
Moo
n,"
Astrophysics Journal,
1959
, 129
:842
-848
.
22 D
insm
ore
Alte
r to
Ira
S. B
owen
, 17
Nov
. 195
8, A
lter
to B
owen
, 24
Nov
. 195
8, a
nd A
lter, "
Prop
o-sa
l for
Lun
ar P
hoto
grap
hy,"
cov
er le
tter
23 D
ec. 1
958
, all
in B
ox 3
9, I
ra S
. Bow
en p
aper
s, H
untin
gton
Lib
rary
, San
Mar
ino
, Cal
ifor
nia;
and
Fre
d L
. Whi
pple
to H
arol
d C
. Ure
y, 8
Jul
y 19
59, a
nd U
rey,
"R
e-
port
of C
omm
issi
on I
" Sp
ace
Scie
nce
Boa
rd, N
atio
nal A
cade
my
of S
cien
ces,
ca.
Aug
. 195
8, B
ox 6
7
Fol
der
I, b
oth
in U
rey
pap
ers.
23 G
. P. K
uipe
r "T
he Moon,"
Journal of Geophysical Research.
1959
64:1
713-
1719
.24 Kuiper to Jo
eph
Ash
broo
k, 3
1 Ja
n., 1
2 F
eb. 1
959,
"D
epar
tmen
tal C
omm
unic
atio
ns, 1
957-
59"
fold
er, w
. W. M
orga
n pa
pers
, unp
roce
ssed
col
lect
ion
, Yer
kes
Obs
erva
tory
; and
Din
smor
e A
lter, "
The
Koz
yrev
Obs
erva
tion
of Alphonsus," draft ca. 1959
, Box
3, F
olde
r 6
, Ure
y pa
pers
. I th
ank
Judy
Bau
sch
for
faci
litat
ing
my
acce
ss to
the
Mor
gan
pape
rs.
248
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
249
II. E
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
SC
IEN
CE
1930
s. M
any
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers,
par
ticul
arly
at L
enin
grad
-inc
ludi
ng K
ozyr
ev
then
a y
oung
ast
roph
ysic
ist a
t Pul
kovo
-sub
sequ
ently
foun
d th
emse
lves
eith
er in
conc
entr
atio
n ca
mps
or
befo
re e
xecu
tion
squa
ds.27
Alth
ough
a b
rief
thaw
in 1
945
and
1946
allo
wed
del
egat
ions
of
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers
to v
isit
obse
rvat
orie
s in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es (
Kui
per
had
help
ed s
pons
or o
ne s
uch
grou
p at
the
McD
onal
d O
b-se
rvat
ory)
, by
1947
the
deep
enin
g C
old
War
was
lim
iting
per
sona
l con
tact
s an
ddi
srup
ting
plan
s fo
r in
tern
atio
nal m
eetin
gs. T
he g
ener
al m
eetin
gs o
f th
e ln
erna
-
tiona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
, or
IAU
(th
e on
ly in
tern
atio
nal s
cien
tific
um
on to
whi
ch th
e So
viet
Uni
on b
elon
ged
in th
e 19
50s)
wer
e tw
ice
post
pone
d be
caus
e of
supe
rpow
er c
onfl
icts
, inc
ludi
ng th
e ou
tbre
ak o
f the
Kor
ean
War
. Am
eric
an s
cien
-
tists
atte
ndin
g th
e m
eetin
gs a
ctua
lly h
eld
freq
uent
ly c
ompl
aine
d th
at th
ey a
l-lo
wed
too
few
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r ex
tend
ed c
onve
rsat
ions
with
Sov
iet r
esea
rche
rs.
Kui
per
s pr
edec
esso
r at
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d, S
truv
e, and other leading
eric
astronomers were angered, t
orm
ente
d, a
nd b
affe
d by
pol
emic
al a
ttack
s m
Sov
I
publ
icat
ions
on
thei
r ch
arac
ter
and
scie
ntif
ic th
eori
es, w
ritte
n by
equ
ally
pro
mi-
nent
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
such
as
Vik
tor
Am
bart
sum
ian
and Pavel Parenago.
Fres
h ba
rrie
rs w
ere
rais
ed in
the
late
195
0s a
s of
fcia
ls in
Mos
cow
and
Was
hing
ton
wra
pped
spa
ce s
cien
ce a
nd lu
nar
rese
arch
in th
e m
antle
s of
nat
iona
l sity
and
national prestige. Although scientists found wider personal contacts
1 m
ev
uatin
g ne
w o
r co
ntro
vers
ial s
cien
tific
res
ults
from
out
side
thei
r ow
mtI
mat
e c
cle,
suc
h ne
twor
ks w
ere
diff
cult
to e
stab
lish
with
cou
nter
part
s m
the
Sovi
et
Uni
on.
By
the
19 5
0s K
uipe
r w
as d
eepl
y in
volv
ed, i
ndee
d ob
sess
ed, w
ith th
e pr
oble
m o
f
eval
uatin
g fo
reig
n sc
ienc
e. A
s an
adu
lt im
mig
rant
to th
e U
nite
d St
ates
who
had
abso
rbed
muc
h of
the
inte
rnat
iona
list c
ultu
ral t
radi
tions
that
Hol
land
had
toof
fer
Kui
per
was
cle
arly
mor
e fa
mili
ar w
ith th
e personalities, structures, a
nd
styl
eof
Eur
opea
n sc
ienc
e th
an w
ere
man
y of
his
Am
eric
an-
rn c
olle
ague
s. B
ut
his
desi
re to
com
mun
icat
e hi
s vi
ews
to c
olle
ague
s an
d to
out
side
pat
rons
tapp
edde
eper
roo
ts. D
urin
g 19
44 a
nd 19
45 Kuiper served as a
embe
r of
.Am
eric
ALSOS mission a ci
vilia
n-sc
ient
ific
team
dep
loye
d be
hmd
adva
ncm
g A
llied
troo
ps to
inte
rie
w A
xis
scie
ntis
ts a
nd e
ngin
eers
abo
ut th
eir
prog
ress
in w
epo
ns
rese
arch
, par
ticul
arly
ato
mic
bom
bs. K
uipe
r ha
d be
en a
ssig
ned
the
task
of
mte
r-viewing astrophysicists in liberated Holland,
nce,
and
Ger
man
y .a
?out
Ger
man
adv
ance
s in
sol
ar a
stro
nom
y, a
fie
ld c
ntlc
al to
long
-ran
ge m
ilita
ry
com
mun
icat
ions
. App
alle
d by
the
dest
ruct
ion
wro
ught
by
the
Ger
man
war
ma-
chin
e in
his
hom
elan
d, K
uipe
r be
gan
a pe
rson
al c
rusa
de a
gain
st N
azi c
oll
bora
-
tors after World War
mix
ing
cred
ible
inte
llige
nce
with
hea
rsay
rep
orts
m th
eoc
casi
onal
con
dem
natio
ns th
at h
e pr
ovid
ed, o
ften
on
requ
est,
to c
olle
ague
s an
d
to A
llied
occ
upat
ion
offc
ials
.K
uipe
rs
role
in e
valu
atin
g E
urop
ean
scie
nce
was
He
belie
ved
that
sta
tistic
al p
roba
bilit
y di
d no
t sup
port
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
that
by
good
for
tune
he
had
caug
ht a
n ac
tive
luna
r er
uptio
n in
the
slit
of h
is s
pect
rogr
aph
sinc
e a
cent
ury
of in
tens
e vi
sual
insp
ectio
n ha
d yi
elde
d fe
w r
epor
ts o
f tr
ansi
ent
activ
ity. K
uipe
r pu
t the
odd
s at
no
bette
r th
an o
ne in
a th
ousa
nd. T
he p
robl
emth
us b
ecam
e to
det
erm
ine
the
likel
ihoo
d th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad e
rred
or
fals
ified
his
evid
ence
. Com
plic
atin
g th
e pi
ctur
e w
ere
the
inte
nse
popu
lar
and
scie
ntif
ic in
ter-
est i
n th
e di
scov
ery,
and
the
rapi
d el
evat
ion
of th
e M
oon
as a
targ
et fo
r sc
ient
ific
expl
orat
ion
and
natio
nal p
rest
ige.
As
an a
dmin
istr
ator
Kui
per
reco
gniz
ed th
atde
cisi
ons
mad
e ab
out t
he d
isco
very
s si
gnif
ican
ce w
ould
aff
ect w
hich
inst
itutio
nsw
ould
con
trol
luna
r re
sear
ch.
Mor
eove
r, th
e st
rong
sup
port
that
Ure
y vo
iced
for
Koz
yrev
s w
ork
left
Kui
per
won
deri
ng w
heth
er n
ew r
esou
rces
for
luna
r re
sear
ch w
ould
go
prin
cipa
lly to
as-
tron
omer
s or
inst
ead
to s
cien
tists
in o
ther
dis
cipl
ines
. By
the
late
195
0s U
rey
was
activ
ely
prom
otin
g hi
s ow
n bl
uepr
int f
or s
cien
tific
exp
lora
tions
of t
he M
oon
and
had
forg
ed s
tron
g lin
ks w
ith a
eros
pace
con
trac
ting
firm
s, th
e Sp
ace
Scie
nce
Boa
rdof
the
Nat
iona
l Aca
dem
y of
Sci
ence
s, a
nd N
AS
A (
who
se W
orki
ng G
roup
on
Lun
ar E
xplo
ratio
n w
as c
ompo
sed
entir
ely
of g
eoch
emis
ts a
nd g
eoph
ysic
ists
).K
uipe
r w
as a
cute
ly a
war
e th
at U
rey,
aft
er th
eir
inte
nse
cont
rove
rsy
in 1
955
, had
atte
mpt
ed to
dis
rupt
his
acc
ess
to N
SF p
atro
nage
.Pe
rson
al, i
nstit
utio
nal,
pro
-
fess
iona
l, a
nd d
isci
plin
ary
fact
ors
wer
e al
l tig
htly
inte
rwov
en in
the
issu
e of
eva
lu-
atin
g K
ozyr
evs
evid
ence
.B
y ea
rly
1959
Kui
per
had
reac
hed
no f
irm
con
clus
ions
abo
ut K
ozyr
evs
find
ing.
Fro
m h
is in
spec
tion
of A
shbr
ook'
s pl
ate
copy
, Kui
per
was
fai
rly
cert
ain
that
itsh
owed
no
unam
bigu
ous
evid
ence
of
emis
sion
. But
he
was
not
rea
dy to
rul
e it
out
and
the
sign
ifica
nce
of th
e pl
ate
, if
genu
ine,
mea
nt th
at a
sur
vey
prog
ram
of t
heM
oon
coul
d yi
eld
a br
eakt
hrou
gh f
or Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald.
Wha
t com
plic
ated
the
pict
ure
for
Kui
per
was
his
wor
ry th
at K
ozyr
ev, w
hose
pre
viou
s w
ork
was
not
wel
lkn
own
but s
eem
ed to
him
mar
gina
l in
qual
ity, m
ight
hav
e re
leas
ed p
relim
inar
y or
even
mis
lead
ing
resu
lts to
gai
n st
andi
ng w
ithin
the
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ical
com
mu-
nity
. Sho
rt o
f vi
sitin
g th
e Pu
lkov
o O
bser
vato
ry d
irec
tly to
exa
min
e th
e or
igin
alpl
ate-
then
an
unlik
ely
prop
ositi
on-K
uipe
r ju
dged
that
he
need
ed a
dvic
e fr
omS
ovie
t col
leag
ues
on K
ozyr
evs
char
acte
r as
an
obse
rver
and
his
sta
ndin
g in
So-
viet
ast
rono
my.
Bet
wee
n 19
59 a
nd 1
960
Kui
per
devo
ted
cons
ider
able
ene
rgy
tore
view
ing
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
y.
The
pro
blem
of
eval
uatin
g So
viet
sci
entif
ic r
esul
ts c
onfr
onte
d m
any
Am
eric
ansc
ient
ists
dur
ing
the
heig
ht o
f th
e C
old
War
. Whi
le s
ome
rese
arch
ers
wor
ried
abou
t the
ext
ent o
f L
ysen
ko-s
tyle
intr
usio
ns in
to S
ovie
t res
earc
h co
mm
uniti
esof
mor
e ge
nera
l con
cern
wer
e th
e lim
ited
num
ber
of S
ovie
t per
iodi
cals
ava
ilabl
ein
tran
slat
ion
(few
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
read
Rus
sian
) an
d th
e eq
ually
lim
ited
oppo
rtun
ities
for
info
rmal
inte
ract
ions
with
Sov
iet c
olle
ague
s. C
onta
ct be
twee
n
Am
eric
an a
nd S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s be
cam
e vi
rtua
lly n
onex
iste
nt a
fter
the
purg
e of
Sovi
et in
telle
ctua
ls d
urin
g th
e G
reat
Ter
ror
orde
red
by J
osep
h St
alin
in th
e m
id
25 T
atar
ewic
zSpace Technology
(cit.
n. 2
), p
. 29;
Doe
lSolar System Astronomy
(cit.
n. 6
); a
nd W
. p,
Bid
e1m
an to
Har
old
C. U
rey,
8 J
uly
1959
, Box
10
, Ure
y pa
pers
.26
Kui
per
to A
shbr
ook,
31
Jan.
195
9 (c
it. n
. 24)
, p. 3
.
27 O
n th
e hi
stor
y of
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
y du
ring
the
1930
s se
e, e.
ren
R. G
raha
mSc
ienc
e, P
hilo
so
phy, and Human Behavior in the Soviet Union
(New
Yor
k: C
olum
bia
Um
. Pre
ss, 1
987)
, pp.
380
-403
Rob
ert A
McC
utch
eon
"The 1936-1937 Purge of Soviet Astronomers,
SlavIc RevIew, Spnng 1991
50(1
):10
0-11
7; a
nd M
cCut
cheo
n
, "
The
Pur
ge o
f Sov
iet A
stronomy, 1936-37" (M.
A. t
heSI
,
Georgetown University, 1985). .
28 O
tto S
truv
e, "
Com
men
ts a
nd C
omm
unic
atio
ns: A
stro
nom
y In
the
Man
ner
of 1
984
SCIe
nce,
1952
116:
206-20
7. .
29 K
arl H
ufba
uerExploring the Sun: Solar Science Since Gailleo
(Bal
tlmre
: Joh
ns H
pkin
S U
mv.
Pres
s, 1
991)
, pp.
119
-159
; and
Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
r, "
Ger
man
Ast
rono
my
dunn
g th
e W
arPopular As-
tron
omy,
19
46, 5
4:26
3-28
3. O
n K
uipe
rs
role
in A
LSo
s se
e M
ark
Wal
ker
Ger
man
NaC
lona
l Soc
lalz
sm
250
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
251
view
ed p
ositi
vely
by
man
y co
lleag
ues.
It w
as in
par
t his
ext
ensi
ve c
onta
cts
with
scie
ntis
ts in
Eur
ope
that
gai
ned
him
the
pres
iden
cy o
f th
e pl
anet
ary
scie
nces
com
-m
issi
on o
f th
e IA
U, a
nd o
nce
he w
as in
the
post
(w
hich
he
held
for
two
term
sfrom 1952 to 19
58),
his
dea
lings
with
sci
entis
ts o
utsi
de th
e U
nite
d St
ates
in-
creased substantially. As director of the Yerkes-M
cDon
ald
Obs
erva
tory
in th
ela
te 1
950s
Kui
per
rem
aine
d in
con
tact
, by
lette
r an
d th
roug
h oc
casi
onal
per
sona
lvi
sits
, with
a la
rge
num
ber
of E
urop
ean
astr
onom
ers.
Alth
ough
Kui
per
beca
me
som
ewha
t mor
e co
nser
vativ
e as
he
aged
, he
was
a li
b-er
al b
y A
mer
ican
pol
itica
l sta
ndar
ds, w
ith n
o ap
pare
nt p
oliti
cal a
x to
gri
nd w
iththe Soviet Union. In 1950 he distanced himself from the pro-
Com
mun
ist
writings of his former instructor at Leiden, H
ertz
spru
ng, c
ompl
aini
ng th
atH
ertz
spru
ng s
eem
ed "
anno
y(ed
J w
ith th
e W
este
rn w
orld
aro
und
him
."30
He
mad
elit
tle r
efer
ence
in h
is c
orre
spon
denc
e to
the
diff
culti
es o
f A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
sen
snar
ed in
the
web
of
the
Hou
se U
n-A
mer
ican
Act
iviti
es C
omm
ittee
in th
e19
50s,
who
se v
ictim
s in
clud
ed H
arlo
w Shapley, until 1952 the director of the
Har
vard
Col
lege
Obs
erva
tory
, and
the
circ
le o
f ast
rono
mer
s w
ho h
ad jo
ined
Shap
ley
in s
uppo
rtin
g in
tern
atio
nalis
t cau
ses
duri
ng W
orld
War
II.
On
the
othe
rha
nd, h
e m
ade
no e
ffort
, as
did
Ira
S. B
owen
, dir
ecto
r of
the
Mou
nt W
ilson
and
Palo
mar
Obs
erva
tori
es, t
o al
ert p
rosp
ectiv
e ac
adem
ic o
r in
stitu
tiona
l em
ploy
ers
to th
e na
mes
of
astr
onom
ers
calle
d to
Was
hing
ton
to te
stif
y to
the
com
mitt
ee.
The
issu
e th
at a
ppea
red
to tr
oubl
e hi
m m
ost d
eepl
y w
as th
e in
flue
nce
of th
eM
cCar
ran-
Wal
ters
Act
, pas
sed
by C
ongr
ess
in 1
952
, whi
ch s
erve
d to
lim
it m
eet-
ings
and
info
rmal
con
tact
s am
ong
inte
rnat
iona
l sci
entis
ts. T
he la
w p
reve
nted
blac
klis
ted
fore
ign
scie
ntis
ts f
rom
vis
iting
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd o
utsp
oken
ly li
b-er
al A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts f
rom
usi
ng th
eir
pass
port
s to
trav
el a
broa
d. "Perhaps the
McC
arra
n A
ct w
il be
cha
nged
whe
n al
l pro
min
ent E
urop
eans
hav
e be
en in
Rus
-si
a"
thus
pre
vent
ing
them
all
from
trav
elin
g to
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, K
uipe
r la
-m
ente
d to
Str
uve.
"W
e ne
ed m
ore
, not
less
, con
tact
with
the
Rus
sian
s , b
ecau
set?
e vi
rtue
s w
hich
all
hum
an b
eing
s po
sses
s , a
t lea
st to
som
e de
gree
, wil
help
our
slde
."32
The
lack
of
rout
ine
cont
acts
bet
wee
n So
viet
and
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
clea
rly
hind
ered
Kui
per
s at
tem
pts
to e
valu
ate
Koz
yrev
s st
andi
ng w
ithin
his
loca
l com
-m
unity
. Koz
yrev
was
not
ent
irely
unk
now
n to
Kui
per
at th
e tim
e th
e di
scov
ery
anno
unce
men
t was
mad
e. H
e ha
d ap
pare
ntly
lear
ned
deta
ils o
f K
ozyr
evs
arre
stan
d ex
ile in
Sib
eria
fro
m 1
936
to 1
948
, as
wel
l as
his
subs
eque
nt r
esto
ratio
n to
the
staf
f of
Pul
kovo
, fro
m S
ubra
man
yan
Cha
ndra
sekh
ar, a
Yer
kes
colle
ague
who
had
met
with
Koz
yrev
and
oth
er S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s at
Pul
kovo
in 1
934.
Kui
per
had
him
self
met
Koz
yrev
, alb
eit b
riefly
, in
a co
rrid
or e
ncou
nter
at t
he 1
958
mee
ting
ofthe IAU in Moscow. Their co
nver
satio
n di
d no
t lea
ve a
pos
itive
impr
essi
on in
Kui
per
s m
ind.
Koz
yrev
had
see
med
"a
nerv
ous
and
brok
en m
an"
as a
res
ult o
f
his
year
s in
the
gula
g, K
uipe
r ad
vise
d co
lleag
ues.
Thi
s im
pres
son
pr?
babl
con-
trib
uted
to h
is d
istr
ust o
f Koz
yrev
s ea
rlier
pla
neta
ry fi
ndm
gs, m
clud
mg
aclaim-supported by Urey and se
vera
l oth
er A
mer
ican
res
earc
hers
-to
have
de-
tect
ed a
uror
ae in
the
atm
osph
ere
of V
enus
. Mor
eove
r, th
e sp
ecta
cula
r na
ture
of
the
new
dis
cove
ries
dis
turb
ed K
uipe
r, a
s di
d re
port
s th
at K
ozyr
ev w
as a
t wor
k on
a ph
ysic
al th
eory
oft
ime.
Whe
n he
rai
sed
the
issu
e of
pro
babl
e er
ror
in h
is lo
letter to Sky and Telescope
Ash
broo
k, h
e al
so li
sted
vio
latio
ns o
f re
sear
ch e
thic
sin
the
hist
ory
of tw
entie
th-c
entu
ry a
stro
nom
y, in
clud
ing
fals
e cl
aim
s ab
out t
heca
nals
of
Mar
s du
ring
the
earl
y tw
entie
th c
entu
ry a
nd "
fake
spe
ctro
gram
s o
fift
h-
mag
nitu
de s
tars
mad
e at
the
Chi
le S
tatio
n of
the
Lic
k O
ber
vato
ry b
y an
ass
ista
nt
who
dis
cove
red
that
a n
ight
's w
ork
coul
d be
com
pres
sed
mto
less
than
an
hour
by
obse
rvin
g br
ight
sta
rs o
f th
e sa
me
spec
tral
type
." K
ozyr
evs
data
app
eare
d no
less
suspect to Kuiper.
But
wer
e K
ozyr
evs
spec
tra
genu
ine
or f
orge
d? K
uipe
r m
ay w
ell h
ave
felt
less
se-
cure
abo
ut h
is n
egat
ive
conc
lusi
on a
fter
rec
eivi
ng a
det
aile
d le
tter
from
Str
uve.
Thr
ough
the
1950
s St
ruve
was
the
mos
t wel
l-in
form
ed A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
on
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
y. R
ussi
an b
y bi
rth
and
earl
y ed
ucat
ion
, he
hd fled before
adva
ncin
g R
ed A
rmy
afte
r W
orld
War
I; h
e ne
vert
hele
ss r
emam
ed p
reoc
cupi
edw
ith S
ovie
t ast
rono
my,
and
in 1
947
he b
egan
edi
ting
an in
form
al n
ewsl
eter
that
offe
red
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers
tran
slat
ed a
bstr
acts
of
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ical
re-
sear
ch. S
truv
e pr
ovid
ed n
o am
mun
ition
aga
inst
Koz
yrev
s fi
ndin
g. H
e ad
vise
Kui
per
that
the
tele
scop
e th
at K
ozyr
ev h
ad a
lmos
t cer
tain
ly u
sed
to e
xpos
e hi
spl
ates
was
the
Cri
mea
n O
bser
vato
rys 50-in
ch r
efle
ctor
, whi
ch h
ad b
een
conf
is-
cate
d by
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
from
the
Eer
lin-B
a?el
sber
g O
bsrv
aor
y af
ter
Wor
l
War
II
in r
etal
iatio
n fo
r th
e G
erm
ans'
des
truc
tion
of th
e Se
lmel
s O
bser
vato
ry s
mai
n in
stru
men
t. T
he C
rim
ean
tele
scop
e w
as th
en th
e So
viet
Uni
ons
larg
est,
but
more important
, its
spe
ctro
grap
h w
as a
hig
h-qu
ality
inst
rum
ent m
anuf
actu
red
by
the
Ger
man
ast
rono
mer
Pau
l Gut
hnic
k. K
ozyr
ev h
ad th
us e
mpl
oyed
a. d
etec
tr
of
know
n st
anda
rds.
Whe
ther
this
was
new
s to
Kui
per
is n
ot cl
ear.
LIk
e K
Uip
er
Stru
ve w
as a
ski
lled
spec
tros
copi
st, a
nd a
fter
exa
min
ing
a pr
int o
f th
e A
lpho
npl
ate
mai
led
to A
lter
by K
ozyr
ev, h
e ad
vise
d co
lleag
ues
tit
appe
are
genu
me
to h
im. S
truv
es
opin
ion
prob
ably
infl
uenc
ed B
owen
s decISon to permit
Iter
to
use
the
Mou
nt W
ilson
60-
inch
tele
scop
e fo
r st
eppe
d-up
luna
r re
coal
ssan
ce
hopi
ng, a
s B
owen
put
it
, "
to c
atch
the
volc
ano
in th
e ac
t."3
6 N
one
of th
is p
leas
ed
34 K
uipe
r to
C. S
. Bea
ls, 2
8 N
ov. 1
958
, and
Kui
per
to B
eals
, 19
Dec
. 195
8, b
oth
Box
10
, Kui
per
pa-
pers
' Wal
ter
Sullv
an "
Aur
ora
Bel
ieve
d Si
ghte
d on
Ven
usNew York Times,
! 7 F
eb. 1
958
, p. 2
3, a
nd
ld C
. Ure
y to
E.'
Opi
k, 5
Apr
il 19
57, B
ox 7
2, U
rey
pape
rs. T
e is
no
eVI
ence
KUlper then
unde
rsto
od th
e ex
tent
to w
hich
the
theo
ry w
as u
nder
deb
ate
,,th
m th
e S
ovie
t U m
on, s
ee, e
., M
.
Kita
ev
, "
Koz
yrev
s C
ontr
over
sial
The
ory
of th
e N
atur
e of
Tim
eB
ulle
tzn
of th
e /nsllutefor the Study
of the U.S.
S.R
., 19
607:
39-47
. d h
3S K
uipe
r to
Ash
broo
k , 3
1 Ja
n. 1
959
(cit.
n. 2
4), p
. 2, K
Ulp
er Im
phed
that
Koz
yrev
ha
lor
observations to make his reputation; for an analogous case see Jan Sapp,
Whe
re th
e T
ruth
Lie
s. F
ranz
Moewus and the Origins of Molecular Biology
(New
Yor
k: C
ambn
dge
Um
v. P
ress
, 199
0), P
: 9.
36 I
ra S
. Bow
en to
Din
smor
e A
lter,
19 N
ov. 1
958
, Box
39
, Bow
en p
aper
s; a
nd S
truv
e to
KU
lper
, 31
Dec. 1958
, Box
14
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
and
fhe
Que
stfo
nto
mi
Pow
er,
1939
-194
5 (N
ew Y
ork:
Cam
brid
ge U
niv.
Pre
ss, 1
989)
, pp.
151
-160
;ld
H. D
eVor
kll
Science wIlh a Vengeance: The Miltary Origins of Space Science
(New
Yor
k:Sp
nnge
r, fo
rthc
omm
g), d
raft
, Ch.
3 (
I th
ank
DeV
orki
n fo
r pr
ovid
ing
a dr
aft)
; and
Kui
per
toZ
entr
aIsp
ruch
kam
mer
Nor
dbad
en, 3
Mar
ch 1
950
, Box
28
, Kui
per
pape
rs,
30 K
uipe
r to
Oor
t , 3
1 Ju
ly 1
950
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
31 F
or a
n in
stan
ce o
f B
owen
s ac
ting
thus
see
Ron
ald
E. D
oel, "
Def
inin
g a
Mis
sion
: The
Sm
ithso
nian
Ast
rop
ysic
al O
bser
vato
ry o
n th
e M
ove
J. H
ist.
As/
ron.
1990
2/:1
37- 1
53, o
n p.
41.
32 K
Uip
er to
Otto Struve, 2
7 M
ay 1
954
, Box
28
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
33 M
cCut
cheo
n
, "
The 1936-37 Purge"
(cit.
n. 2
7); a
nd R
ober
t A. M
cCut
cheo
n
, "
Inte
rvie
w w
ithA
;. A
. Koz
yrev
con
cern
ing
the
Ear
ly C
aree
r, A
rres
t , a
nd I
mpr
ison
men
t of
His
Bro
ther
, the
Ast
roph
ysi-
CiS
t N. A
. Koz
yrev
" 1989
, AlP
.
252
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
253
Kui
per,
who
stil
l wan
ted
to u
se th
e M
ount
Wils
on te
lesc
ope
in s
lack
tim
es to
pho
-to
grap
h th
e M
oon
for
the
luna
r at
las
his
team
at Y
erke
s w
as p
repa
ring
.K
uipe
r qu
ickl
y be
cam
e co
nvin
ced
that
his
bes
t hop
es f
or e
valu
atin
g th
e pl
ate
lay
in c
anva
ssin
g So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s. I
n Fe
brua
ry 1
959
, afte
r co
mpl
etin
g hi
san
alys
is o
f th
e sp
ectr
osco
pic
test
pla
tes
of A
lpho
nsus
exp
osed
at t
he M
cDon
ald
Obs
erva
tory
, Kui
per
wro
te f
or th
e fi
rst t
ime
to a
stro
nom
ers
in th
e So
viet
Uni
onfo
r ad
vice
on
Koz
yrev
and
his
luna
r sp
ectr
a. (
Kui
per
appa
rent
ly d
id n
ot w
rite
Koz
yrev
dir
ectly
, per
haps
bel
ievi
ng th
at li
ttle
usef
ul in
telli
genc
e w
ould
com
e of
it.)
The
ast
rono
mer
s he
add
ress
ed h
ad tr
avel
ed to
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es a
nd v
isite
dw
ith h
im a
t Yer
kes;
his
per
sona
l rel
atio
ns w
ith th
em g
ave
him
con
fide
nce
that
he
coul
d tr
ust ,
or
at le
ast e
valu
ate
obje
ctiv
ely,
wha
t the
y ha
d to
say
. Am
ong
them
wer
e K
yril
Ogo
rodn
ikov
, an
astr
onom
er a
t the
Len
ingr
ad U
nive
rsity
wel
l kno
wn
to A
mer
ican
and
Eur
opea
n as
tron
omer
s , a
nd A
lia M
asse
vitc
h, a
Sov
iet t
heor
eti-
cal a
stro
phys
icis
t hig
hly
rega
rded
by
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers.
Kui
per
disc
over
ed th
at n
o co
nsen
sus
exis
ted
amon
g So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s on
the
accu
racy
of
Koz
yrev
s vo
lcan
o re
port
. In
earl
y Fe
brua
ry O
goro
dnik
ov in
form
edK
uipe
r th
at s
olar
sys
tem
ast
rono
mer
s in
the
Sovi
et U
nion
app
eare
d to
acc
ept
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
. He
repo
rted
atte
ndin
g a
Leni
ngra
d m
eetin
g at
whi
ch V
. S
haro
nov
and
A. V
. Mar
kov ,
lead
ing
figu
res
in th
e fi
eld
, wer
e pr
esen
t. K
ozyr
evsp
ectr
um h
ad b
een
show
n at
the
gath
erin
g; w
hile
Sha
rono
v an
d M
arko
v ha
d di
sa-
gree
d ov
er d
etai
ls o
fKoz
yrev
s in
terp
reta
tion
, "
all a
gree
d it
was
due
to s
ome
kind
of e
rupt
ion
of g
ases
. " A
t Kui
per
s re
ques
t Ogo
rodn
ikov
had
als
o " q
uite
pri
vate
lyvi
site
d M
ikha
ilov ,
Koz
yrev
s ct
rect
or a
t Pul
kovo
and
a p
rom
inen
t Sov
iet a
stro
n-om
er. W
hile
Mik
hailo
v ex
pres
sed
som
e m
isgi
ving
s ov
er K
ozyr
evs
prev
ious
re-
sear
ch, O
goro
dnik
ov r
epor
ted
, he
corr
obor
ated
the
valu
e an
d si
gnifi
canc
e of
the
volc
ano
anno
unce
men
t.M
asse
vitc
h's
resp
onse
, whi
ch K
uipe
r re
ceiv
ed s
hort
ly th
erea
fter
, was
far
mor
ene
gativ
e. In
a c
rispl
y w
orde
d le
tter
she
repo
rted
that
she
had
obt
aine
d a
copy
of
the
plat
e an
d sh
owed
it to
ast
rono
mer
s in
Mos
cow
inte
rest
ed in
luna
r st
udie
s. N
oon
e ou
tsid
e K
ozyr
evs
clos
e ci
rcle
of
prof
essi
onal
acq
uain
tanc
es, s
he c
laim
edw
ould
end
orse
the
accu
racy
of K
ozyr
evs
inte
rpre
tatio
n, o
r ev
en th
e au
then
ticity
of th
e pl
ate.
Mas
sevi
tch
did
not s
pecu
late
on
why
Ogo
rodn
ikov
had
off
ered
a f
a-vorable review, o
r w
hy o
ther
s in
Koz
yrev
s ci
rcle
had
def
ende
d hi
s w
ork.
She
sum
med
it th
us: t
he w
hole
mat
ter
was
"re
ally
puz
zlin
g, b
ut o
f co
urse
ther
e ca
n be
no questions
(sic
) of
the
spec
trum
bei
ng f
aked
."39
Kui
per
repl
ied
to M
asse
vitc
h th
at h
e w
as "
stil
unce
rtai
n w
hat t
o th
ink
abou
tth
e lu
nar
spec
trum
" an
d w
ishe
d th
at a
t lea
st o
ne S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
wou
ld a
ttest
to th
e au
then
ticity
of t
he p
late
: "If
the
resu
lts w
ere
not s
o di
ffcu
lt to
bel
ieve
, one
wou
ld n
ever
rai
se th
e qu
estio
n of
the
true
nat
ure
of th
e sp
ectr
um a
t all.
" B
ut e
ven
with
out f
urth
er w
ord
from
Mas
sevi
tch
, Kui
per
retu
rned
to h
is h
ard-
line
posi
tion
on th
e ob
serv
atio
n an
d in
crea
sing
ly u
sed
her
argu
men
t to
just
ify
war
ning
Am
eri-
can
colle
ague
s ag
ains
t ini
tiatin
g se
arch
es f
or lu
nar
even
ts. H
e pa
ssed
ove
rO
goro
dnik
ovs
favo
rabl
e re
view
, pos
sibl
y be
caus
e O
goro
dnik
ov, a
s he
had
re-
min
ded
Kui
per,
was
not
an
expe
rt in
luna
r or
pla
neta
ry s
cien
ce, w
hile
Mas
sevi
tch
had
mad
e oc
casi
onal
con
trib
utio
ns to
the
fiel
d. O
ne r
easo
n th
at K
uipe
r em
brac
edM
asse
vitc
h's
char
ge o
ffak
ery
was
that
it r
eson
ated
with
his
ow
n do
ubts
abo
ut th
esp
ectr
um. B
y ea
rly
spri
ng 1
959
Kui
per
s cr
itici
sms
of th
e sp
ectr
al e
vide
nce
(in-
clud
ing
publ
ishe
d cr
itiqu
es f
or th
e fi
rst t
ime)
fai
rly
bris
tled
with
con
tem
pt. H
e ar
-gu
ed, f
or in
stan
ce, t
hat t
he a
ppar
ent b
righ
t em
issi
on b
and
near
470
0 an
gstr
oms
seem
ed to
con
trad
ict t
he p
hysi
cal e
nvir
onm
ent e
xpec
ted
of a
n ac
tive
erup
tion.
Mor
e im
port
ant,
per
haps
, Mas
sevi
tch'
s ar
gum
ents
res
onat
ed w
ith K
uipe
rem
ergi
ng v
iew
of
how
the
Sovi
et c
omm
unity
of
astr
onom
ers
oper
ated
and
of
Koz
yrev
s st
andi
ng w
ithin
this
com
mun
ity. A
lthou
gh K
uipe
r ha
d, t
hrou
gh h
isco
mm
itmen
ts to
the
IAU
and
his
wor
k at
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d, b
een
in c
onta
ct w
ithin
divi
dual
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers,
his
fir
st v
isit
to th
e So
viet
Uni
on h
ad n
ot c
ome
until
Aug
ust 1
958
, whe
n he
had
atte
nded
the
Mos
cow
mee
ting
of th
e IA
U. L
ike
man
y A
mer
ican
ast
rono
mer
s he
was
inte
nsel
y cu
riou
s ab
out t
his
vast
, sci
entif
i-ca
lly a
dvan
ced
, yet
rel
ativ
ely
mys
teri
ous
land
that
had
bec
ome
the
focu
s of
U.
polit
ical
, mili
tary
, and
cul
tura
l anx
iety
; and
, lik
e so
man
y, h
e re
veal
ed h
isth
ough
ts in
a tr
ip d
iary
.K
uipe
r w
as n
ot r
eass
ured
by
wha
t he
saw
that
Aug
ust.
His
dia
ry is
fill
ed w
ithim
pres
sion
s of
a b
leak
and
thre
aten
ing
cultu
re; h
e no
ted
the
abse
nce
of p
aved
road
s in
Sov
iet v
illag
es, t
he li
kelih
ood
that
bug
ging
dev
ices
wer
e pr
esen
t in
his
hote
l roo
m, a
nd h
is f
eelin
g of
isol
atio
n fr
om a
ll ne
ws
from
the
Wes
t. H
e ha
d pa
r-tic
ular
ly w
ante
d to
vis
it ne
arby
ast
rono
mic
al f
acili
ties
to a
sses
s th
e qu
ality
of
in-
stru
men
tatio
n an
d to
gai
n fir
stha
nd im
pres
sion
s of
sci
entif
ic w
ork;
he
had
been
prev
ente
d fr
om d
oing
so.
Lik
e ot
her
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
ers,
he
com
plai
ned
that
the
scie
ntif
ic m
eetin
gs h
ad b
een
delib
erat
ely
plan
ned
to p
rovi
de li
tte o
ppor
tuni
tyfo
r pe
rson
al d
iscu
ssio
ns, a
nd th
at th
e sc
hedu
ling
of e
veni
ng ta
lks
mad
e it
near
lyim
poss
ible
to v
isit
info
rmal
ly w
ith S
ovie
t col
leag
ues.
Wha
t Kui
per
did
gain
fro
mhi
s M
osco
w v
isit
was
the
impr
essi
on th
at S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s re
mai
ned
vuln
era-
ble
to p
oliti
cal p
ress
ure,
and
that
the
boun
dari
es b
etw
een
scie
nce
and
the
stat
e re
-m
aine
d su
bjec
t to
incu
rsio
ns b
y po
litic
al a
utho
ritie
s (a
lthou
gh th
e si
tuat
ion
did
not s
eem
to h
im n
earl
y as
gri
m a
s th
at in
Sov
iet g
enet
ics
duri
ng th
e he
ight
of
Lys
enko
s power). In short, t
he S
ovie
t ast
rono
mic
al c
omm
unity
cou
ld n
ot b
eev
alua
ted
by th
e sa
me
stan
dard
s th
at a
pplie
d in
the
Wes
t. "R
ussi
an s
cien
tists
are
suff
cien
tly in
telli
gent
to k
now
whe
n th
ey a
re c
ompr
omis
ing
real
ity,"
Kui
per
had
wri
tten
to G
eorg
e an
d Pr
isci
lla P
olya
ni, editors of the bulletin
Scie
nce
and
Free
-do
m.
The
rea
l pro
blem
is to
brin
g th
em a
nd th
eir
coun
trym
en to
a c
ondi
tion
whe
re th
ey c
an a
ffor
d to
be
obje
ctiv
e in
off
cial
sta
tem
ents
and
art
icle
s."4
1
Kui
per
cam
e to
acc
ept t
he v
iew
that
Sov
iet s
cien
tific
res
ults
cou
ld b
e pr
oper
lyev
alua
ted
only
thro
ugh
exte
nsiv
e lo
cal k
now
ledg
e, w
hich
onl
y So
viet
con
tact
sco
uld
supp
ly. A
lthou
gh M
asse
vitc
h's
resp
onse
did
not
dir
ectly
add
ress
the
issu
e
37 A
lla M
asse
vitc
h to
Fre
d L.
Whi
pple
, 10
Sep
t. 19
59, B
ox 1
0, F
red
L. W
hipp
le p
aper
s, S
mith
soni
anIn
stitu
tion
Arc
hive
s , W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.;
and
Mas
sevi
tch
, int
ervi
ew b
y Sp
ence
r R
. Wea
r!, I
Sep
t. 19
76A
lP.
38 K
yril
Ogo
rodn
ikov
to K
uipe
r, 4
Feb
. 195
9, B
ox 1
3, K
uipe
r pa
pers
.39
Alla
Mas
sevi
tch
to K
uipe
r , 26
Mar
ch 1
959
, Box
12
, and
"M
asse
vitc
h" f
olde
r, B
ox 1
8, b
oth
ibid
.
40 K
uipe
r to
Alla
Mas
sevi
tch
, 13
Apr
il 19
59, B
ox 1
2ib
id.
an?
Kui
per,
lette
r on
Koz
yrev
s ob
serv
tion of volcanic activity, Sky Telesc., 1
959
, 18:
307.
Oth
er A
men
can
astr
onom
ers
soug
ht M
asse
vltc
h s
opin
ions
on
the
relia
bilit
y of
oth
er S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s; s
ee, e
., D
onal
d E
. Men
zel t
o M
asse
vltc
h, 3
0April 1960
, Box
42
, HC
O d
irec
tor
s pa
pers
.41
G. P
. Kui
per ,
trip
dia
ry, a
nd K
uipe
r to
Ray
mon
d M
itche
ll, 20 Sept. 1965
, bot
h B
ox 1
8; a
ndK
uipe
r to
G. a
nd P
. Pol
yani
, 28
Oct
. 195
8, B
ox 2
8; a
ll in
Kui
per
pape
rs. O
n L
ysen
kos
infl
uenc
e in
So-
viet genetics, including foreign perceptions of the controversy, see David Joravsky, The
Lys
enko
AjJ
aIf
(Cam
brid
ge, M
ass.
: Har
vard
Uni
v. P
ress
, 1970).
254
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L
of K
ozyr
evs
plac
e w
ithin
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
y, it
rei
nfor
ced
Kui
per
s im
pres
sion
that
Koz
yrev
was
a m
argi
nal a
ctor
with
in th
e Pu
lkov
o co
mm
unity
, per
haps
tole
-ra
ted
only
bec
ause
of
his
past
nig
htm
aris
h pe
rsec
utio
n. K
uipe
r ha
d lo
ng h
ad s
us-
pici
ons
abou
t the
rel
iabi
lity
of K
ozyr
evs
plan
etar
y st
udie
s, b
ut n
ow h
is d
oubt
sas
sum
ed a
mor
e cy
nica
l cas
t. H
e ex
pres
sed
his
new
thin
king
in le
tters
to a
stro
no-
mer
s, f
eder
al p
atro
ns, a
nd a
dmin
istr
ator
s of
the
burg
eoni
ng s
pace
age
ncie
s, in
-te
ndin
g to
fore
stal
l fur
ther
atte
ntio
n to
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
s. B
ut it
is c
lear
that
he
also
bel
ieve
d he
was
com
mun
icat
ing
to th
em im
port
ant i
nfor
mat
ion
abou
t the
eval
uatio
n of
all
Sovi
et r
esea
rch
, and
thus
pro
vidi
ng a
ser
vice
that
few
Am
eric
anas
tron
omer
s w
ere
capa
ble
of o
ffer
ing.
His
ung
uard
ed th
ough
ts w
ere
now
here
as
clea
rly
expr
esse
d as
in a
lette
r to
a p
oliti
cal s
cien
tist w
ho w
rote
him
in th
e ea
rly
fall
of 1
959
to a
sk w
hy h
e ha
d cr
itici
zed
the
wor
k of
ano
ther
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
erI.
S. S
hklo
vsky
. Suc
h ca
ses,
Kui
per
resp
onde
d, w
ere
"par
t of
the
baff
ing
pict
ure
whi
ch s
cien
tists
in th
e W
est a
re f
acin
g"
whe
n at
tem
ptin
g to
eva
luat
e th
e w
ork
oftheir Russian colleagues:
Koz
yrev
s pu
blic
atio
n on
the
erup
tion
of th
e ce
ntra
l pea
k of
the
Cra
ter
Alp
hons
us o
n th
eM
oon
is a
som
ewha
t rel
ated
cas
e. T
he b
est i
nfor
med
opi
nion
on
such
cas
es a
ppea
rs to
be
that
men
who
are
mild
ly (
Shk
lovs
ky)
or s
ever
ely
(Koz
yrev
) pe
rsec
uted
by
the
Com
mun
ist
part
y an
d w
ho h
ave
not b
een
prot
ecte
d by
thei
r co
lleag
ues,
use
that
sor
t of
com
ic o
pera
perf
onna
nces
to a
ttrac
t atte
ntio
n to
them
selv
es a
nd to
em
barr
ass
thei
r co
lleag
ues.
We
inth
e W
est w
ould
mak
e a
mis
take
if w
e w
ould
take
thes
e m
enta
l acr
obat
ics
seri
ousl
y.4
Kui
per
seem
ed to
bel
ieve
that
the
judg
men
ts o
f as
tron
omer
s w
ho w
ere
in f
avor
with
the
Com
mun
ist P
arty
-ind
ivid
uals
like
Mas
sevi
tch
and
Am
bart
sum
ian
who
wer
e at
the
zeni
th o
f th
e So
viet
ast
rono
mic
al c
omm
unity
and
enj
oyed
the
free
dom
to tr
avel
to th
e W
est-
wer
e m
ore
trus
twor
thy
and
obje
ctiv
e th
an th
ose
out o
ffav
or w
ith th
e Pa
rty.
If
Kui
per
reco
gniz
ed th
e in
appl
icab
ility
of
this
rea
son-
ing to Soviet genetics, h
e co
mm
itted
non
e of
his
dou
bts
to p
aper
.B
y m
id 1
959
Kui
per
stre
ssed
sci
entif
ic a
rgum
ents
for
rej
ectin
g K
ozyr
evs
clai
min
pub
licat
ions
and
to th
e pr
ess,
but
in p
riva
te h
e m
ade
clea
r th
at th
e co
nfid
entia
las
sess
men
ts o
f K
ozyr
evs
char
acte
r he
had
rec
eive
d fr
om S
ovie
t con
tact
s ha
d in
-fl
uenc
ed h
is ju
dgm
ent m
ore
heav
ily. K
uipe
r us
ually
ref
used
to n
ame
Mas
sevi
tch
and
othe
r So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s w
ho p
rovi
ded
him
with
info
rmat
ion
, cla
imin
g th
atto
exp
ose
them
wou
ld je
opar
dize
his
con
tinue
d ac
cess
to s
cien
tific
res
ults
in S
o-vi
et a
stro
nom
y an
d sp
ace
scie
nce.
As
he p
oint
edly
rem
inde
d a
NA
SA le
ader
, suc
h
info
rmat
ion
was
as
impo
rtan
t to
Am
eric
an r
esea
rch
in lu
nar
scie
nce
as n
ew r
e-se
arch
res
ults
dev
elop
ed a
t hom
e.K
uipe
rs
atta
cks
on K
ozyr
evs
wor
k su
ccee
ded
in s
talln
g po
ssib
le U
.S. a
nd C
a-na
dian
pla
ns to
sea
rch
for
sim
ilar
vari
able
phe
nom
ena
on th
e M
oon.
Tha
t the
ydi
d ha
d m
uch
to d
o w
ith te
chni
cal a
spec
ts o
f th
e m
atte
r: th
e be
lief
of A
mer
ican
scie
ntis
ts th
at th
e ev
ent w
as in
deed
impr
obab
le, t
he d
egre
e of
tele
scop
e tim
e su
chse
arch
es w
ould
req
uire
, and
Kui
per
s so
lid r
eput
atio
n as
a s
pect
rosc
opis
t and
lunar astronomer. But these de
cisi
ons
also
ref
lect
ed b
road
er w
orri
es a
bout
42 Kuiper to Albert Parry, 10 Oct. 1959, Box 18
, Kui
per
pape
rs. K
uipe
r ha
d cr
itici
zd
Shk
lovs
kysu
gges
tion
that
unu
sual
pro
pert
ies
then
attr
ibut
ed to
the
orbi
ts o
f th
e tw
o sm
all m
oons
of
Mar
s m
ight
be a
ccou
nted
for
by
assu
min
g th
e m
oons
wer
e ar
tifac
ts o
f an
anc
ient
Mar
tian
civi
lizat
ion;
see
Par
ry to
Kui
per , 30 Sept. 1959
ibid
.43 Kuiper to Robert Jastrow, 2 Dec. 1959,
ibid
.
EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A25
5
Lys
enko
ist i
nflu
ence
s an
d th
e ab
ility
of
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers
to s
peak
fre
ely,
leav
-
ing a residue of doubt regarding controversial claims by Soviet researchers.
One
sig
n of
Am
eric
an s
cien
tists
' sen
sitiv
ity to
the
issu
e of
pol
itica
l int
erfe
renc
ew
ith S
ovie
t res
earc
h w
as p
rovi
ded
, iro
nica
lly, b
y U
rey.
Ure
y w
as c
erta
inly
the
mos
t ada
man
t of K
ozyr
evs
supp
orte
rs in
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, a
nd h
e re
peat
edly
ar-
gued
that
he
saw
no
reas
on to
rej
ect K
ozyr
evs
spec
trum
or
his
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
it.
He
rega
rded
Kui
per
s at
tack
s on
Koz
yrev
s in
tegr
ity a
s lit
te s
hort
of
scan
dalo
us.
Yet
Ure
y w
as h
imse
lf w
orrie
d th
at S
ovie
t wor
k in
pla
neta
ry g
eoch
emis
try
suffe
red
from
intr
usio
ns b
y po
litic
al f
acto
rs, a
nd p
erha
ps f
or th
is r
easo
n he
app
eare
d to
mut
e hi
s cr
itici
sms
of K
uipe
rs
appr
oach
.K
uipe
rs
reje
ctio
n of
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
prev
aile
d w
ithin
U.S
. ast
rono
mic
al in
stitu
tions
and
thei
r pa
tron
s un
til d
eten
te a
l-lo
wed
Sov
iet a
nd A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts n
ew o
ppor
tuni
ties
for
dire
ct in
tera
ctio
n.
IV. C
OM
PET
ITIO
N A
ND
NA
TIO
NA
L S
EC
UR
ITY
Kui
per
s vi
ews
of K
ozyr
ev w
ere
influ
ence
d no
t onl
y by
his
theo
retic
al, i
nstit
u-
tiona
l, a
nd p
rofe
ssio
nal c
omm
itmen
ts, b
ut a
lso
by h
is v
iew
s of
the
rela
tion
of s
ci-
ence
and
nat
iona
l sec
urity
, and
by
his
anxi
etie
s ov
er r
etai
ning
acce
ss to
new
fede
ral p
atro
ns a
nd p
atro
nage
. By
1959
the
rapi
d ex
pans
ion
of s
pace
res
earc
han
d th
e co
ntin
ued
iden
tific
atio
n of
luna
r ro
cket
s w
ith te
chno
logi
cal s
uper
iorit
y in
the
Col
d W
ar, p
lace
d N
ASA
off
cial
s un
der
still
gre
ater
pre
ssur
e to
lear
n m
?re
abou
t the
luna
r en
viro
nmen
t. In
Dec
embe
r 19
59 o
ffci
als
of th
e Je
t Pro
pulS
lOn
Lab
orat
ory
rece
ived
aut
hori
zatio
n to
dev
elop
wha
t bec
ame
know
n as
Pro
ject
Ran
ger,
a s
erie
s of
spa
cecr
aft d
esig
ned
to e
xplo
re th
e M
oon
thro
ugh
hard
-land
ed
inst
rum
ent p
acka
ges
and
late
r th
roug
h te
levi
sion
imag
es. T
he f
irst
Ran
gers
wer
e
plan
ned
for
laun
ch in
196
1. W
hile
A1e
rica
n pl
ans
coal
esce
d: :w
o S
viet
. cra
ft
Lun
ik I
and
Lun
ik I
ll, s
core
d im
pres
sive
sci
entif
ic a
nd p
ohtlc
al v
lcto
nes
bysw
eepi
ng p
ast t
he M
oon.
Lun
ik I
rel
ayed
info
rmat
ion
indi
catin
g th
at th
e M
oon
poss
esse
d no
sig
nifi
cant
mag
netic
fie
ld, w
hile
Lun
ik II photographe
the
pre
ousl
y hi
dden
luna
r fa
r si
de.
(Lun
ik I
I hi
t the
Moo
n on
the
ee
ofSo
vlt P
rem
ler
Nik
ita K
hrus
hche
vs
visi
t to
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es, c
ompo
undm
g A
men
can
angs
t
over
infe
rior
ity in
the
spac
e ra
ce.)
Res
pond
ing
to th
e he
ight
ened
dem
and
for
sci-
entis
ts e
xper
ienc
ed in
sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y, in
clud
ing
cele
stia
l mec
hani
cssu
ch s
choo
ls a
s Y
ale
and
Cin
cinn
ati b
egan
exp
andi
ng th
eir
grad
uate
pro
gram
s or
offe
red
sum
mer
sch
ools
, whi
le H
arva
rd, C
olor
ado
, and
Cal
tech
initi
ated
bol
d
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y pr
ogra
ms
desi
gned
to a
ppea
l to
the
broa
deni
ng r
ange
of
patr
ons
in this field, i
nclu
ding
the
NSF
, the
Air
For
ce, a
nd N
ASA
. Alth
ough
new
fun
ds
wer
e pr
ovid
ed f
or th
ese
effo
rts,
com
petit
ion
for
them
rem
aied
fice
.6
. .
Kui
per
rem
aine
d an
act
ive
com
petit
or f
or th
ese
fund
s, a
nd m
crea
smgl
y w
llhng
to u
se a
ll av
aila
ble
mea
ns to
sus
tain
his
pro
gram
s in
sol
ar s
yste
m r
esea
rch.
De-
man
ds o
n hi
s en
trep
rene
uria
l ski
lls in
crea
sed
in e
arly
196
0, w
hen
he m
ade
the
de-
cisi
on to
tran
sfer
his
res
earc
h co
ntra
cts,
sup
port
ing
staf
f, an
d gr
adua
te s
tude
nts
44 H
. C. U
rey
to B
. J. L
evin
, I A
ug. 1
956
, Box
52
. Fol
der
35, U
rey
pape
rs.
45 K
oppe
sIPL and the American Space Program
(Clt.
n. 2
), p
. 106
; R. C
argt
ll H
all
Luna
r Im
pact
. A
History of Project Ranger (W
ashi
ngto
n, D
.C.:
NA
SA, 1
977)
; and
Tat
arew
lcz
Space Technology
(Clt.
n.
2)'
D~~
ald
E. M
enze
l and
Ger
ard
de V
auco
uleu
rs to
Edw
ard
R. D
yer, 2
Dec
. 195
9, B
ox 3
2, H
CO
di-
rect
ors
pape
rs; a
nd T
atar
ewic
zSpace Technology,
pp, III
, 114
.
256
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
257
(ten
peo
ple
in a
ll) f
rom
Chi
cago
to th
e U
nive
rsity
of
Ari
zona
. The
shi
ft c
ame
abou
t afte
r se
rious
dep
artm
enta
l con
flict
s at
Yer
kes
dera
iled
his
plan
s to
exp
and
his
rese
arch
fur
ther
at t
hat f
acili
ty. T
he in
stitu
tiona
l dif
fcul
ties
that
torp
edoe
dhi
s ef
fort
s to
enl
arge
the
inst
itutio
nal b
ase
for
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my
at C
hica
gore
flect
ed th
e ra
pid
chan
ges
then
aff
ectin
g A
mer
ican
ast
rono
my.
Dur
ing
1959
Kui
per
had
cont
inue
d to
attr
act n
ew f
eder
al a
nd m
ilita
ry p
atro
nage
for
res
earc
hpr
ojec
ts a
nd n
ew in
stru
men
ts a
t Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d, i
nclu
ding
a 2
8-fo
ot in
frar
ed-
mic
row
ave
tele
scop
e fo
r th
e M
cDon
ald
site
, int
ende
d fo
r st
udyi
ng p
lane
ts a
ndco
ol s
tars
. But
by
the
fall
of th
at y
ear
Kui
per
face
d in
crea
sing
opp
ositi
on f
rom
Yer
kes-
McD
onal
d st
aff
mem
bers
who
se p
rinc
ipal
res
earc
h in
tere
sts
invo
lved
star
s an
d ga
laxi
es. R
isin
g co
ntro
vers
y ov
er th
e al
loca
tion
of te
lesc
ope
time
be-
twee
n th
ese
fiel
ds o
f re
sear
ch, a
s w
ell a
s K
uipe
rs
hand
ling
of a
larg
e A
ir F
orce
gran
t to
build
a te
lesc
ope
for
gala
ctic
res
earc
h in
Chi
le, c
ause
d un
iver
sity
off
cial
sto
inte
rven
e an
d, u
ltim
atel
y, to
for
ce K
uipe
rs
resi
gnat
ion
as d
irec
tor
of th
e ob
ser-
vato
ries
. Kui
per
s gr
uff,
auto
crat
ic d
irec
tors
hip
was
cle
arly
a m
ajor
cau
se o
f th
eco
nflic
t. B
ut s
o to
o w
as th
e in
crea
sing
abi
lity
of th
e N
SF
and
oth
er p
atro
ns to
fund
res
earc
h in
ste
llar
and
gala
ctic
ast
rono
my,
giv
ing
astr
onom
ers
with
inte
rest
in th
ese
field
s ev
er g
reat
er in
fluen
ce in
set
ting
obse
rvat
ory
polic
y. A
lthou
ghK
uipe
r ca
me
to w
elco
me
the
mov
e to
Ari
zona
, he
had
excl
usiv
e ac
cess
ther
e to
just one major telescope, a
36-
inch
ref
lect
or. T
o pe
rfor
m th
e ki
nd o
f re
sear
chne
eded
to f
ulfi
ll hi
s lu
nar
cont
ract
s , a
s w
ell a
s th
e m
ore
ambi
tious
pro
gram
s fo
rlunar and planetary research he envisioned, h
e fo
und
him
self
mor
e de
pend
ent
than
eve
r on
obt
aini
ng m
ajor
fund
ing
from
fede
ral a
genc
ies
such
as
NA
SA to
fina
nce
the
build
ing
of e
ntir
ely
new
inst
rum
ents
.K
uipe
r co
ntin
ued
to s
eek
new
con
sulti
ng o
ppor
tuni
ties ,
aw
are
that
they
gav
ehi
m a
cha
nce
to im
pose
his
pro
fess
iona
l sta
ndar
ds o
n ne
w w
ork
in th
e fi
eld
and
toin
crea
se h
is u
sefu
lnes
s to
maj
or p
atro
ns. H
e sa
w th
e he
ight
ened
nat
iona
l com
pe-
titio
n be
twee
n th
e U
nite
d St
ates
and
the
Sovi
et U
nion
as
an o
ppor
tuni
ty f
or a
d-vi
sing
fede
ral p
atro
ns o
n th
e bu
rgeo
ning
Sov
iet a
chie
vem
ents
in s
pace
and
luna
rsc
ienc
e, o
ften
hid
den
behi
nd v
eils
of
secr
ecy.
48 A
fter
195
8 K
uipe
r to
ok o
n ne
wco
nsul
ting
wor
k w
ith s
uch
agen
cies
as
Gen
eral
Ele
ctri
c an
d th
e A
rmou
r R
esea
rch
Foun
datio
n of
the
Ilin
ois
Inst
itute
of
Tec
hnol
ogy
(for
whi
ch "
secr
et"
clea
ranc
ew
as r
equi
red)
and
sec
ured
new
opp
ortu
nitie
s fo
r ad
visi
ng o
ffci
als
at th
e Je
t Pro
-pu
lsio
n L
abor
ator
y, f
ast b
ecom
ing
the
lead
cen
ter
for
NA
SA in
stu
dies
of
the
Moo
n an
d pl
anet
s. K
uipe
r us
ed s
uch
occa
sion
s to
cri
ticiz
e K
ozyr
evs
repo
rted
ob-
serv
atio
ns a
s un
foun
ded
, and
to p
rom
ote
his
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
wha
t cou
ld a
ndcould not be trusted in the publications of Soviet astronomers.
Kui
per
was
not
the
only
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
er in
this
per
iod
to f
ind
his
dedi
ca-
tion
to s
cien
tific
pur
suits
str
aine
d by
loya
lties
to n
atio
nal a
ims.
Man
y sc
ient
ists
disc
erne
d a
genu
ine
Sovi
et p
oliti
cal t
hrea
t dur
ing
the
Col
d W
ar y
ears
, and
thos
ew
ho fi
lled
out m
anda
tory
"tr
ip r
epor
ts"
for
the
Stat
e D
epar
tmen
t aft
er a
ttend
ing
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
mee
ting
in M
osco
w in
195
8 w
ere
awar
eth
at th
eir
info
rmat
ion
wou
ld s
erve
pol
itica
l rat
her
than
sci
entif
ic e
nds.
Wha
t dis
-tin
guis
hed
Kui
per
from
his
col
leag
ues
was
his
will
ingn
ess,
eve
n ea
gern
ess
, to
pro-
vide
the
Am
eric
an in
telli
genc
e co
mm
unity
with
suc
h in
form
atio
n. O
n 10
Apr
il19
59 K
uipe
r su
cces
sful
ly p
ropo
sed
to th
e C
entr
al In
telli
genc
e A
genc
y th
at h
e "r
e-vi
ew a
nd e
valu
at(e
J cu
rren
t Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ical
lite
ratu
re"
to a
id A
mer
ican
as-
tron
omer
s an
d go
vern
men
t pol
icym
aker
s. K
uipe
r su
bseq
uent
ly m
ade
clea
r th
elim
its o
f hi
s in
volv
emen
t: he
wou
ld n
ot d
elib
erat
ely
dece
ive
Sovi
et c
olle
ague
s fo
rpo
litic
al g
ain
, as
he w
as a
ppar
ently
req
uest
ed to
do.
But
he
saw
no
harm
in s
up-
plyi
ng th
e go
vern
men
t with
info
rmat
ion
of s
trat
egic
or
poss
ibly
mili
tary
impo
r-ta
nce,
and
bel
ieve
d th
at s
uch
an e
valu
atio
n w
ould
pro
ve h
elpf
ul in
pla
nnin
gfuture research. so
To
assi
st h
im o
n th
e pr
ojec
t, K
uipe
r hi
red
a Y
ugos
lavi
an a
stro
nom
er, L
eoR
andi
c. R
andi
c w
as f
luen
t in
Rus
sian
and
had
vis
ited
man
y So
viet
ast
rono
mic
alin
stitu
tions
but
was
"en
tirel
y w
este
rn in
out
look
" si
nce
he w
as "
rais
ed in
Rom
an C
atho
lic s
urro
undi
ngs"
(R
andi
c ha
d al
so s
pent
a y
ear
in S
cotla
nd).
The
proj
ect r
an f
rom
Nov
embe
r 19
59 to
Oct
ober
196
0, w
ith K
uipe
r of
fcia
lly d
evot
-in
g to
it 5
per
cent
of
his
prof
essi
onal
tim
e an
d R
andi
c 75
per
cent
of
his
time.
To-
geth
er th
ey p
rodu
ced
two
leng
thy
conf
iden
tial r
epor
ts, i
nclu
ding
a d
etai
led
com
men
tary
on
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
ers,
thei
r w
ork
, and
thei
r in
stitu
tions
. The
re-
port
s as
sess
ed th
e re
lativ
e st
reng
ths
and
wea
knes
ses
of A
mer
ican
and
Sov
iet
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my
and
com
pare
d th
e nu
mbe
r of
Am
eric
an a
nd S
ovie
tw
orke
rs in
the
field
.In
his
pro
posa
l to
the
CIA
Kui
per
decl
ared
that
his
rev
iew
wou
ld b
e ba
sed
prin
-ci
pally
on
publ
ishe
d do
cum
ents
. His
vie
w o
f th
at li
tera
ture
(in
clud
ing
Koz
yrev
wor
k) r
emai
ned
stro
ngly
infl
uenc
ed b
y hi
s oc
casi
onal
per
sona
l con
tact
s w
ith S
o-vi
et a
stro
nom
ers.
For
exa
mpl
e, in
pri
vate
lette
rs to
Am
eric
an r
esea
rche
rs in
the
fall
of 1
959
, Kui
per
shar
ply
criti
cize
d th
e fa
r-si
de lu
nar
imag
es a
ttrib
uted
to th
eL
unik
III
mis
sion
, dec
lari
ng th
at th
ey a
ppea
red
to b
e gr
oss
extr
apol
atio
ns f
rom
mar
gina
l dat
a or
eve
n ou
trig
ht f
orge
ries
. Yet
by
Oct
ober
196
0, in
his
fin
al C
IAco
ntra
ct r
epor
t, K
uipe
r pr
aise
d th
e L
unik
pro
gram
as
one
of "
grea
t com
pete
nce
who
se d
ata
had
not b
een
"ove
r-in
terp
rete
d"
on a
ccou
nt o
f th
e "c
alm compe-
tenc
e" of the Lunik III science team.
Kui
per
s ch
ange
of
view
ow
ed m
uch
to th
e vi
sit o
f a
Sovi
et a
stro
nom
er, V
. I.
Kra
ssov
sky,
to th
e Y
erke
s O
bser
vato
ry in
late
Nov
embe
r 19
59. K
rass
ovsk
y w
ason
e of
the
few
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
to v
isit
this
fac
ility
in th
e la
te 1
950s
, as
ex-
47 K
uipe
r to
W. G
ordo
n W
hale
y, 1
9 A
ug. 1
960
, Box
14
, Kui
per
pape
rs; G
. and
E. M
. Bur
bidg
em
emo,
ca.
Oct
. 195
9, B
urbi
dge
file
, Mor
gan
pape
rs; K
uipe
r, "
Prop
osal
for
the
Dev
elop
men
t of
an I
n-fr
ared
and
Mic
row
ave
Faci
lty a
t the
McD
onal
d O
bser
vato
ry o
f T
exas
" U
nive
rsity
of
Tex
as 1
960
file
Yer
kes
Obs
erva
tory
dir
ecto
rss
files
, Wili
ams
Bay
, Wis
cons
in; C
ruik
shan
k, "
Kui
per"
(ci
t. n.
5);
and
Ew
en A
. Whi
take
rT
he U
nive
rsity
of A
rizon
as
Luna
r an
d P
lane
tary
Lab
orat
ory:
Its
Fou
ndin
g an
dEarly Years
(Tuc
son:
Uni
v. A
rizo
na, 1
985)
.48
Kui
per, "
Rep
ort o
n S
ympo
sium
, 'T
he M
oon,
' " c
onfid
entia
l CIA
dra
ft, c
a. D
ec. 1
960
, p. 2
, Box
, Kui
per
pape
rs. L
imite
d co
mm
unic
atio
ns b
y So
viet
aut
hori
ties
mad
e it
diff
cult
for
astr
onom
ers
toob
tain
eve
n th
e m
ost e
lem
enta
ry in
form
atio
n, s
uch
as th
e or
bita
l cha
ract
eris
tics
of th
e Sp
utm
k sa
tel-
lites
; see
Wol
fgan
g P
riest
er, i
nter
view
by
Ron
ald
Doe
l, 1
9 Ja
n. 1
987
, AlP
; and
Wal
ter
Sulli
van
Ass
ault
on the Unknown: The International Geophysical Year
(New
Yor
k: M
cGra
w-H
ill, 1
961)
, pp.
72-
73.
49 See Kuiper to R. N. Dyruff ,
7 J
une
1958
, and
R. 0
. Buc
hana
n to
E V
. Kel
ly, 1
5 M
ay 1
958
, bot
hB
ox I
I, K
uipe
r pa
pers
.
so K
uipe
r to
Her
man
L. C
room
, 18
Oct
. 196
0, B
ox 3
3ib
id.
51 K
uipe
r to
CIA
, 10
Apr
il 19
59, B
ox 3
3ib
id.
52 K
uipe
r, "
Mem
oran
dum
on
Rus
sian
Ast
rono
my:
Rep
ort N
o.. I
" ca. Oct. 1959, p. 10
, Box
33;
Kui
per
to J
. J. R
aim
ond
, ca.
sum
mer
or
fall
1959
, Box 28; and KUiper to Lawrence
mpt
on, I
Nov
.1959, p. 3, Box 18;
ibid
. T
rans
late
excerpts .from the
umk II sCience reports clrc,:l
ated
In
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es p
rior
to th
e pr
epar
atio
n of
off
cial
tran
slat
IOns
; see
, e.
, Leo
Gol
dber
g, T
rans
allo
nfr
om R
ussi
an A
stro
nom
ical
Cir
cula
r N
o. 2
06, D
ecem
ber
12, 1
959,
'Firs
t Res
ults
of I
nves
tigat
IOn
ofPh
otog
raph
s of
the
Oth
er S
ide
of th
e Su
rfac
e of
the
Moo
n,'''
Dec
. 195
9, c
opy
in B
ox I
Iib
id.
258
EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A25
9
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L
chan
e vi
sits
incr
ease
d on
ly g
radu
all f
ollo
wsp
henc
spe
cial
ist ,
a h
igh-
rank
ing
off J
al in
thIng the
eath o
Stal
in. A
n at
mo-
and
a m
embe
r of
the
Lun
le
emer
gIng
Sov
iet s
pace
pro
gram
ISS
lOn
sCie
nce
team
Kr
the
Um
ted
Stat
es a
s pa
rt o
f a
pro
ram
or
aas
sovs
ha
d be
en I
nvite
d to
he a
ppar
ently
had
ask
ed to
vis
it kui er
mze
d by
the
Am
enca
n R
ocke
t Soc
iety
;
program. The two men joined b R
P d
' n a
ccou
nt o
f th
e Y
erke
s lu
nar-
map
ping
at th
e ne
arby
Lak
e L
wn L
, gat
here
d fo
r a :hanksgiving Day meal
Kui
pers home where over
refr
esaS
SovS
k Y a
nd K
Uip
er th
en r
etre
ated
toen
sse
rve
bMrs K'
vers
ed lo
ng In
to th
e ni
ght. 53
. Ulper, t
e tw
o m
en c
on-
The
mee
ting
mad
e a
stro
ng im
pres
sion
on K
' so
lar
syst
em a
stro
nom
y an
d to' d
U
lper
s v
iew
s of
Sov
iet w
ork
in
role
in s
hapi
ng th
e to
nd co
e b l h
IS n
otes
on
the
mee
ting,
pla
yed
a la
rge
leag
ues
and
patr
ons
The
orc
eIS
rep
orts
to th
e C
IA a
s w
ell a
s to
col
-as
sura
nce
of K
rass
o k'
IS detaded explanations of the L '
III
vs y
s c
ara
cter
, as
wel
l as
wha
t per
suad
ed h
im th
at th
e lu
na;r
-sid
:gIng system
, Kip
er r
epor
ted
, wer
e
wha
t deg
ree
Kui
per
s vi
ews
pers
uade
d ot
h:r
aPhs were Indeed
enui
ne. (
To
although a consensus along those lines h d
en c
an a
stro
nom
ers
IS u
ncer
tain
valu
ed K
rass
ovsk
ys corroboratin te f a
emer
ged
by e
arly
196
0.)5
4 K
uipe
r al
so
sonally unstable and further
g s
lmon
y th
at K
ozyr
ev, i
n hi
s vi
ew, w
as p
er-
Alp
hons
us a
nd f
und
it " d
efec
t he had seen. t
he c
rtic
al s
pect
rum
of
a se
cond
tim
e , u
ncer
tain
whe
ther
' Kr
epea
ted
IS q
uest
IOn
abou
t Koz
yrev
had understood' he was delighted
Kr
y, s
peak
ng th
roug
h an
inte
rpre
ter
Kuiper appeared
to v
alue
mos
t f w
eas
sosk
y re
itera
ted
his
criti
cism
. Wha
t
form
atio
n he
rec
eive
d bu
t tha
t tI e me
tmg
was
not
mer
ely
the
spec
ific
in-
roug
h th
e po
litic
al t
nsio
ns o
fth
~~~
nva
conv
ersa
tion
seem
ed to
pie
rce
tIst
s, o
ne to
ano
ther
' "T
he v
' '
r an
allo
wed
them
to s
peak
as
scie
n-
questions on which
e co
ul;:s ver
t?rthwhile and cleared up
a nu
mbe
r of
sona
l dis
cuss
i ons
ave 0 amed good answers except by such
er-
roug out much of 1960 K .
meeting with Krassovsky in ex
..
mpe
r ci
ted
the
auth
ority
of h
is
tern
res
earc
h. 5
5 pr
essI
ng o
pInI
Ons
on
the
natu
re o
f Sov
iet s
olar
sys
-
Kui
per
was
in e
ffect
op
Yer
kes-
McDonald' the
a ,
g an
mt
llIge
ne
oper
atio
n th
roug
h th
e of
fces
of
vvar permitted him to .
. .
him from World War II. The se
f' re
sum
e pr
actic
es f
amili
ar to
criti
cize
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
' cre
nat
ure
0 hi
s re
port
s to
the
CIA
allo
wed
him
to
vate
lette
rs, another vehicle
:t:ot O
rwis
e os
sbl
e. e
xcep
t thr
ough
pri
-
to attack the work of Soviet res
:a
litte hesitatIOn m
usi
ng to
pra
ise
or
contract, he did not (at I
rc ers. ecause
?f th
e se
crec
y im
pose
d by
the
diff
cult
to d
isce
rn th
e re
denC
e) d
iscu
ss th
is w
ork,
and
thus
it is
whe
re. B
ut it
is c
lear
that
Kui
I 0 as r
nom
ers
at Y
erke
s-M
cDon
ald
or e
lse-
eval
uatin
g ne
w k
now
ledg
e a :
d r
rear
ded
IS
,:ork of contacts as essential for
tial m
eans
of
ensu
ring
tha t
ast
r: r
o t
IS
md
as a
legi
timat
e, e
ven
esse
n-
tive
fiel
ds o
f re
sear
ch w
ould
rem
ai
~~~~
tltut
lOns
eng
aged
in h
ighl
y co
mpe
ti-
V. D
ET
EN
TE
, SC
IEN
CE
, AN
D C
OM
MU
NIC
AT
ION
S: T
HE
LE
NIN
GR
AD
CO
NFE
RE
NC
E
Indi
vidu
al e
ncou
nter
s of
the
kind
Kui
per
valu
ed s
oon
lost
thei
r si
ngul
ar in
flu-
ence
, how
ever
, as
cont
acts
bet
wee
n A
mer
ican
and
Sov
iet a
stro
nom
ers
incr
ease
d.P
oliti
cal r
elat
ions
bet
wee
n th
e U
nite
d S
tate
s an
d th
e S
ovie
t Uni
on w
ere
hard
lyw
arm
in 1
960:
the
U-2
sur
veila
nce
plan
e pi
lote
d by
Fra
ncis
Gar
y Po
wer
s w
as
shot
dow
n on
I M
ay o
f th
at y
ear, c
ausi
ng th
e pl
anne
d Pa
ris
sum
mit
mee
tings
between Eisenhower and Khrushchev to be canceled. Nevertheless, plans to
hold
the
gene
ral m
eetin
g of
the
Inte
rnat
iona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
in th
e U
nite
dS
tate
s in
196
1 w
ent f
orw
ard
, and
fund
s fo
r A
mer
ican
sci
entis
ts to
atte
nd in
tern
a-
tiona
l mee
tings
abr
oad
wer
e in
crea
sing
ly a
vaila
ble.
One
con
sequ
ence
was
that
Mik
hailo
v w
as s
ucce
ssfu
l in
prop
osin
g th
at a
spe
cial
mee
ting
of th
e IA
U's
luna
r
com
mis
sion
, dev
oted
ent
irel
y to
luna
r re
sear
ch, b
e he
ld a
t Len
ingr
ad in
Dec
em-
ber
1960
. Mik
hailo
v na
med
Kui
per
as o
ne o
f six
mem
bers
of t
he p
rogr
am
com
mitt
ee.
Kui
per
wel
com
ed th
e m
eetin
g. I
t wou
ld a
llow
him
to g
ain
new
fir
stha
nd in
for-
mat
ion
abou
t the
pro
gres
s of
Sov
iet r
esea
rch
in lu
nar, p
lane
tary
, and
spa
ce s
ci-
ence
and
to d
eepe
n hi
s acquaintances with Soviet co
lleag
ues.
Ple
ased
with
Mik
hailo
vs
desi
re to
lim
it th
e co
nfer
ence
to f
ifty
or
sixt
y pa
rtic
ipan
ts, K
uipe
r
also
rea
lized
he
coul
d cl
ean
hous
e by
exc
ludi
ng th
ose
he c
onsi
dere
d "su
bsta
n-
dard
" A
mer
ican
res
earc
hers
, par
ticul
arly
thos
e, li
ke A
lter,
who
acc
epte
d K
o-
zyre
vs
evid
ence
and
inte
rpre
tatio
n of
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
. His
gam
bit f
aile
d w
hen
Kop
al, w
ho h
ad a
lso
been
app
oint
ed to
the
Len
ingr
ad p
rogr
am c
omm
ittee
and
was
a c
lose
ass
ocia
te o
f U
rey,
lear
ned
of th
e om
issi
ons.
Kop
al p
rom
ptly
issu
edin
vita
tions
to lu
nar
astr
onom
ers
igno
red
by K
uipe
r.56 By the time the meeting
conv
ened
on
6 D
ecem
ber
1960
, the
num
ber
of in
vite
d gu
ests
had
clim
bed
to o
ver
one
hund
red.
Of t
he fi
fty-t
hree
invi
ted
pres
enta
tio, t
wen
ty-t
wo
wer
e of
fere
d by
indi
vidu
als
from
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es; r
epre
sent
ativ
es o
f at
leas
t six
uni
vers
ities
and
vari
ous
gove
rnm
ent a
genc
ies
wer
e pr
esen
tY T
he m
eetin
g w
as th
e fi
rst m
ajor
sci
-en
tific
con
fere
nce
devo
ted
entir
ely
to E
arth
's ne
ares
t nei
ghbo
r.
Kui
per
did
not k
eep
a tr
ip d
iary
, as
he h
ad o
n hi
s vi
sit t
o M
osco
w in
the
sum
-m
er o
f 19
58, t
wo
and
a ha
lf y
ears
bef
ore.
His
res
pons
es to
the
mee
ting
mus
t be
glea
ned
from
his
sub
sequ
ent l
ette
rs a
nd f
rom
com
men
ts h
e jo
tted
in th
e m
argi
nsof
his
pro
gram
. Wha
t see
ms
clea
r is
that
he
expe
cted
no
maj
or s
urpr
ises
. Sho
rtly
befo
re th
e m
eetin
g he
had
wri
tten
Mik
hailo
v ag
ain.
In
lang
uage
that
rec
alle
d th
eef
fort
s of
Geo
rge
Elle
ry H
ale, W
alla
ce W
. Cam
pbel
l, an
d ot
her
lead
ers
of e
arly
twen
tieth
-cen
tury
Am
eric
an a
stro
nom
y to
pol
ice
disc
ussi
ons
of P
erci
val L
owel
l'un
orth
odox
cla
ims
of c
anal
s on
Mar
s, Kui
per
prot
este
d th
at d
iscu
ssio
ns o
f lu
nar
volc
anis
m w
ere
redu
cing
the
stat
ure
of th
e fi
eld.
Ris
ing
amat
eur
repo
rts
of tr
an-
sien
t lun
ar p
heno
men
a th
reat
ened
the
grow
th o
f sol
ar s
yste
m a
stro
nom
y at
his
own
faci
lity
and
else
whe
re. P
ulko
vos
failu
re to
add
ress
the
"int
erna
l con
trad
ic-
tions
" of
the
spec
trum
, or
to d
eny
its a
uthe
ntic
ity, h
e de
clar
ed, p
erpe
tuat
ed a
53 K
.54
\ 8 D
c. 1959
, Box
31
ibid. .
, ibi
d,
' Apn11960
, Box
12;
and
KU
Iper
to R
ick
Rile
y 21
Mar
196
0
"K .
, x
ulpe
rto
Jam
es J
. Har
ford
8D
ec 1
959
B 3 ..
and Kuiper
, "
Mem
oran
dum
0; Russi
n A
stro
; KU
l Per
to H
ibbs
, 21
Nov
. 196
0(ci
t. n.
14)
;
y, C
lt. n
. 2),
p. 1
0.
56 K
uipe
r to
Zde
nek
Kop
al, 3
0 N
ov. 1
960,
Box
II
, Kui
per
pape
rs; a
nd K
opal
to H
arol
d C
. Ure
y, 4
Aug
. 196
0, a
nd U
rey
to K
opal
, 21
Sep
t. 19
60, B
ox 5
0, U
rey
pape
rs.
57 Z
dene
k K
opal
and
Zde
nka
Kad
la M
ikha
ilov, e
ds.
The Moon
(I.A
.U. S
ympo
sium
14)
(N
ew Y
ork:
Aca
dem
ic P
ress
, 196
2), p
p. v
-ix.
260
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
LE
VA
LUA
TIN
G S
OV
IET
LU
NA
R S
CIE
NC
E IN
CO
LD W
AR
AM
ER
ICA
261
prob
lem
of
inte
rnat
iona
l rel
atio
ns.
8 W
hen
Mik
hailo
v di
d no
t res
pond
, Kui
per
conf
iden
ce in
his
con
vict
ions
abo
ut S
ovie
t ast
rono
my
soar
ed.
The
Len
ingr
ad m
eetin
g ne
vert
hele
ss p
rodu
ced
surp
rise
s. N
one
of th
e fi
ve s
es-
sion
s, d
evot
ed to
suc
h br
oad
topi
cs a
s ra
dio
obse
rvat
ions
and
roc
ket e
xplo
ratio
nsof
the
Moo
n, f
ocus
ed s
olel
y on
act
ivity
on
the
luna
r su
rfac
e. B
ut a
ses
sion
on
the
orig
in, i
nter
nal s
truc
ture
, and
sur
face
" of
the
Moo
n, h
eld
on 8
Dec
embe
r , in
-cl
uded
two
talk
s de
vote
d to
Koz
yrev
s 19
58 s
pect
rogr
aphi
c in
vest
igat
ion
ofA
lpho
nsus
. Koz
yrev
spo
ke f
irst
. Kui
per
liste
ned
inte
ntly
as
Koz
yrev
rei
tera
ted
his
clai
m th
at h
is p
late
gav
e un
ambi
guou
s ev
iden
ce o
f ac
tive
luna
r vo
lcan
ism
, inc
lud-
ing
ther
mal
em
issi
ons.
In
the
seco
nd ta
lk th
e L
enin
grad
ast
rono
mer
s A
. A.
Kal
inya
k an
d L
. A. K
amio
nko
offe
red
a so
mew
hat d
iffe
rent
inte
rpre
tatio
n. T
hey
subjected the
rigi
nal p
late
to a
mic
roph
otom
etri
c an
alys
is, a
sta
ndar
d pr
oced
ure
used
to d
eter
min
e pr
ecis
e lin
e id
entit
ies
as w
ell a
s qu
antit
ativ
e va
lues
for
them
.Their judgment was that the spectrum indeed revealed emission that fo
r ex
am-
ple ,
Koz
yrev
s id
entif
icat
ion
of th
e Sw
an b
ands
see
med
vir
tual
lyce
rt;in
, as
fain
tca
rbon
ban
ds (
whi
ch K
uipe
r ha
d no
t dis
cern
ed o
n hi
s co
py p
rint
s) w
ere
evid
ent
unde
r m
icro
phot
omet
ric s
crut
iny.
Onl
y on
one
poi
nt-a
lthou
gh a
sub
stan
tial
one-
did
thes
e re
sear
cher
s di
ffer
fro
m K
ozyr
ev: t
hey
argu
ed th
at th
e sp
ectr
al e
vi-
denc
e w
as m
ore
cons
iste
nt w
ith c
old
gase
s , p
ossi
bly
rele
ased
as
a di
scre
te g
ascl
oud
, tha
n w
ith h
ot, v
olca
nic
outp
ouri
ng. S
uch
an e
vent
, qui
esce
nt in
nat
ure ,
did
not r
equi
re th
at th
e M
oon
be v
olca
nica
lly active. 59
Kui
per
s no
tes
unfo
rtun
atel
y do
not
rec
ord
whe
n hi
s im
pres
sion
s of
the
spec
-tr
um a
nd K
ozyr
ev b
egan
to c
hang
e. T
he p
ivot
al m
omen
t see
med
to c
ome
late
r in
the
conf
eren
ce w
hen
, pee
ring
thro
ugh
a hi
gh- p
ower
ed m
agni
fyin
g gl
ass,
he
per-
sona
lly e
xam
ined
the
orig
inal
slid
es. T
his
priv
ate
conf
ront
atio
n w
ith K
ozyr
evev
iden
ce h
ad g
reat
eff
ect a
nd m
arke
d an
unm
ista
kabl
e cr
itica
l mom
ent i
n th
eco
ntro
vers
y. A
gain
and
aga
in in
lette
rs to
col
leag
ues
follo
win
g th
e co
nfer
ence
Kui
per
decl
ared
that
he
" had
no
doub
t lef
t tha
t the
spe
ctra
are
gen
uine
. " E
ven
Am
eric
an r
esea
rche
rs w
ho s
uppo
rted
Koz
yrev
bef
ore
the
conf
eren
ce w
ere
im-
pressed: Urey advised Philip Abelson of
Scie
nce
that "un
anim
ous"
agr
eem
ent d
e-ve
lope
d at
Len
ingr
ad th
at K
ozyr
evs
plat
es w
ere
auth
entic
.Fo
r K
uipe
r to
adm
it hi
s m
ista
ke, a
fter
his
for
cefu
l ass
essm
ents
to th
e co
ntra
ry,
requ
ired
no
smal
l am
ount
of
cour
age.
Cer
tain
ly h
is c
onve
rsio
n w
as a
ided
by
his
relie
f tha
t the
Kal
inya
k-K
amio
nko
anal
ysis
req
uire
d no
vol
cani
c ac
tivity
: it
mea
nt o
nly
" tha
t occ
asio
nally
som
e co
ld g
ases
esc
ape "
and
thus
"no
dra
stic
chan
ge in
the
mod
el f
or th
e in
teri
or o
f th
e M
oon
is n
eede
d."6
1 T
he r
esul
t , in
,;\: .
"KuipertoA. A. Mikhailov, 2
4 A
ug. 1
960,
Box
I I ,
and
Kui
per
to B
art B
ok, 2
2 S
ept.
1959
, Box
10
both
in K
uipe
r pa
pers
; and
Dav
id H
. DeV
orki
n
, "
w. W. Campbell'
s Sp
ectr
osco
pic
Stud
y of
the
Mar
-tia
n A
tmos
pher
eQuarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society,
1977
, 18:
37-5
3.,.
Ver
sion
s of
thes
e pa
pers
wer
e su
bseq
uent
ly p
ublis
hed:
see
N. A
. Koz
yrev
, "
Spe
ctro
scop
ic P
roof
sfo
r E
xist
ence
of
Vol
cani
c Pr
oces
ses
on th
e M
oon
" an
d A
. A. K
alin
yak
and
L. A
. Kam
ionk
oM
icro
phot
omet
ric
Ana
lysi
s of
the
Em
issi
on F
lare
in th
e R
egio
n of
the
Cen
tral
Pea
k of
the
Cra
ter
Alp
hons
us o
n 3
Nov
embe
r 19
58"
both
in K
opal
and
Mik
hailo
vThe Moon
(cit.
n. 5
7), p
p. 2
63-2
7227
3-28
7. F
or a
Sov
iet p
ersp
ectiv
e on
the
cont
rove
rsy
see
A. N
. Dad
aev, "
Pervootkryarel' lunnogo
Uyl
kani
zma
(K 7
5-leriiu so dnia rozhdeniia N. A. Kozyreva),
Fizi
ches
kie
aspe
kty
sovr
emen
noi
astr
onom
ii (S
born
ik n
auch
nykh
trud
ov)
(Len
ingr
ad: A
kade
miia
Nau
k SS
SR, (
985)
, pp.
8-2
4. I
than
kR
ober
t McC
utch
eon
for
calln
g m
y at
tent
ion
to th
is w
ork.
60 K
uipe
r to
Llo
yd V
. Ber
kner
, 27
Dec
. 196
0, B
ox I
I, a
nd K
uipe
r to
Hom
er E
. New
ell,
7 N
ov. 1
963
Box 8
, bot
h in
Kui
per
pape
rs; a
nd H
arol
d C
. Ure
y to
Phi
lip A
bels
on, 9
Jan
. 196
1, B
ox 2
, Ure
y pa
pers
.6'
Kui
per
to S
ubra
man
yan
Cha
ndra
sekh
ar, 2
6 D
ec. 1
960
, 7 J
an. 1
961
, Box
10
, Kui
per
pape
rs.
Figu
re
2.
The
Int
erna
tiona
l Ast
rono
mic
al U
nion
sym
posi
um o
n th
e M
oon,
. Pul
kovo
Ob-
serv
ator
y, L
enin
grad
, Dec
embe
r 19
60. S
eate
d in
the
fron
t row
are
(le
ft to
rig
ht)
.Ger
ard
P. K
uipe
r, Z
denk
a K
. Mik
hailo
v, E
ugen
e M
. Sho
emak
er, Harold
C.
Ure
y, Z
dene
k K
opal
T. W
Rac
kham
, Alb
ert
C.
Hib
bs, A
udou
in D
ollfu
s, a
nd A
leks
andr
A. M
tkha
zlov
. Ntk
olat
A. K
ozyr
ev is
sea
ted
in th
e fo
urth
row
, beh
ind
and
slig
htly
left
of
Rac
kham
. Pho
togr
aph
cour
tesy
of Z
dene
k K
opal
.
othe
r w
ords
, pos
ed li
tte th
reat
to K
uipe
rs
evol
utio
nary
mod
el o
fth
Moo
n
the
mic
roph
otom
etri
c an
alys
is a
nsw
ered
obj
ectio
ns h
e ha
d fi
rst r
aise
d ag
amst
Koz
yrev
s cl
aim
that
the
spec
tra
dem
onst
rate
d ga
seou
s em
issi
on.
Impo
rtan
t as
Kui
per
s co
nfro
ntat
ion
with
the
evid
ence
was
, it w
as n
ot a
lone
re-
sponsible for causing his views to shift. In early 1959 Kuiper was aware that
ev-
eral
Am
eric
an a
nd B
ritis
h sc
ient
ists
had
sug
gest
ed th
at K
ozyr
evs
spec
tra
mig
ht
be e
xpla
ined
by
nont
herm
al le
akag
e of
gas
es f
rom
the
Moo
n; h
e ha
d re
ject
ed th
isal
tern
ativ
e on
the
stre
ngth
of
argu
men
ts b
y su
ch v
isiti
ng S
ovie
t ast
rono
mer
s as
Mas
sevi
tch
and
Kra
ssov
sky
(nei
ther
of w
hom
atte
nded
the
Leni
ngra
d co
nfer
-en
ce).
Mor
eove
r, in
his
pri
vate
com
mun
icat
ions
to p
atro
ns, K
uipe
r ha
d e
size
d so
cial
and
pro
fess
iona
l rea
sons
for
rej
ectin
g K
ozyr
evs
wor
k, s
tres
smg
his
own
qual
ific
atio
ns f
or e
valu
atin
g th
e re
sear
ch r
esul
ts o
f So
viet
sci
enti
ts.
In s
ubse
quen
t let
ters
to h
is m
ost i
nflu
entia
l pat
rons
and
con
tact
s, mcl
udm
g
Hom
er N
ewel
l of N
AS
A, t
he g
eoph
ysic
ist a
nd a
dmin
istr
ator
Llo
yd B
erkn
er, a
nd
his
hand
lers
at t
he C
IA, Kuiper paid comparatively little attention to
ozyr
ev
scie
ntif
ic f
indi
ngs.
He
focu
sed
inst
ead
on h
is n
ew im
pres
sion
s of
the
Sovi
eas
tr
nom
ical
com
mun
ity. O
ne o
f th
e m
ajor
dif
fere
nces
bet
wee
n th
e IA
U m
eetm
gs m
Mos
cow
in 1
958
and
the
Len
ingr
ad c
onfe
renc
e, h
e no
ted
, was
the
free
dom
he
had
to tr
avel
abo
ut th
e ci
ty, t
o vi
sit t
he h
omes
and
off
ces
of S
ovie
t col
leag
ues
such
as
Ogo
rodn
ikov
and
Mik
hailo
v fo
r lo
ng e
veni
ng c
onve
rsat
ioan
d to
ass
esfi
rst-
hand
the
qual
ity o
f th
eir
labo
rato
ries
and
inst
rum
ents
. He
visi
ted
Shar
onov
s la
b-
262
RO
NA
LD
E. D
OE
L
orat
ory
at th
e L
enng
rad
llvef
Sty
("
d .
run
dow
n, on the lower flo
ocat
e In
a fo
rmer
girl
s' s
choo
se
cond
flo
or, w
as a
ll ri
ght o
r. .
Tut the . Ia
bora
tory
, con
sist
ing
of fi
ve
r' .
tern
bly
quat
e),
had
din
ner
with
' . '' .
e eq
uipm
ent w
as s
impl
e, h
ome-
ma
ms
on th
e
smal
l par
ty h
oste
d by
OgO
~~~~
~
llov F
and
cele
brat
ed h
is f
ifty
-fift
h b
ut a
de-
no tr
ansl
ator
.62 The details K
. ov. requently he
con
vers
ed in
Fre
nch ay at a
ret
rn f, on
the
who
le r
esem
ble
~~~
to c?n
vey
to A
mer
ican
OffC
i
~~~
ma
e or
the
CIA
ear
lier
that
yea
r' th
e m
aJr
asse
ssm
ent h
e an
d R
andi
c ha
d
~~~~
~~~~
~~~~
~~~
~ oft
. O;g
ani
~~~~
~~; p
~~~
~~~ /r
eate
st
wel
l as
thos
e at
the
top.
"
~~~~
amon
g sc
ient
its
at t
he "second eche~~
~~
ther
e IS
a s
urpr
isin
g am
ount
of
in e .a
ppar
ent s
olid
fro
nt o
f R
ussi
an s
cien
. as
~~~
to e
ceed
toc
casi
o
~~~
1:t
al r
ival
ry, ?
fan
inte
n
. c usslan politicians come to the . . t se
ems
as I
f th
e m
etho
ds
Infi
ghti
ng, h
e di
scov
ered
, exi
sted
bus
ed a
lso
amon
g th
e sc
ient
ists
.
Ilar
con
flic
ts h
ad a
ppar
ently
led
Kr Kozyrev and Massevitch and
and
resu
lts. "
Kra
ssov
sky
had
lied
to m
e as
sovs
ky t
att a
ck K
ozyr
evs credibilit
on Thanksgiving 1959"
at a receptIOn In my home in
. Y
fi d
"63
Ulper eclared" I h
ISC
OnS
In
e . .
It w
as c
lear
ly d
iffc
ult f
or h
im to
ac' a
s w
dis
cove
red
and
veri-
so e
asIl
y co
mpr
omis
ed b
such
cept that SCIentific objectivit
b"
pers
onal
squ
abbl
een
ItIO
ns h
ad b
een
jeop
ardi
zed
in th
e es
, or
that
his
ow
n in
stitu
tiona
l
Afte
r re
turn
into
tpr
oces
s.
fI
II e
tates K .
una :
tran
sien
t phe
nom
ena.
Alth
ou '
er
step
s to
enc
oura
ge th
e st
udy
of p
ossi
ble
luna
r ou
tgas
sing
sin
ce h
Ip
er d
id n
ot p
erso
nally
laun
ch s
tudi
es
y:ev
s ev
iden
ce, he did
ermit o
::::?
affe
d, d
espi
te h
is a
ccep
tanc
e of
In nz
?na
to d
o so
. (T
he a
cron
ym L
TP
"IS unar
? P
lane
tary
Lab
orat
ory
later cOIned by a member
ofK
, for
luna
r tr
ansI
tory
phe
nom
eU
lper
s s
taff
) H
' . '
was
age
ot e
r go
vern
men
t-funded lunar '. e
a so
use
d hI
S In
flue
nce
to e
ncou
r
at the Lowell Observatory by the Air
app:
n X p
rogr
a, i
nclu
ding
one
laun
che
ter , to monitor the Moon for si n orce s
rona
utlC
al C
hart
and
Inf
orm
atio
n
dItI
oal
exa
mpl
es o
f su
ch p
heno
m: of possIble
hang
e. A
ttem
pts
to lo
cate
ad-
crea
sIng
sop
hist
icat
ion
of lu
nar
spac
e ge
eral
lY d
id n
ot s
ucce
ed, d
espi
te th
e in
-
many lunar scientists found the m
a a
s w
ell a
s gr
ound
- bas
ed s
tudi
es a
nd
reso
lved
.a er 0 Kozyrev
s plates unsatisfac;o
rily
VI.
CO
NC
LU
SIO
N
Kui
per
s pr
ogra
ms
ofIu
nar
rese
arch
ben
fi
:ary
pat
rona
ge a
fter
the
laun
ch o
f Sp
utn
k t
;rm
OU
SlY
from
fede
ral a
nd m
il i-
unar research after 1958 helped stren
e ?O? o
men
t sup
port
for
for
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
my,
per
mitt
e
~~~
the eXIStI
g In
stitu
tIO
nal f
ound
atio
ns
scop
es, a
nd e
ncou
rage
d th
e de
velo
pmen
t lon
stct
IOne
w, d
edic
ated
tele
-0 new
Inte
rdIs
Cip
linar
y re
sear
ch p
ro-
:: K
upe
r, "
Rep
ort o
n S
ym o
sium
KUiper to Berkner 27
1960
t. n.
48)
, p. 2
.64 K . ,
(Clt
n 60
) A
Ppa~~
~~
Hom
er
wel
l , ?
Nov
. 196
3: K
uipe
nd K
uipe
r, "
Rep
ort o
n S
ympo
sium
1966
, 55:
I oo
~~~~
~~~
evie
wed
i'Z
aM
. Mid
dieh
st:
79:2
65- 2
68; a
nd p
erso
nal d
iscu
ssio
n w
i' s
unar
Tra
nsito
ry P
heno
men
a;::
/Tfe
sc:
g'. oemaker
, Fla
gsta
ff , A
rizo
na, 4
Dec
. 199
0.
EV
ALU
AT
ING
SO
VIE
T L
UN
AR
SC
IEN
CE
IN C
OLD
WA
R A
ME
RIC
A26
3
gram
s w
ithin
trad
ition
al a
cade
mic
dep
artm
ents
of
astr
onom
y. S
olar
sys
tem
as-
tron
omy
at b
oth
Chi
cago
and
Ari
zona
gre
w r
apid
ly a
s a
dire
ct r
esul
t of
the
com
-m
itmen
t of
natio
nal r
esou
rces
to th
e sp
ace
race
. Stil
l, new
tele
scop
e co
nstr
uctio
n
did
not k
eep
pace
with
this
unp
rece
dent
ed e
xpan
sion
, cau
sing
com
petit
ion
to in
-
crea
se s
harp
ly b
etw
een
sola
r sy
stem
ast
rono
mer
s an
d m
embe
rs o
f ot
her
spec
ial-
ties
for
tele
scop
e tim
e.As director of the Yerkes-M
cDon
ald
obse
rvat
orie
s an
d su
bseq
uent
ly o
f th
e
Lun
ar a
nd P
lane
tary
Lab
orat
ory,
Kui
per
reco
gniz
ed th
at su
cces
sful
adm
inis
tra-
tion
requ
ired
him
to fu
lfill
a va
riety
of ro
les.
He
was
mos
t com
fort
able
pro
vidi
ng
his
patr
ons
the
kind
of
know
ledg
e th
at a
stro
nom
ers
enga
ged
in s
olar
sys
tem
re-
sear
ch a
fter
Wor
ld W
ar I
I w
ere
wel
l pos
ition
ed to
off
er: e
xper
tise
in p
repa
ring
luna
r m
aps,
in evaluating the kinds of research that could be undertaken by
in s
itu
spac
ecra
ft s
tudi
es, a
nd in
ass
essi
ng th
e lim
its o
f kn
owle
dge
in th
e va
riou
s cr
oss-
disc
iplin
ary
fiel
ds th
at c
ontr
ibut
ed to
luna
r st
udie
s. H
ere
the
role
of
adm
inis
tra-
tor
fit c
omfo
rtab
ly w
ith h
is d
utie
s as
a s
cien
tist a
nd le
ader
of
a pr
ofes
sion
al f
ield
.Y
et to
mai
ntai
n lu
nar
rese
arch
as
a co
mpe
titiv
e su
bfie
ld o
f ast
rono
my,
Kui
per
foun
d it
nece
ssar
y to
pro
mot
e th
e va
lue
and
rele
vanc
e of
the
field
act
ivel
y to
new
fede
ral a
nd m
ilita
ry p
atro
ns, a
nd to
kee
p th
e fi
eld
befo
re th
e pu
blic
eye
. See
king
a
secu
re n
iche
and
aw
are
of th
e hi
gh s
cien
tific
and
pol
itica
l val
ue a
ttach
ed to
Sov
iet
luna
r re
sults
, Kui
per
succ
essf
ully
pro
mot
ed h
imse
lf to
pat
rons
as
an e
xper
t int
er-
preter of Soviet science.
The
Koz
yrev
con
trov
ersy
hol
ds m
uch
sign
ific
ance
for
the
soci
olog
y of
sci
ence
.K
uipe
rs
role
as
a sc
ient
ist-
entr
epre
neur
was
str
aine
d by
Koz
yrev
s re
port
ed d
is-
cove
ry o
f lu
nar
volc
anis
m, w
hich
thre
aten
ed h
is th
eori
es o
f lu
nar
evol
utio
n an
d
chal
leng
ed h
is c
rede
ntia
ls in
adv
isin
g go
vern
men
t age
ncie
s ab
out t
he lu
nar
envi
-ro
nmen
t. M
any
of th
e st
eps
that
Kui
per
took
to in
terp
ret K
ozyr
evs
char
acte
r an
d
cred
entia
ls a
t a d
ista
nce
wer
e m
otiv
ated
by
his
desi
re to
def
end
his
own
theo
reti-
cal c
once
pts,
to w
hich
he
was
dee
ply
atta
ched
. The
re is
no
ques
tion
that
his
abru
pt r
ever
sal o
f opi
nion
abo
ut K
ozyr
evs
evid
ence
in L
enin
grad
was
eas
ed b
y
new
inte
rpre
tatio
ns o
f th
e sp
ectr
um b
y So
viet
ast
rono
mer
s th
at le
ft h
is th
eore
ti-, cal fr
amew
ork
undi
stur
bed.
Fur
ther
, Kui
per
was
no
less
atte
ntiv
e to
soc
ial c
onte
xt
follo
win
g th
e L
enin
grad
enc
ount
er th
an b
efor
e: h
e lo
st n
o tim
e at
tem
ptin
g to
dis
-co
ver
why
his
Sov
iet s
ourc
es h
ad le
d hi
m a
stra
y, o
r in
com
mun
icat
ing
thes
e ne
win
sigh
ts to
Am
eric
an c
olle
ague
s an
d pa
tron
s. I
t sho
uld
not b
e co
nclu
ded,
how
ever
that
sci
entif
ic evidence played anything less than a primary role in shaping
Kui
per
s vi
ew, f
or o
nly
afte
r ho
ldin
g K
ozyr
evs
evid
ence
in h
is h
and
did
he b
e-
com
e co
nvin
ced
of it
s au
then
ticity
and
sig
nifi
canc
e. T
hese
soci
al d
ynam
ics
sup-
port
arg
umen
ts b
y Pe
ter
Gal
ison
, Yve
s G
ingr
as, a
nd S
ilvan
Sch
web
er th
at w
hile
pers
onal
and
soc
ial p
rogr
ams
mus
t be
take
n in
to a
ccou
nt in
exp
lain
ing
the
cour
seof
sci
entif
ic c
ontr
over
sies
, phe
nom
enol
ogic
al c
onst
rain
ts c
anno
t be
over
look
ed in
dete
rmin
ing
the
outc
ome.
The
eve
nts
also
sho
w th
at p
ublic
dem
onst
ratio
ns o
f sc
i-en
tific
res
ults
con
tinue
to p
lay
impo
rtan
t rol
es, a
s St
even
Sha
pin
and
Sim
on
Schaffer have recently argued for the seventeenth century.
