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BASICS OF OIL ANALYSIS

The ack nowl edged l eader in o il a nal ysi s s ince 196 0

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BASICSOFOILANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION

Formany years, lubricant inspection and testing has been used to help diagnose the internal condition of oilwettedcomponentsandprovidevaluable informationabout lubricant serviceability.The first testmethodsused for thispurposeincludedsuchsimpleproceduresassmellingusedoilforthesourodorofexcessacid,checkingvisuallyforobvioussignsofcontamination, orplacingadropofsampleonabsorbentpapertodetectcontaminantsandmonitoradditiveeffectiveness.Asbasicresearchandtechnologyexpanded,progress in lubricant testingkeptpace.An increasingly largenumberof testsweredevelopedtoassesslubricantphysicalpropertiesanddetectcontaminants.

In1946theDenverandRioGrandeRailroadresearchlaboratorysuccessfullydetecteddieselengineproblemsthroughwearmetalanalysisofusedoils.Akeyfactorintheirsuccesswasthedevelopmentofthespectrograph,asingleinstrumentthatreplacedseveralwetchemicalmethodsfordetectingandmeasuring individualchemicalelementssuchas ironorcopper.Thispracticewassoonacceptedandusedextensivelythroughouttherailroadindustry.

By1955oil analysishadmatured to thepoint that theUnitedStatesNavalBureauofWeaponsbegan amajor researchprogramtoadoptwearmetalanalysisforuseinaircraftcomponentfailureprediction.Thesestudiesformedthebasisfora

JointOil

Analysis

Program

(JOAP)

involving

all

branches

of

the

U.S.

Armed

Forces.

The

JOAP

results

proved

conclusively

that

increases in componentwearcouldbeconfirmedbydetectingcorresponding increases in thewearmetalcontentof thelubricatingoil. In1958Pacific IntermountainExpress (P.l.E.)was the firsttruckingcompany tosetupan inhouseusedoilanalysislaboratorytocontrolvehiclemaintenancecosts. Thisextensivehistorymakesoilanalysistheoldestoftheproactivemaintenancetechnologies.

In1960Analysts,Inc.wasfounded,becomingthefirstindependentlaboratorytoprovideacompleteoilanalysisdiagnosticservicetoallareasofbusinessandindustry.

Ourmoderndayoilanalysisisbuiltonthefirmfoundationoftheseearlyefforts.Theimportanceofusingacombinationofphysicalandspectrochemicalteststomonitor lubricantandcomponentcondition isnowuniversallyaccepted.Oilanalysistestproceduresareestablishedandreviewedbysuchagenciesasthe InternationalOrganizationforStandardization(ISO),theAmericanSocietyforTestingandMaterials(ASTM)andtheSocietyofAutomotiveEngineers(SAE),andawidevarietyoflaboratoryandpersonnelcertificationshasemerged.

Analysts,Inc.

is

proud

of

our

major

continuing

role

in

the

original

and

current

development

of

commercial

oil

analysis

into

what isnowrecognizedasoneof themosteffectiveproactivemaintenance toolsavailable.We feelconfidentthattheoilanalysis instrumentsandtechniquesofthefuturewillbackourcontinuingcommitmenttoproactivemaintenance throughusedoilanalysis.

MarkSmith

TechnicalAdministrator

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BASICSOFOILANALYSIS

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APPLYINGOILANALYSIS

Oilanalysisisthemostwidelyacceptedandimplementedformofproactivemaintenancetechnology.Itisanintegralpartofthe maintenance plan for power plants, manufacturing plants, trucking companies, construction equipment, aircraft,refrigeration systems, processing and chemical plants, etc. Any piece of equipment that has a lubricating system is an

excellentcandidate

for

oil

analysis.

A

successful

oil

analysis

program

requires

an

organized

and

sustained

effort.

Both

the

userandthelaboratorymustworkcloselytogethertoachievethedesiredresults.

OUTLINEFORANEFFECTIVEOILANALYSISPROGRAM

1. Determineyourprimaryobjectives.

Oilanalysiscanbeappliedtoequipmentutilization,maintenanceandmanagement:

Utilization

Increasemarginsofoperationalsafety

Increaseavailabilitybydecreasingdowntime

Increaseoverallcomponentlifespan

Controlstandbyequipmentandreplacementpartrequirements

Decreasefuelandoilconsumption

Maintenance

Identify

and

measure

lube

contamination

and

component

wear

Eliminateunnecessaryoverhaulsorinspections

Reduceinservicefailuresandfieldrepairs

Establishproperlubricantserviceintervals

Management

Improvecostassessmentandcontrolforequipment,laborandmaterials

Improveequipmentrecordkeepingprocedures

Evaluateequipmentdesigns/applications

Revealfaultyoperatorpractices

Almost anymachine that has a lubrication system can be placed on an oil analysis program. Those componentswhoseperformancedirectlyaffects the continuedoperationofaparticularunitoroverallprofitabilityofbusiness are themostlikelycandidatesforroutineoilanalysis.

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2. Carefullyconsideryourbestchoiceforoilanalysis

All oil analysis laboratories claim they are 'qualified',Although certifications and requirements that a 'qualified' used oilanalysislaboratorymustmeetarenowmuchmoredefinedthaninthepast,onethinghasnotchanged:You,theoilanalysisuser,mustchoosewhichlaboratorybestsatisfiesyourneeds.

Forexample,Analysts' five regional laboratorieshavebeen featured innumerousmagazinearticles,advertisements,andotherpublishedmaterials.These 'secondopinions'areexcellentsourcesofreferenceaboutourservice.Thebestguidetochoosingalaboratory,however, isexperience.Chancesare,someone inyourfield isalreadyusingoneormoreofthelabsyouareconsidering.Talkwiththem.They'llconfirmhowwedefine'qualified'.

Choose awellestablished laboratoryAnalysts, for example, has been in operation since 1960 long enough to havedevelopedcomplete,timetestedproceduresforanalysis,customercontactandsalesservice.Weofferawideselectionofsamplingmaterials, includingourpatentedBellows

,QSS

sampling valves,andother supplies andmake sure that these

materialsareinstockwhenyouneedthem.Weprovidetheadditionaldescriptiveliteratureandtrainingassistanceneededtosupportyouroilanalysisprogram.

Choose awellequipped laboratory Each Analysts' laboratory is deeply computerized, andmost of ourmodern,wellmaintainedinstrumentsareautomatedanddirectlyinterfacedwiththe labcomputersystem.Wefollowpublished,proventestingproceduresanduseonlythehighestqualitychemicals.Weencourageourcustomerstovisitourlabfacilities.

Choosea laboratorywithawelltrained,experiencedstaffAnalystsmarketingandtechnicalstaff'knowtheirbusiness'!MoreofourstaffmembersareSTLECertifiedLubricationSpecialistsorOilManagementAnalyststhananyothercommercialoilanalysis lab.Werecognizethespecifictechnicalrequirementsforyourapplicationandansweryourquestionsfully.Wehaveanorganizedapproachforestablishingyouasacustomerandcangiveyousound,practicalsuggestionsforovercominganyproblemsyoumightencounterinestablishingandmaintainingyourAnalysts'oilanalysisprogram.

Choose a laboratorywith a recognized quality control program Analysts, Inc. has one of the strongest certified andregistered ISO 17025 quality programs in commercial oil analysis. By attaining the ISO 17025 certification Analystsdemonstratesonadailybasisitscommitmenttoqualitydata,workandprocedures.Additionally,Analysts'qualityprogrammeetstherequirementsof10CFR50,AppendixBthefederalspecificationforqualityprogramsinnuclearpowerplants.Withourprogramofdocumentation, training,proceduresandfollowup,Analystsisrecognizedastheleaderinqualityandservicewithintheindustry.

Examine the reports for reliable recommendations and easy to read format Consistently accurate test results and

interpretationare

vital

to

the

success

of

your

oil

analysis

program.

Analysts'

report

forms

are

the

clearest

and

most

informative in the industry.Our recommendationsare specific,completeandeasy tounderstand.The recommendationsreflectarealknowledgeof theoperatingandwearcharacteristics foranycomponentsampled.Testresults indicating theneedforamajorinspectionaredoublecheckedpriortoyournotification.Manyofourstaffofdataevaluatorsandchemistsaremembersofprofessionalandtechnicalsocieties,andourestablishedpositioninthecommercialoilanalysisfieldensuresreadyaccesstolubricantandcomponentmanufacturers'data.

DemandrapidturnaroundofresultsandrecommendationsAnalystsmeetsandbeatsthefrequentlyadvertised24to48hour turnaround.Wewillnotifyyou immediately ifcriticalconditionsaredetected.Youcanobtain 'rush'handling ifyourequireanimmediateresponse,andafterhoursspecialopeningscanbearrangedincaseofemergency.

LookforspecializedsummaryreportsToassistourcustomerstomanageandcontroltheiroilsamplingprogram,wewillprovideanyofaseriesofeightspeciallydesignedprogrammanagementandsummaryreports.Thesereportsconsolidatesampling activity to compile the information such as Critical Condition Units, Condition Analysis Statistics, SummarizedSamplingActivityandSummarizedSampleConditions.Thereportsareavailableonamonthlybasis.

Lookforafullrangeof informationmanagementtoolsandoptionsAnalystsmaintainsacomprehensiveInternetsiteatwww.analystsinc.com. Analysisreportscanbereceivedviaemailattachmentdirectlyfromour laboratories.ThissitealsooffersacompleteWebbasedoilanalysismanagementsystem. ThroughourWindows basedoilanalysissoftwareprogramLOAMS (LubeOilAnalysisManagementSystem),yourentireoilanalysisprogramcanbemanagedoffline fromapersonalcomputer.LOAMSwilldownloadandstoreallsampledata,printreportslocally,graphsampledata,printsamplingschedulesbycomponentandallowtheexportingofdatatoothersoftwareprogramsforfurthermanipulation.

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3. Selectthepropertestsforyourapplication.

Differentcombinationsofphysicalandspectrochemicaltestsareusedtomeasurethepropertiesofthe lubricant itselfanddetermine levelsofcontaminantsandchemicalelementssuspended in the lubricant.Theapplicationandgoalsof theoilanalysisprogramhelpdeterminethenumberandtypeofteststhatshouldbeperformed.

Thephysical

analysis

concentrates

on

measuring

certain

physical

characteristics

of

the

lubricant.

These

tests

also

detect

and

measurecontaminantsandoilbreakdownbyproducts,aswellastheireffectonthelubricantproperties.

The spectrochemical analysis identifies andmeasures selectedmetallic elements present in the lubricant asmicroscopicparticles.Testresultsarereported inpartspermillion(ppm)byweight.Therelativeconcentrations oftheseelementsareusedtomonitorwearrates,detectcontaminantsanddetermineadditivelevels.

Analystshasdevelopedstandardized'packages'orcombinationsofroutinelyperformedtests.Thesepackagesaredesignedtocoverthegeneraltestingneedsofbroadserviceclassificationssuchasindustrial,construction,overtheroadtruckingoraviation.Sinceeachpackageconsistsofteststhatthe lab isalreadypreparedtoperform involume,significantsavingsarerealizedwhenapackageisselectedratherthanarandomgroupoftests.Additionalnonroutinetestscanbeperformedonrequest.Analystswillassistyouinselectingthepropercombinationoftestspriortobeginningyoursamplingprogram.

4. Determinethepropersamplingpointandmethod.

Obtainingarepresentativesampleisoneofthemostimportantpartsofascheduledoilanalysisprogram.Ifasampledoesnot represent the true conditionof the lubricantandcomponentat the timeof sampling, the reliabilityofboth the testresultsandtheirinterpretationisaffected.

Areaswherelubricantflowisrestrictedorwherecontaminantsandwearproductstendtosettleorcollectshouldbeavoidedassamplingpoints.Inspecialcases,samplesmaybetakenfromlubefilters.Thelabshouldbeadvisedifthisoccurs.

Werecommend thatyousampleacomponentwhile it isrunningorwithin30minutesaftershutdown.Thisensures thatwearproductsandlubricantcontaminantsarethoroughlymixedwiththelubricantandthattheheavierwearparticleshavenotsettledout.

Werecommendthefollowingsamplingpoints:

Apetcock

or

other

sampling

valve

installed

PRIOR

to

the

oil

filter

(using

Analysts'

QSS

valve)

Anoildipsticktubeorotherserviceopening(usingtheBellowsoravacuumpump)

Thesumporreservoirdrain

Onceapropersamplingpointandmethod ischosenforaparticularcomponent,oilsamplesfromthatcomponentshouldalwaysbetakenfromthesamepointwiththesamemethod.

5. Determinethepropersamplinginterval

Whenbeginning a routineoil analysisprogram, theusualpractice is to sample theentiregroupofunits/components toestablish initialbaselinedataandquicklyspotanycomponentswithseriousproblems.Once thisprocess iscomplete, thecustomer and laboratory then agree on an initial routine sampling interval. This interval is based on the results of thepreliminarysampling,componentmanufacturerguidelines,customermaintenanceproceduresandpersonnelschedulingandAnalysts'experiencewithsimilarcomponentsandapplications.Oncetheprogramisfullyestablished,theroutinesamplinginterval

may

be

adjusted.

Oncedetermined,routinesamplingintervalsshouldremainasconstantaspossible.

6. Establishconsistentoilanalysisbaselineinformation.

Inabusyoperationsandmaintenanceschedule,noonewantsextrapaperworkandrecordkeeping.But, ifanoilanalysisprogramistofurnishanythingmorethantestdata,theusermustprovideinformationontheequipment,componentsandlubricantsinservice.Onecommonfalseassumptionisthatanoilanalysislabcandrawvalidconclusionsfromthetestresultswithoutanysupportingdatafromthecustomer.

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Initialequipmentregistrationcanbeeasilyaccomplishedbyfurnishingthelaboratorywithaconsolidatedequipmentlist,orbycompletinganindividualregistrationformforeachsampledcompartment. Currentoperatingdataisthenforwardedwitheachsample.

Incompletingoilanalysisformsandsamplecontainerlabels,thefollowingbriefdefinitionsarehelpful:

UNIT l.D. NUMBER A unique reference number for an entire functional unit. Examples include an aircraftregistration

number,

company

asset

or

inventory

identification

or

avehicle

serial

number.

COMPONENT Theoveralltypeofoilwettedsystem,suchasengine,hydraulic,orgearbox,fromwhichthesampleistaken.Otherdesignationssuchasleft,number3,rearoranactualdescriptionofthecomponent'suse,suchasfandrive,winchorswingarealsoneededforclearidentification.

TIMESINCENEWORSINCELASTOVERHAUL Theoperatinghoursormilessincethesampledcompartmentwasfirstputintoservice,orsincethelastoverhaulorrebuildwasperformed.Sincenormalwearrateschangeoverthelifetime of a component and breakinmay resemble abnormalwear, this information is needed as an ongoingreferenceforinterpretation.Thisdatamaybeobtaineddirectlyfromanequipmentorcomponentservicemeter,orfromgeneraloperatingrecords.

TIME SINCEOILCHANGE Thenumber ofhoursormilesof componentuse between the time theoilwas lastchangedandthetimethesamplewastaken.Thisinformationisessentialtotimebasedtrending.

OILTYPE Themanufacturer,productname,andSAEor ISOviscositygradefortheoilthatwassampled.Sinceamanufacturermaysellmorethanoneblendofthesameviscosityproduct,thecompletenameisveryimportantindeterminingwhichtestingreferenceoilshouldbeused.

OILCONSUMPTIONorMAKEUPOIL Theamountofoiladded tomaintainacorrectoil fill level in thesampledcomponent.Completeoilchangesshouldnotbereportedasmakeupoiloridentifiedas'newoil'.

Asampleusuallycannotbeprocessed immediately if thecustomername,unitandcomponent identification,andsampledatearenotprovided. Ifyouhavesampledaparticularmachinebeforeanddonotensure that theunitandcomponentidentificationsmatchwhatyouoriginallyprovided, testingmaybedelayedor the resultsmaynotbe filed correctlywithothersamples from thatmachine. Inaddition to this "mustprovide"data foreachsample,youshould reportany recentmaintenance,changesinperformanceorunusualoperatingconditions.

Specificindividualsshouldbeassignedlongtermresponsibilityforthisportionoftheprogram.Ifthisisnotpossible,thena

particulardepartment

should

be

designated

for

involvement.

Once

this

responsibility

is

established,

asystem

of

record

keepingandcorrectsampleidentificationshouldbeinitiatedassoonaspossible.

7. Usethelabinterpretationofthetestdataproperly.

Our lab interpretationseparates theoverallcomponentand lubricantconditionand therelativeseverityofcontaminationandwearintofourmainclassifications:

Normal Physicalpropertiesofthelubricantarewithinacceptablelimits,andnosignsofexcessivecontaminationorweararepresent.

Monitor Specifictestresultsareoutsideacceptableranges,butarenotyetseriousenoughtoconfirmabnormalconditions. Caution is advised. The initial stages of an abnormality often show the same pattern of results astemporaryconditionssuchasextendedusageoroverloading.

Abnormal Lubricantphysicalproperties,contamination, and/orcomponentwearisclearlyunsatisfactory,butnotcritical.Aconfirmingresampleshouldbesubmitted.Additionaldiagnosticproceduresmaybeneeded toconfirmeachcondition.Correctiveactionsarenecessarytopreventreductionofservicelifeoroveralllossofperformance.

Critical Lubricantphysicalproperties,contaminationand/orcomponentwearisclearlyseriousenoughtorequireimmediatediagnosticandcorrectiveactiontopreventmajorlongtermlossofperformanceorcomponentfailureinservice. Increases inoperatinghazardare likely.Shortterm lossofperformancemayalreadybepresent. Largescalerepairsmayberequired. Itmaybenecessarytoremovetheunit/component fromserviceuntilaconfirmingresampleistestedanddiagnosticsconfirmthatrepairsarerequired.

Theseassessmentsarerelativeandareassignedusingbothtrendanalysisandcondemninglimits.

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When trendanalysis isused (as in thecaseofwearmetalsandcertaincontaminants), thresholdvaluesaredeveloped toidentifytheboundaryareabetweennormalandabnormalresults.Forwearmetals,thesethresholdvaluesvaryfordifferenttypesofcomponent,butarespecificandstableforeach individualmodelofagivenapplication.Thevaluesdonotprovidesharp linesof 'normal/abnormal' interpretations; instead, they indicate rangesof increased likelihood thataproblemhasdevelopedtoaparticularpoint.Generally,thelubricantandcomponentconditioncanbeconsidered'normal'aslongasthewearmetal,contaminationand lubricantdeterioration levelsremainwithintheestablished normal'ranges.Regardlessofthethresholdvalues,however,anysharpincrease inwearmetalsormajorshift inphysicalpropertiescansignalbeginningproblems. Therefore, the threshold values cannot be used as 'go/nogo' criteria. A great deal of caution, judgment,experienceandcustomerinputmustbeusedinapplyingthresholdvaluesproperly.

Customers are contacted immediatelyby telephoneon all sampleswhereour interpretationdetects a critical condition.Further,computergeneratedfaxand/oremailcopiesofallcriticalorabnormalsamplesaredispatcheduponcompletionofour evaluation.On these reports the labwill recommend specificmaintenance actionsdesigned to correct not only theindicatedproblemsbutalsothecausesoftheseproblems.

Whenmanycomponentsareinvolvedinyouranalysisprogram,aspreadsheetledgersystemishelpfulinsummarizingeachcomponent'soilanalysisstatus.Thecolumnsshouldrecorddateofsamplingforeachcompartment, andseparateincomingreports by the overall sample status. If you sample at the same time that you perform other routinemaintenance andservicing activities, you should record this information and submit itwith the sample. Many oil analysismanagementapplications,suchasAnalystsOnlineandLOAMSsystems,automaticallyformatoilanalysisdatainthislayout.

Eachreport

should

be

read

as

soon

as

possible.

Copies

of

the

analysis

should

be

attached

to

any

work

orders

or

instructions.

8. Provideproperfeedback.

The interpretationguidelines'accuracy isverifiedbycomparingthe labtestresultbasedpredictionswithactualconditionsconfirmedby inspection. In thisway, the test interpretations are continually refined bypracticalexperience. "Feedback"fromthecustomerincludes:

Abnormallubricantorcomponentconditionsthatyoususpectarepresent

Thefindingsofanyinspectionperformedasaresultofoilanalysisprogramrecommendations

Abnormallubricantorcomponentconditionsdiscoveredthatwerenotpreviouslyindicatedbyoilanalysis

Notificationofservicingandmaintenanceperformed

Informationconcerningoperatingenvironmentorequipmentapplicationchanges

Theseitemsmaybenotedonthesampleinformationform,recordedonacopyofthepreviousanalysisreport,ordetailedonaseparatereportsheet.

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9. Measurecosteffectiveness.

The economic goals of reducing operating expenses and increasing profitmargins have not changed sinceAnalystswasfounded. Routine oil analysis will help you achieve substantial savings inmaintenance and repair costs. The programoperatesmuchlikeamedicalcheckup;ifproblemsaredetected,theycanbecorrectedbeforetheydevelopintoseriousand

hazardousconditions

that

are

costly

to

repair.

When

samples

are

reported

normal,

then

the

immediate

value

of

oil

analysis

is

apersonal 'peaceofmind'ratherthananeconomicreturn.Asthenumberofsampledpiecesofequipment increases,thefinancialbenefitofoil analysis also increases.Greaterequipment availability and reliabilitymeansmoreproduction, lessdowntimeandincreasedprofits.

The importanceof tracking the savings generatedby youroilanalysisprogram cannotbeoveremphasized. Manpower,partsandtoolexpenseswillallbeaffected. However,becauseawellrunoilanalysisprogram isdeeply integrated intoacustomers overall maintenance program, management must establish a strong platform of results measurement anddocumentationtoseeoilanalysissuniquecontribution.

Althoughsomebenefitsofoilanalysismaynotshowclearlyonthe'bottomline'becausetheyrepresentabnormalitiesthatwereprevented,mostoftheeconomicsavingsfromoilanalysiscanbecalculatedbycomparing

Partsandlaborexpensesforcomponentrepair,overhaul,orreplacement

Lossof

revenue

during

downtime

...beforeoilanalysiswiththesamecostfactors(plustheanalysisexpenses)aftertheprogramhasbeenestablishedandby

estimatingthe

Extensionoftheaveragecomponentoperatinglifespanbeforeoverhaulorreplacement

Reductioninconsumableitemssuchaslubricantsoffuels

Increaseinproductivity

...fortheoverallgroupofunits/componentsthatyouhaveplacedonaroutineoilanalysisprogram.

FIVEKEYSTOSUCCESSFULOILANALYSIS

Aswithanydiagnosticmethod,theusermustshareintheresponsibilityforsuccesswhenusingthiswellestablishedandwidelyacceptedproactivemaintenancetool.Toachieveoverallsuccessforyouroilanalysisprogram,usetheseprovenkeys:

1. Clearlydefinedcustomergoalsandprogramrequirementsensurethatthetestsperformedfittheapplicationandthattheserviceisbeingfullyutilizedonanongoingbasis.

2. Representativesamplesensurethatthetrueconditionofthelubricantandcomponentcanbedeterminedbyreliable,accuratetesting.

3. Frequentlabcustomercontactpromotesaccurateinterpretationandleadstoincreasedcustomerconfidenceand

interestin

maintaining

an

active

oil

analysis

program.

4. CompletesampleinformationspeedsprocessingandincreasestheDataAnalysts'abilitytofullyinterpretthetestresults.

5. Rapidreportreviewensuresthatabnormalorcriticalconditionsarerecognizedandactedonintimetopreventdamageorlossofperformance.

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Withoutaworkingknowledgeofoilanalysistestsandtheirsignificance,theusermaybeuncertainaboutthevalueofthe

serviceandhoweachtest interrelateswith theotherstoprovideauseful,accuratepictureof internalcomponentand

lubricantconditions. Thefollowing information isprovidedasageneralorientationtowhatAnalystsconsidersarethe

mostimportantoilanalysistests.

SPECTROCHEMICALANALYSIS

Selected metallic elements present as microscopic particles suspended in the fluid to be analyzed are identified andmeasuredinpartspermillionbyweight.Theanalyzedelementsaregroupedintothreemaincategories:

1. Wearmetals

Relativemotionbetweenlubricatedpartsisalwaysaccompaniedbyfrictionbetweentheopposingpartsurfaces.Despitethefactthatthesesurfacesareusuallycoatedwithanoilfilm,frictionwearsthemaway.Someoftheparticlesproducedasthepartsweararesmallenoughtoremainsuspendedinthecirculatingoil.Sincethesewearproductsarecomposedofthesamematerialsasthesurfacesfromwhichtheyoriginated,the levelofeachwearmetalremaining intheusedoil indicatestherelativewearconditionofthelubricatedparts.Scientistsworkinginthefieldoftribology,thestudyofwear,stilldisagreeonhowmanyseparatekindsofwearexist.Asfewasfourandasmanyastwentyfiveclassesofwearhavebeenproposed.Fiveof

the

most

commonly

accepted

types

of

wear

are:

AdhesivewearThistypeofwearoccurswhentheoilfilmbecomessothinthattheroughestpointsoftheopposingmovingpartsurfaces

begintotoucheachother.Adhesivewearoccursnormallyduringbothbreakinandroutingserviceasthepartswearslightlytomaintain

alignment.Ifsevereadhesionoccursduetoload,speedortemperatureconditions,scuffingandscoringwillresult.Metalmaybetornoff

thepartsurfacesortransferredfromoneparttoanotherandeventualseizureoftheaffectedparts is likely.Innormalservice,adhesive

weariscontrolledwithantiwearadditives,whichcoatthelubricatedsurfacesandreducedirectparttopartcontact.

AbrasivewearAbrasivewear isacuttingorscratchingactioncausedwheneitherhardparticlesorhardprojectionswearaway softer

surfaces.Sourcesofabrasiveparticles identifiedbyoilanalysis includecontaminantssuchasdirtenteringacomponentoilsystemand

metalparticlesformedduringwear.

Fatiguewear Fatiguewear occurswhen cyclicor repeated load stresses cause cracking, spalling, and pitting of the componentpart

surfaces.Thistypeofwear ismorecommonlyassociatedwithrollingelementbearingsandgearswherethepartsurfacesrollpasteach

other.

Corrosive(chemical)wearCorrosiveorchemicalwearresultswhenchemicalreactionscausecorrosionoroxidationofpartsurfacesand

partmovementorfluidpressuredislodgesmaterialfromthissurfacelayer.Thistypeofwearisassociatedwithrustpromotingconditions,

corrosivecontaminantsandexcessivelyhighlevelsofchemicallyactiveadditives.

CavitationwearCavitationwearoccurswhenmetal is removed frompartsby the impactofcollapsingcavitationbubbleson thepart

surfaces.Cavitation itself is associatedwithpartial vacuums formed ina liquidby sudden changes inpressure andmaybe causedby

vibration,reducedorunevenliquidflowandotherfactorsinvolvingparticularcomponentpartshapesandmovements.

2. Contaminants

Dependingupon the circumstances,manydifferent substancesmaybe classifiedas contaminants. Silicon, in the formofsilicon dioxide (sand), is one of themost common contaminantsmonitoredwith spectrochemical analysis. Similarly, the

presence

of

grease

contaminating

an

oil

system

may

be

indicated

by

increases

in

aluminum

or

barium

if

the

grease

contains

metallicsoaps.Althoughcontamination iscommonlyassociatedwithsubstancesenteringacomponent'soilsystemfromanoutsidesource,wearmetalsthemselvesarealsoaformofcontaminant.

3.Additives

Additivesarechemicalcompoundsaddedtooils,fuels,andcoolantsto impartspecificbeneficialpropertiestothefinishedproducts. Additives create new fluid properties, enhance properties already present and reduce the rate at whichundesirablechangestakeplaceinafluidduringservice.

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WEARMETALSANDCONTAMINANTS

SILICONSilicon istypicallyassociatedwithdirtcontamination. Thiscontaminationcanresultfromanyconditionthatallowsdirt toenteracomponentoilsystem.Othersourcesofsiliconincludeseals,oilandcoolantadditivesandgreases.

IRONandalloysReciprocatingengine:Gearsandshafts;block;cylinderliners;valvetrain;connectingrods,ringsandoilpump;some

bearings;somepistons;someaccessorysystems.

Turbineengine:Gearsandshafts;bearings;pumps;housings.

Transmission: Gearsandshafts;bearings;brakesanddisks;pumpsandshiftspools;PTO;housing.

Torqueconverter:Shafts;bearings;somehousings.

Differential: Shaftsandgears;bearings;housing.

Transaxle/finaldrive/reductiongearbox:Gearsandshafts;bearings;housing.

Hydraulic: Rotors,vanes,pistons,androds;housingandbores;gearsandshafts;valves.

Reciprocating and rotary compressors: Gears and shafts; case; valves; cylinder liners; crossheads; rings and screws or

turbines;bearings;someoilcoolertubing.

COPPERandalloysReciprocatingengine:Bearings;wristpinandvalvetrainbushings;otherbushingsandthrustwashers;oilcoolertubing.Also

maybepresentasanoiladditiveoracrossovercontaminantfromaleakingtransmissionseal.

Turbineengine:

Some

main

and

accessory

bearing

retainers;

bushings

and

nuts;

some

oil

control

valves.

Transmission: Discs;bearings;bushingsandthrustwashers;oilcoolertubing.

Torqueconverter:Retainersandseparators.

Differential: Bearings;bushings,retainers,andthrustwashers.

Finaldrive/reductiongearbox: Bearings;bushings,retainers,andthrustwashers;oilcoolertubing.

Hydraulic: Bearingsandbushings;swashplatecups;valves;somepistons;somepumpcylinders;oilcoolertubing.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Bearings;bushings,thrustwashersandretainers;oilcoolertubing.

ALUMINUMandalloysAllcomponents:Aluminumoxidespresentintheenvironment,typicallyassociatedwithsilicon(dirt)contamination.

Reciprocatingengine:Pistons;bearings;bushings;blocks,mainandaccessorycasesandhousings;someoilcoolertubing.

Turbineengine:Mainandaccessorycase,housings;someretainers;seals;baffles.

Transmission: Somecases;bushingsandretainers.

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BASICSOFOILANALYSIS

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc. - 10 -

ALUMINUMandalloys(contd)Torqueconverter:Impellers.

Differential: Bushingsandthrustwashers.

Final

drive/reduction

gearbox:

Bushings

and

thrust

washers.

Hydraulic: Somepumphousings.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Case;impellers,somepistonsandcrossheads;retainers.

CHROMIUMalloyandplatingReciprocatingengines:Linersandrings;shafts;valvetrain.

Turbineengine:Bearings;shaftsandgears;seals.

Gearedcomponents(general):Bearings;shafts;seals.

Hydraulic:Rods;valves.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Linersandrings;shafts;valvetrain.

LEADandTINoverlayorflashingReciprocatingengine:Bearings;somepistons;bushingsandthrustwashers.

Finaldrive/reductiongearbox:Bearings;bushings.

Hydraulic: Pumpthrustplate;bushings.

Reciprocatingandrotarycompressors:Bearings;bushings.

Theuseofleadasanextremepressure(EP)oiladditivehasbeenbanned.

Tinmaybepresentasanoiladditive,usuallyinconjunctionwithlubricantscontainingmolybdenumcompounds.

NICKELalloy(withiron);platingReciprocatingengine:Gearsandshafts;valvetrain;bearings.

Turbineengine:Gearsandshafts;bearings.

Gearedcomponents(general):Gearsandshafts;bearings.

Hydraulic:Gears

and

shafts,

bearings.

SILVERplating;tracerGeneral: Somebearingsandbushings;oilcoolersolder;seals.

Silverisalsooccasionallyusedasaphysical'tracer'toindicatethatwearhasprogressedtoacertainpoint.Inthisapplication,

silveriseitherplateddirectlyontoapartsurfaceorincorporatedintoalayerunderthesurface.Thewearconditionofthe

partcanthenberelatedtotheamountofthetracerdepositedintheoil. Thisusageismostoftenfoundinaerospace

applications.

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Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc. - 11 -

MOLYBDENUMalloy(withiron);plating

General: Somebearings;somepistonrings.

MAGNESIUMalloy

General: Casesandhousings.

TITANIUMalloy(withiron)

General:Some shafts,bearings,and gears.Typically foundonly in certain aerospace and heavy commercial or industrial

applications.

ANTIMONYalloy(withleadand/ortin)

General:Certaintypesofjournalbearingoverlays.

ZINCalloy

General:Brassfittings(withcopper);galvanizedsurfaces.

ADDITIVES

Most

modern

lubricants

and

coolants

contain

organometallic

oil

additives.

Some

of

these

additives

are

formed

from

compoundsofoneormoreofthesamechemicalelementsusedincomponentparts.

MOLYBDENUM

Extremepressureadditiveinspecialtyoilsandgreases;corrosioninhibitorinsomecoolantsupplemental additives.

MAGNESIUM

Detergent,dispersant,alkalinityincreaser.

SODIUM

Corrosioninhibitorinoilsandcoolants.

BORON

Detergent,dispersant;antioxidantinoilsandcoolants.

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BASICSOFOILANALYSIS

Form 4015.2 (BasicsOA.pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts, Inc. - 12 -

BARIUM

Corrosionandrustinhibitors;detergent;antismokeadditiveinfuels.

PHOSPHORUS

Antiwear;combustionchamberdepositreducer;corrosioninhibitorincoolants.

POTASSIUMCompounds

Corrosioninhibitor;traceelementinfuels;alsofoundasamineralsaltinseawater.

CALCIUM

Detergent,dispersant,alkalinityincreaser.

ZINC

Antiwear,antioxidant,corrosioninhibitor.

ANTIMONY

Antiwear,antioxidant.

PHYSICAL

ANALYSIS

VISCOSITY

Viscosity isa lubricant's internalresistancetoflowatagiven temperature inrelation totime,and isconsideredtobethesingle most important physical property of a lubricant. Changes in viscosity indicate improper servicing, dilution,contaminationorlubricantbreakdowninservice.Viscosityisusuallydeterminedwithakinematicmethodandtheresultsarereportedincentistokes(cSt)*.Inadditiontotheviscosityresult,thecrankcaseoilviscosityclassofanenginelubricantmayalsobeexpressedasanSAEGrade.

*1Centistoke(cSt)=1squaremillimeterpersecond

WATER

Thepresence ofwater in anonwaterbase fluid indicates contamination from an outside source or from condensation.

Excessive

levels

of

water

promote

lubricant

breakdown

and

component

part

corrosion.

Results

are

reported

in

percent

(%)

volume.

Incertaincomponentsandapplications wherewatercontamination mustbekeptextremely low,theKarlFischer titrationmethodisusedtomeasureandreportwatercontentinpartspermillion(ppm).

FUELSOOTbyLEM

LEM is the acronym for Light ExtinctionMeasurement, an Analysts, Inc. patented process to determine fuel soot. LEM

measuresthefuelsootdispersedintheoilofdieselengines.Thisisanindicationofthecombustionefficiencyoftheengine.

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Anexcessiveconcentrationofsootallows theoil togel, formingsludge in theengine, leading topooroilcirculation. It isaffectedby fuel injectorefficiency, injector timing, integrityof the ringpiston seal,oil consumption and the loadon theengine.Resultsarereportedinweightpercent(%).LEMisthemostefficientandaccuratemethodtomeasurefuelsoot.

FUELDILUTION

Fueldilution

indicates

the

relative

amount

of

unburned

diesel

fuel

or

gasoline

present

in

an

engine

lubricant.

This

dilution

is

associatedwithimproperlyadjustedormalfunctioningfuelsystemassemblies.Excessivefueldilutionlowerslubricantloadcarryingcapacities,promoteslubricantbreakdownandincreasestheriskoffireorexplosion.Fueldilutionisdeterminedbygaschromatography andisreportedinpercent(%)volume.

GLYCOL

Positive testresults indicate thepresenceofethyleneglycol,mostcommonlyassociatedwithcoolingsystem leaks.Glycolcontaminationpromoteswear,corrosion,sludging,andlubricantbreakdown.Iftheanalysisindicatesthatcoolantadditivesor water contamination is present in the oil sample, additional chemical tests are used to confirm ethylene glycolcontamination.

INFRAREDANALYSIS

Whenan

organic

compound,

such

as

lubricating

oil,

is

exposed

to

infrared

light,

the

substances

present

in

the

compound

will

absorbthelightatspecificwavelengths.Theamountofabsorbanceataparticularwavelengthisrelatedtoboththetypeandquantity of absorbingmaterial.When the infrared absorbance spectrum of an unused oil provided by the customer iscomparedtothespectrumofthesametypeofused lubricant,certaincontaminantsandphysicalchanges in the lubricantcan be directly measured. Although infrared analysis can detect and measure an extremely wide range of organiccompounds,itismostfrequentlyusedinoilanalysistomonitor:

FuelSoot

The amount of fuel soot carbon suspended in the engine lubricant.Higher values indicate reduced combustionefficiencyduetosuchconditionsasairintakeorexhaustrestrictions,injectormalfunctionsorexcessiveidling.Testresultsarereportedonanabsorbancescale.

Oxidation

Thechemical

incorporation

of

oxygen

into

and

subsequent

loss

of

lubricant

performance

due

to

aging,

adverse

or

abnormaloperatingconditionsorinternaloverheating.Testresultsarereportedonanabsorbancescale.

Nitration

Theorganicnitratesformedwhencombustionbyproductsentertheengineoilduringnormalserviceorasaresultofabnormal'blowby'pastthecompressionrings.Testresultsarereportedonanabsorbancescale.

Water

Watercontamination producesacharacteristicpeak inmostoils,whichcanbeeasilymeasured. Testresultsarereportedin%volume.

Glycol(coolant)contamination, sulfates,andcertainadditivesmayalsobemonitoredusinginfraredanalysis.

NOTE:Thedeterminationofoxidationrequiresasampleofnewoilforaninstrumentandinterpretationreference.

NEUTRALIZATIONNUMBER

Boththeacidcontentandthealkalinecontentofalubricantmaybemeasuredandexpressedasaneutralizationnumber:

TotalAcidNumber(TAN)

Measuresthetotalamountofacidicmaterialpresentinthelubricant.Generally,an increase inTANabovethatofthenewproductindicatesoiloxidationorcontamination withanacidicproduct.Theresultsareexpressedasa

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numericvaluecorrespondingtotheamountofthealkalinechemicalpotassiumhydroxiderequiredtoneutralizetheacidinonegramofsample.

TotalBaseNumber(TBN)

Measuresthetotalalkalinecontentpresentinthelubricant.Manyoftheadditivesnowusedinengineoilscontain

alkaline

(basic)

materials

intended

to

neutralize

the

acidic

products

of

combustion.

A

relatively

high

TBN

is

associatedwith increased protection against ring and cylinder liner corrosion. Abnormal decreases in TBNmayindicatereducedacidneutralizingcapacityoradepletedadditivepackage.Thetestfirstdeterminestheamountofacidrequiredtoneutralize thealkalinecontentof thesample.Thefinalresult isthenexpressedasanequivalentamountofpotassiumhydroxideinonegramofsample.

SOLIDS,WEIGHTbymembranefiltration

Solidscontentinanoilsamplemayalsobemeasuredbyweight.Thetestdeterminestheamountoffilterablesolidmaterialin the samplewithparticlesizesgreater than the filterpore sizespecified for the test.The test isperformedbyvacuumfiltrationand theresult isreportedasanumericvalue.Theresultmaybeexpressedeitherasaweightpercentagewhichcomparestheweightoftheliquidsampletotheweightofthesolidmaterialinit,orastheactualweightofthesolidmaterialinaspecifiedvolumeofsample.

AUTOMATEDPARTICLE

COUNT

Thisinstrumentusesaspecialdetectorwhichcountsandsizesparticlespresentinthefluid.Resultsarereportedasnumbersofparticlesinaspecificsizerangeperagivenvolumeofsample.

Thesizerangesandreportingmethodsare inworldwidetransitionduetocalibrationandprocedurechanges,andawellknown aerospace standard (NAS 1638) is being retired in favor of a related andmoremodern SAE standard. The newstandards and ranges have been carefully researched and selected for maximum accuracy and minimum impact onpreviouslyestablishedparticlecountguidelines.

Threesize rangesrepresent the ISO4406standard:>4microns (changed from>2microns),>6microns (changed from>5microns)and>14microns(changedfrom>15microns).SixsizerangesrepresenttheSAEAS4059standard: thethree ISOranges previously noted, plus three additional ranges >21 microns, >38 microns, and >70 microns (changed from >25microns,>50microns,and>100microns).

ResultsfromtheparticlecountarethenusedtodeterminefluidcleanlinessviaISOorSAEclassificationcodes.TheISOClasscode is expressed as three separate numbers (for example, 20/15/12). The first number represents the relativecontaminationlevelfromthefirstsizerange,andthesecondandthirdrangesaresimilarlycalculated. TheSAEClasscodehasseparatesizerangelimitsforeachofthesixparticlesizes,butthecodeisgenerallyexpressedasthesinglehighestlimitreachedwithinanyofthesixclasses(forexample,SAEClass5).

Abnormal particle contamination levels are associatedwith increasedwear, operational problems,with close tolerancecomponents,fluidcontaminationordegradationandlossoffilterefficiency.

DIELECTRICSTRENGTH

This testmeasures an oil's ability towithstand an electric currentwithout failing.Oil is placed in the gap between two

electrodesand

an

increasingly

higher

voltage

is

applied

to

the

oil

until

an

arc

forms

across

the

gap.

In

large

transformers,

the

circulatingoil isformulatedtoactasan insulator.Therelative insulatingcapacityofthetransformeroil is indicatedbythedielectricstrength.Generally,smallamountsofwater,dirt,ormetalwillaffectthetestresult.Forthisreason,thedielectricprinciple forms theworking basis formany differentmodels of fieldtest type oil analyzers. Results are reported in kV(kilovolts).

FERROGRAPHY

Ferrography isananalytical technique inwhichwearmetalsandcontaminantparticlesaremagneticallyseparated fromalubricant and arranged according to size and composition for further examination. It is widely used in oil analysis todeterminecomponentconditionthroughdirectexaminationofwearmetalparticles.

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BASICSOFOILANALYSIS

Form 4015 2 (BasicsOA pdf 9/08) 2008 Analysts Inc 15

Therearethreestagesinacompleteferrographicanalysis:(1)directreading(DR)ferrography,(2)analyticalferrographyand(3)theferrograminterpretationandreport.

DR(directreading)ferrographyprecipitatesthewearparticlesfromasampleandelectronicallydeterminesthequantityof'large' (over5microns)and 'small' (1 to2microns)particlespresent in thesample.Wearcalculations from these resultsindicatetherate,intensityandseverityofwearoccurringinthesampledmachine.IncaseswheretheDRferrographyweartrends

indicate

an

abnormal

or

critical

wear

condition,

analytical

ferrography

can

reveal

the

specific

wear

type

and

probable

sourceofthewearcondition.

Analytical ferrography uses the Ferrograph Fluid Analyzer to concentrate on directmicroscopic evaluation of thewearparticles.Aferrogramslideispreparedbydrawingtheoilsampleacrossatransparentglassorplasticplateinthepresenceofastrongmagneticfield.Wearparticlesarepulledtoandsortedontheplateinamannersimilartothatused inthedirectreadingferrograph.Afterdeposition,theoiliswashedaway,leavingtheparticlesclean,alignedwiththemagneticfield,andfixedtotheplate.Anexperiencedevaluatorthenexaminestheferrogramtodeterminethecompositionandsourcesoftheparticlesandthetypeofwearpresent.

TheDRferrographyreportincludesspectrochemicalanalysis,largeandsmallparticlequantityindexes,andtheresultsfromwear rate, intensity and severity calculations. An analytical ferrography report includes specific type and quantityclassificationsof themetallicandnonmetallicdebrispresenton theslide,acolorphotomicrographof the ferrogram,anassessmentofthesampledmachine'soverallwearstatusandadetailedinterpretationoftheferrographyresults.