Oil, Gas & Coal - ETH Z€¦ · petroleum gases, that are flared off or pressurized to be sold as...

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Marco Mazzotti

CCS and the Industry of Carbon-Based Resources – FS2020

February 24th, 2020

Oil, Gas & Coal

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CCS overview

I. Fossil fuel resources and

the global energy system

II. CO2 and

climate change

III.CCS:

the concept

millions of yearsyears seconds hours/days milleniayears

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Fossil fuels – stratigraphic age distribution

Oil, Gas & Coal: uses and processing

24/02/2020 3

Legend: CAMBRIAN, ORDOVICIAN,

SILURIAN, DEVONIAN, MISSISSIPPIAN,

PENNSYLVANIAN, PERMIAN, TRIASSIC,

JURASSIC, CRETACEOUS, TERTIARY,

QUATERNARY.

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Fossil fuels – an overview

100%

Carbon

100%

Hydrogen

~ 2C/1H

Decay of biomass through bio-geochemical processes

Coal Oil Natural gas

~ 1C/2H ~ 1C/4H

solid liquid gas

Not present

in nature

Hydrogen

H2

gas

Heat & electricityUses

Production(2012, world)

3,900,000,000 toe 4,200,000,000 toe 2,900,000,000 toe 200,000,000 toe

Coke (Steel)

~12%

HydrogenChemicals

~15%

Transport

~53%

Oil, Gas & Coal: uses and processing

24/02/2020 4

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From last week

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Daniel Yergin „The prize – The epic quest for oil, money &

power“, 1991

Daniel Yergin „The quest – Energy, security, and the

remaking of the modern world“, 2011

Vaclav Smil „Energy at the crossroads – Global

perspectives and uncertainties“, 2003 (chapter 4)

Rachel Maddow „Blowout – Corrupted democracy, rogue

state Russia, and the richest, most destructive industry on

earth“, 2019

William T. Vollmann „No immediate danger – Vol. 1 of

carbon ideologies“, 2018 (nuclear)

William T. Vollmann „No good alternative – Vol. 2 of

carbon ideologies“, 2018 (coal, natural gas and oil)24/02/2020 6

Readings

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Oil & Gas

Formation

Chemistry

Types

Extraction technologies

Uses and Processing

Coal

Formation

Chemistry

Types

Today’s topics

Extraction technologies

Uses and Processing

Emissions

Further Information

Production, Consumption and

Trade

Global Distribution

24/02/2020 7

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Formation of petroleum and natural gas

www.need-media.smugmug.com

Tiny marine

organisms die, sink, and

accumulate on the seafloor

Their remains get buried deeper and

deeper by sediments, thereby experiencing

more and more heat and pressure.

This transforms the organic matter into oil and gas,

that form within the source rock and accumulate in geological traps.

Oil & Gas: formation

24/02/2020 8

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Formation of petroleum and natural gas Oil window: region in which kerogen breaks down

into crude oil and gas (2-6 km depth)

Crude oil & gas moves from source - to

reservoir rock through primary (due to

pressure) and secondary migration (due

to buoyancy), where it accumulates –

given that there is a geological trap

High porosity & permeability = good

reservoir rock

www.gg.uwyo.edu


24/02/2020

Earth's Natural Resources, John V. Walther, pp 34

9

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Formation of petroleum and natural gas: traps

www.geologyin.com


24/02/2020 10

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Chemistry of oil

Crude oil is a mix of different

hydrocarbons such as alkanes (CnH2n+2)

and naphthenes (cycloalkanes, CnH2n),

n(5, …, ~40)

n = 5 (pentane) to n = 10 (decane) is

refined into gasoline

n = 10-20 into jet fuel, heating oil, & diesel

n > 20 into fuel oil and lubricating oils

n > 70 is bitumen (asphalt)

The lightest compounds with n < 4 are the

petroleum gases, that are flared off or

pressurized to be sold as liquified

petroleum gases (LPG)

Crude oil is classified by

Location of production (e.g. West Texas

Intermediate from N-America, Brent from the

North sea)

Density (light and heavy, light is preferred)

Sulfur content (sweet = low S (< 0.5%) and sour,

sweet is preferred)

Octane:

Compound Percentage range

(by wt.)

C 83 – 85%

H 10 – 14%

N 0.1 – 2%

O 0.05 – 1.5%

S 0.05 – 6.0%

(Metals) < 0.1% wikipedia

Oil & Gas: chemistry

24/02/2020 11

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Chemistry of gas

Natural gas is a mix of hydrocarbon

gases, and predominantly consists of

methane (CH4) and to a lesser amount of

the other n < 4 alkanes

All non-methane hydrocarbon

compounds are known as “natural gas

liquids (NGL)”, which are already liquid at

room conditions (“gas condensate”) can

be compressed for liquefaction (e.g.

butane in fire lighters)

Non-hydrocarbon components such as

CO2, water vapor, nitrogen, helium and

hydrogen sulfide H2S can be present in

large proportions

All of these impurities, especially CO2

and H2S must be removed («gas

sweetening») before transport and

commercialization

Natural gas liquefies when cooled to

-162°C. Only in liquid state it is

suitable for long-distance transport as

“liquefied natural gas” (LNG) using

ships.

Component Typical

percentage

range

Methane CH4 70 – 98%

Ethane C2H6 1 – 10%

Propane C3H8 < 5%

Butane C4H10 < 2%

(Pentane) C5H12 trace

Non-hydrocarbons (CO2

etc.)

various

SBC Energy Institute 2014, “Introduction to natural gas”


24/02/2020 12

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The lower the C/H ratio the lower the CO2 emissions upon burning. Therefore natural

gas is a particularly attractive fossil fuel

It’s main drawback is its low volumetric energy density

C/H ratio of carbon-based fuels



24/02/2020 13

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Volumetric E-density of carbon-based fuels


MJ/Liter

Unlike oil, natural gas needs to be

pressurized and/or cryogenically

liquefied in order to allow for safe

and economic transport and storage

Such conditioning incurs high

handling costs and relies on a

heavy infrastructure to reach end-

consumers


24/02/2020 14

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Conventional and unconventional oil & gas

Conventional reservoirs:

Buoyant forces keep

hydrocarbons in place inside

well-connected rock pores

below a sealing cap rock

Thus, the hydrocarbons form

discrete, well-defined

accumulations of crude oil and

natural gas (methane 80%,

propane, ethane…)

Reservoir and fluid

characteristics allow the

resource to flow readily into a

wellbore (high permeability

rocks, low viscosity fluids)

& oil

Oil & Gas: types

Unconventional reservoirs: Hydrocarbons exist inside poorly connected pores or they are

too viscous/heavy, so as bouyant forces are insufficitent to expel them from the reservoir

The resource is typically distributed throughout a reservoir at the basin scale (i.e. over large

extents of rock)

24/02/2020 15

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Conventional and unconventional oil & gas

Conventional reservoirs tend to require less technology to be developed and to yield

higher recovery rates

Unconventional reservoirs require more technology but are larger in volume

Once the technology is developed, resources turn into reserves (e.g. shale gas)

Oil & Gas: types

24/02/2020 16

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Unconventional oil

Oil & Gas: types

24/02/2020

Oil sands Oil shales Tight oil

Heavy, dense, viscous bitumen

trapped in sand or sandstone

Fine grained sediments

containing significant amounts

of kerogen (low permeatility)

Light crude oil contained in

formations of low permeability,

namely in petroleum-bearing

tight sandstones and shales

Surface mining or steam-assisted

production (very expensive)

Open mining or heating underground to release hydrocarbons into

reservoirs

“Hydrocracking”: break long chains

into kerosene/gasoline with H2

(natural gas required)

Extract liquid “shale oil” and “shale oil gas” via pyrolysis-

hydrogenation (above 300°C) of kerogen

17

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Unconventional gas

Oil & Gas: types

24/02/2020

Tight gas Shale gas Methane hydratesCoalbed methane

(CBM)

Low permeability

reservoir rock consisting

of sandstone or limestone

Extremely low

permeability reservoir

rock consisting of

shale (the most

abundant sedimentary

rock), where the gas is

generated in place

(source rock).

H2O molecules form a

crystalline cage around a

CH4 molecule, stable

only under high pressure

and temperature in deep

sea (sediments) and in

permafrost

Gas created by

maturing of coal and is

released when coal is

fractured

• > 95% methane

(rest is N2 and CO2)

requires little pre-

treatment

• Vertical well

(conventional)

stimulation

• More recently:

horizontal drilling

enables to access

larger regions of the

reservoir

• Horizontal drilling • Depressurization

(lowering water level

inside well)

• Thermal stimulation

• Destabilization

(adding chemicals)

• CO2 injection

• Depressurization

(lowering water level

inside well) gas

flows into

conventional wells

18

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Conventional oil & gas: vertical drilling

Gas export

Oil export

Flare

Separa tor

Gas export

Oil exportSepara tor

Gas export

Condensate exportSepara tor

Note: natural gas was long considered an unwanted by-product of oil that was flared or

at best used for reservoir pressure management. It was only considered as a

commercial prospect when deposits were located close to markets or gas infrasturcture

Oil & dissolved associated gas («solution gas»): Oil & associated gas cap («free gas»):

Non-associated gas:“Wet gas” if it contains NGLs

that are liquid at room

conditions (= condensate)Gas is re-injected

for P-management

Oil & Gas: extraction technologies

19

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Unconventional oil & gas: horizontal drilling and fracking

American

Petroleum

Institute

Well casing


24/02/2020 20

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Multilateral wells

DOE 2009, DE-FG26-04NT15455



21

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Volumetric composition of fracture fluid used in TX



22

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Microseismic monitoring


24/02/2020


23

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To initiate production ground water and some of the fracturing fluid are

pumped out

With decreasing pressure methane desorbs from the coal and flows to the

production well

24/02/2020

Modified from Kuuskraa and Brandenberg (1989), Source: US Geological Survey


Fracking: depressurization and production rate

24

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Fresh water use (in arid zones)

up to 24 Mio L per well

Chemicals in frack fluid

Wastewater back-flow comes with high

solute conc. (e.g. heavy metals)

threat to ground- and surface waters

Parasitic CH4 losses

25 x higher warming potential than CO2

Induced seismicity

Land use Could be done with lateral drilling

Fracking: issues

www.ecowatch.com

Flooded drillsite during the

500y flood in Colorado, Sep 2013

DOE 2009, DE-FG26-04NT15455

Shale drillsite in Upshur county, WV

Ellsworth, 2013

ww

w.e

coflig

ht.net

Jonah field, WY


24/02/2020 25

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Oil: conceptual product classes

www.bp.com

Oil & Gas: uses and processing

24/02/2020 26

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Refining: Crude oil atmospheric distillation tower

Uses

www.chemwiki.ucdavis.eduhttps://sciencetuition.wordpress.com


24/02/2020 27

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Petrochemicals: sources


24/02/2020 29

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Petrochemicals: industry map


24/02/2020 30

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U.S. petroleum flow, 2018


https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/flow/petroleum.pdf

30%

> 69%

< 0.01%

1 barrel = 0.16 cubic meter

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrocarbon-gas-liquids/uses-of-hydrocarbon-gas-liquids.php

https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/pdf/flow/petroleum.pdf

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/hydrocarbon-gas-liquids/uses-of-hydrocarbon-gas-liquids.php

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Gas processing and distribution

https://www2.dteenergy.com


24/02/2020 32

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Production

1. Before natural gas is distributed, it first must be sent to a processing or "stripping" plant where it is cleaned and separated.

2. Secondary byproducts, including oils and impurities and heavier hydrocarbons, including butane, ethane, and propane get removed, reprocessed, packaged and sent to market.

Transmission

3. As natural gas leaves the processing plant, it enters a compressor station where it is pressurized for transmission.

4. As the pressure is increased, the volume of natural gas is reduced and more natural gas can be filled into the same unit space while the pressure needed to move natural gas through pipelines is achieved.

5. As natural gas travels through pipelines, some pressure is lost due to fluid friction caused by the natural gas rubbing against the inside walls of the pipes.

6. This loss of pressure is made up at compressor substations located every 50 to 100 miles along the transmission pipelines.

Distribution

7. Upon reaching a major metropolitan area, some natural gas is diverted through a "city gate" where its pressure is reduced, measured, and sold to the local gas company.

8. From the city gate, the natural gas company distributes the natural gas through an underground network of smaller pipelines called "mains." Smaller lines called "services" connect with the mains and go directly to end-users.

Gas processing and distribution


24/02/2020 33

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Gas processing


24/02/2020 34

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Gas: LNG – Liquefied Natural Gas

www.goldenpassterminal.com


24/02/2020 35

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Qatar and Shell Pearl GTL

www.imagination.comwww.qia-qatar.com

BP Statistical Review of World Energy, U.S. Department of Energy

Oil & Gas: Uses and Processing

24/02/2020 36

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1. Producing natural gas

Qatar's North Field is the world's largest natural gas field. It contains over 900 trillion cubic feet of natural gas, about 15% of the global total. Two

unmanned offshore platforms each operate 11 wells. The gas flows through two pipelines to processing facilities at the onshore Ras Laffan

industrial zone..

2. Separating the gas

Water and condensates are separated from the gas. Other components, such as sulphur, are also removed and cleaned. The gas is then cooled

and the natural gas liquids are removed via distillation. The remaining pure natural gas (methane) flows to the gasification unit.

3. Making synthesis gas

In the gasifier at around 1,400-1,600°C) the methane and oxygen are converted exothermically into a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide

known as synthesis gas, or syngas.

4. Making liquid waxy hydrocarbons

The synthesis gas enters one of 24 reactors. Each reactor holds a large number of tubes containing a Shell proprietary catalyst. The catalyst

serves to speed up the exothermic chemical reaction in which the synthesis gas is converted into long-chained waxy hydrocarbons and water.

5. Making GTL (gas to liquids) products

The plant creates a range of products from natural gas that would otherwise be produced from oil.

Using another Shell proprietary catalyst, the long hydrocarbon molecules from the GTL reactor are contacted with hydrogen and cut (cracked) into

a range of smaller molecules of different length and shape. Distillation separates out the products with different boiling points.

6. Extracting pure oxygen

Pure oxygen for the gasification process is extracted from the air through eight vast air separation units. Air is cooled to liquefy the oxygen and

nitrogen. Distillation separates out oxygen in a “cold box” – like an icebox, this helps to maintain the low temperature that is required to separate

the oxygen.

7. Generating power using residual heat

Residual heat from various steps of the process makes steam that helps drive large compressors.

8. Reusing water (Formerly Effluent Treatment Plant)

The plant does not draw on any water from Qatar’s resources. It reuses process water as cooling water and to generate steam for power.

Shell Pearl GTL


24/02/2020 37

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Gas: GTL – Gas to Liquid


24/02/2020 38

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Gas: Conceptual GTL process


24/02/2020 39

Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process: converts a synthesis gas (syngas), i.e. a

mixture of CO and H2, into liquid hydrocarbons

|| 24/02/2020 40

U.S. natural gas flow, 2018

61%

36%

3%

1 cubic foot = 0.028 cubic meter

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Formation of coal

www.need-media.smugmug.com

Coal stems from

incomplete decay (peatification)

and burial (coalification) of higher terrestrial plants.

Coal: formation

24/02/2020 42

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Peat

«Peat is the surface organic matter of a soil, consisting of partially

decomposed organic material, derived mostly from plants, that has

accumulated under conditions of waterlogging, oxygen deficiency, acidity

and nutrient deficiency».

In temperate, boreal and sub-arctic conditions, peat is formed from mosses,

herbs etc.

In humid tropics, peat is formed from rain forest trees

24/02/2020

Joosten & Clarke, Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands, 2002; Page et al., Nature, 420, 61-65, 2002; World Energy Council, 2013

Peat Swamp Forest in SumatraPeat Bog, Oulanka National Park, FIN

www.greenpeaceblogs.orgwww.allposters.com

Coal: formation

43

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Peatification and coalification

24/02/2020

Living plant

(biomass)

Dead organic

matteron the surface

Biochemical

decomposition

(peatification) on the

surface (in thousands of

years)

Typically, peat deposits form in waterlogged environments where plant debris

accumulates as the accumulation of plant debris exceeds the rate of bacterial decay of

plant debris. The bacterial decay rate is reduced because the available oxygen in

organic-rich water is completely used up by the decaying process (anaerobic decay is

much slower than aerobic decay).

«Gasification» is one of the major processes during peatification. Here, the

greenhouse gases CH4 and CO2 are the by-products of anaerobic microorganisms

(methanogens).

Source: www.uky.edu

Coal: formation

44

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24/02/2020

Living plant

(biomass)

Dead organic


Biochemical

decomposition



years)

Physicochemical

decomposition (coalification

in the subsurface) (in millions

of years)

burial For peat to become coal it must be buried by

sediment. Burial compacts the peat and water is

squeezed out during the first stages of burial.

Continued burial and time causes the complex

hydrocarbons of the peat to break down

During coalification the chemical and physical

properties of organic matter from peat become

denser, drier, more carbon-rich and harder in

coal.

Source: www.uky.edu

Coal: formation

45

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24/02/2020

Living plant

(biomass)

Dead organic


The stages of this process are peat, lignite, sub-

bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite (and

graphite, i.e. pure carbon) www.uky.edu

Coal: formation

Biochemical

decomposition



years)

Physicochemical

decomposition (coalification

in the subsurface) (in millions

of years)

burial

46

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Chemistry of coal

Coal: chemistry

Structure

Complex structure

Largely composed of organic material

(85-95 wt.%)

Organic material occurs in so-called

«macerals» (can be identified by

microscope) that reflect the nature of the

precursor plant

Contains also various inorganic

materials, e.g. aluminosilicates, pyrite,

etc. (5-15 wt.%)

Large pore network high surface area

of > 100 m2/g for lignites, bituminous and

sub-bituminous coals.

Elemental analysis, i.e. macro-chemical

form

Coal is hydrogen deficient, atomic

hydrogen-to-carbon ratio 0.9, i.e.

roughly half that of petroleum

Compound Content wt. %

Organic 95

C 73

H 5.2

O 20

N 1

S <1

Inorganic (Si, Al,

Fe, Ca, Na)

5

Contains higher levels of aromatic and

other unsaturated species than

petroleum.

High level of organic oxygen, i.e. atomic

oxygen to carbon ratio 1:5, i.e. 10

times the oxygen level of petroleum.

24/02/2020 47

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Chemistry of coal

Coal: chemistry

Macerals: a microscopic view of coal Example of an elemental analysis

(sub-bituminous coal from Rawhide

mine, Wyoming):

C100H85O21N1S0.3

24/02/2020 48

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Rank of coal

24/02/2020

Source: www.undergroundcoal.com.au

Coal: types

49

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Rank of coal

24/02/2020

Coal rank Carbon

content (%)

Volatile

matter (%)

Calorific

value (kJ/kg)

Moisture

content (%)

Peat 60 >53 16800 >75

Lignite (brown

coal)

60-71 53-49 23000 35

Sub-

bituminous

coal

71-77 49-42 29300 25-10

Bituminous

coal

77-87 42-29 36250 8

Anthracite 77-87 29-8 >36250 <8

Dry, ash free

basis

Dry, ash free

basis

Ash free basis In-situ

Coal: types

50

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Coal rank and coal utilization

24/02/2020

Source www.riverbasinenergy.com

Low rank coal

High rank coal

Coal: types

51

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Coal mining

Coal is mined in more than 50 countries

40% of coal is mined from surface mines and 60% from underground mines

China: predominantly underground mines

Australia: 80 % surface mines

USA: 67 % surface mines

24/02/2020

World Coal Association, 2011

wikipediawww.imgkid.com

Coal: extraction technologies

52

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Underground mines: Room-and-pillar mining

Cutting a network of rooms into the coal bed and leaving behind large pillars

of coal spaced at regular intervals or grids during mining to provide support to

the ceiling or mine roof. Coal pillars can be up to 40 % of the total coal bed

coal production is not efficient.

24/02/2020

www.patriotcoal.com

www.specialmy.com


53

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Underground mines: Long wall mining

Full extraction of a section of the coal (100-350 m long) using shearers. This

methodology achieves the total extraction of large sections of a coal bed. The

mine roof is propped up by self-advancing, hydraulically powered supports,

which temporarily hold up the ceiling while the coal is extracted. Allowed to

collapse after coal extraction is completed in this area. More than 75 % of the

coal bed can bed extracted by the longwall panels

24/02/2020

www.steamboattoday.com

www.patriotcoal.com


54

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Surface mining

Surface mining is also called open-cast or open-pit mining

Became wide-spread in the 70s/80s, in particular in the USA, Australia & India

Expose a shallow coal bed (typically 50-100 m) by removing overburden soil

and rock using bucket wheel excavators etc.

24/02/2020


55

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Surface mining: area mining

The soil and overburden is removed and deposited in previously mined-out

areas. The exposed coal bed is blasted to break up the coal for extraction.

Extraction is performed by earth moving equipment and transported by

conveyors or trucks

24/02/2020

Garzweiler, Germany

Zwenkauer, Germany

Source: www.rwe.com

www.sueddeutsche.de


56

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Surface mining: contour mining

Contour mining removes the soil and overburden rocks above the coal bed

by following the topographic contours around a hill or mountain. Spoils are

commonly deposited on the downslope side of the mining bench. Mining

ceases when high wall becomes too unstable or overburden too great.

24/02/2020

Middlesboro, Kentucky

www.earthsci.org


57

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Surface mining: mountain top removal

If coal seams in mountains are too small to be mined by underground

methods and if the overburden is not too thick, the coal seams are extracted

by removing the top of the mountain. The overburden is disposed in adjoining

valleys creating «valley infills»

24/02/2020

Birchton Curve, West Virginia

Rawl, West Virginia


58

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Unminable coal seams

Coal seams that are too small/thin, too deep, or of too poor quality are

“unminable”, but can be exploited nevertheless

Coal Bed Methane (CBM)

Coal seams contain gases (mostly methane) that are adsorbed to the coal rather

than structurally trapped in the natural fractures of coalbeds

These gases can be produced by special drilling and exploitation techniques

Underground coal gasification (UCG)

UCG decomposes coal into product gas “in-situ” via high pressure gasification at 700-900°C

(incomplete fuel oxidation)

We will come back to the coal gasification process later

24/02/2020


59

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Coal: hazards

Death of coal miners (explosions, rock falls, unhealthy air)

Restoring strip mines often has unstable soil that easily erodes, rocks that

are taken out react with water and produce H2SO4 acid mine drainage

toxic water with heavy metals pH lowers fish in lakes die

Coal seam fires hard to control and consume a large portion of coal

resources

Reducing environmental hazards:

SO2 removal: wet scrubbing with H2O and O2 reduction of 75% of flue gas

emissions

Coal gasification: after syngas is produced, CO reacts with O2 and forms

CO2 that can be sequestered

24/02/2020


60

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Coal gasification

Transforms a solid fuel into a gaseous fuel,

i.e. a synthesis gas (mixture of CO and

H2).

Coal reacts exothermically with oxygen at

high temperatures (~ 1,200 to 1,500 C)

and pressures (> 20 bar)

Main reactions (incomplete fuel oxidation):

2 C + O2 2 CO

C + H2O CO + H2 + (coal slurry)

The syngas can be combusted, further

converted into CO2 and more H2 (water-

gas-shift reaction), or as chemical

feedstock (synthetic fuels)

24/02/2020

Source: GE Energy

Coal: uses & processing

61

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Underground coal gasification (UCG)

To recall: Utilization of non-mined/mineable coal seams

Injection wells are used to provide the oxidant (air, oxygen) and steam, while

separate wells are used to extract the product gas (syngas).

24/02/2020

UCG is not yet

applied on large

scale, although test

have been/are

being performed in

many parts of the

world

CRIP technology =

Controlled

Reaction &

Injection Point


62

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Electricity: Pulverized coal combustion

24/02/2020

Source: www.power4georgians.com

1 Cooling tower

4 Transformer

5 Electric power generator

6 Low pressure turbine

7 Boiler feed pump

8 Condenser

9 Intermediate pressure

turbine

10 Steam governor valve

11 High pressure turbine

13 Feed heater

14 Coal conveyer

15 Coal hopper

16 Pulverized fuel mill

17 Boiler drum

18 Ash hopper

19 Superheater

21 Reheater

22 Air intake

24 Air preheater

25 Precipitator

27 Chimney stack

Coal is the major fuel used for electricity generation. Its

U.S. share on electricity generation was 27% in 2018

According to the IEA the average efficiency of existing

coal-fired capacity is only about 33%


63https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us-

generation-capacity-and-sales.php

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Steel making: Production of coke

Coal turned into coke can be used as a reducing agent to smelt iron ore in

blast furnaces

During the coking process bituminous coal is heated to ~ 1000-1100ºC in the

absence of oxygen to drive off the volatile compounds (pyrolysis). This

process results in a hard porous material - coke.

Coal used for coking (usually bituminous coal) must have low sulphur-,

phosphorous-, and ash contents, as well as sufficient mechanical strength.

24/02/2020

The coking process takes 12-36 hours in

the coke ovens.

(Since the smoke-producing components

are largely driven off during coking, coke

was (is) used as a fuel for stoves and

furnaces)

Wikipedia


64

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Coal and cement

Cement clinker is made from a mixture of calcium carbonate, silica, iron oxide

and alumina. To raw materials are heated in a high-temperature kiln, e.g.

fuelled by coal, to a partial melt at 1450 C resulting in a material known as

clinker (calcium silicates, aluminates and ferrites).

Clinker is mixed with gypsum (calcium sulphate) and possibly some

additional materials and ground to a fine powder to make cement.

24/02/2020

Source: www.worldcoal.org

www.co2crc.com.au

It takes about 200 kg

of coal to produce one

tonne of cement.

Rotary kiln for clinker manufacture


65

||

U.S. coal flow, 2018


24/02/2020 66

93%

7%

1 short ton = 0.91 metric ton

||

The emitted and the allowed

IPCC WG1 AR5 SPM

Emissions

24/02/2020 68

||

Comparing carbon poolspool size of spheres: Falkowski et al. 2000, Science

of emissions: IPCC WG3 SPM, p13

of gas, oil, coal: McGlade and Ekins 2015, Natureof hydrates: Milkov 2004, Earth Sci Rev

to have a better-than-even

chance of avoiding more than

a 2°C temperature rise, the

carbon budget between 2011

and 2050 is around 860–1180

Gt CO2 (corresponding to the

10–90% percentile range of all

model scenarios)

Emissions

24/02/2020 69

||

The allowed vs. the possiblepool size of spheres: Falkowski et al. 2000, Science

of emissions: IPCC WG3 SPM, p13

of gas, oil, coal: McGlade and Ekins 2015, Natureof hydrates: Milkov 2004, Earth Sci Rev

to have a better-than-even

chance of avoiding more than

a 2°C temperature rise, the

carbon budget between 2011

and 2050 is around 860–1180

Gt CO2 (cor. to the 10–90%

percentile range of all model

scenarios)

Emissions

24/02/2020 70

||

The allowed vs. the possible

IPCC WG1 AR5 SPM

Emissions

24/02/2020 71

||

The allowed vs. the possible

Emissions

24/02/2020 72

|| 24/02/2020

Emissions

https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=73&t=11, updated June 2019

CO2 emissions when burning fuel

How much carbon dioxide is produced when different fuels are burned to

produce energy?

73

lbCO2/Btu

[10-6]

kgCO2/GJ

Coal (anthracite) 228.6 98.3

Coal (bituminous) 205.7 88.4

Coal (lignite) 215.4 92.6

Coal (subbituminous) 214.3 92.1

Diesel fuel and heating oil 161.3 69.3

Gasoline (without ethanol) 157.2 67.6

Propane 139.0 59.9

Natural gas 117.0 50.3

The amount of CO2 produced when a

fuel is burned is a function of the

carbon content of the fuel. The heat

content, or the amount of energy

produced when a fuel is burned, is

mainly determined by the carbon (C)

and hydrogen (H) content of the fuel.

Heat is produced when C and H

combine with oxygen (O) during

combustion. Natural gas is primarily

methane (CH4), which has a higher

energy content relative to other fuels,

and thus, it has a relatively lower

CO2-to-energy content. Water and

various elements, such as sulfur and

noncombustible elements in some

fuels, reduce their heating values and

increase their CO2-to-heat contents.

Indicates how much CO2 is emitted

when burning each fuel produces a

certain amount of energy

|| 24/02/2020

Emissions

https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=75&t=11, updated October 2019

CO2 emissions per resource per sector

74

CO

2e

mitte

d [M

t]

• CO2 emissions from electric

power sector dominated by

coal and natural gas

• CO2 emissions from

transportation dominated by

petroleum

• Although coal has highest

CO2 emitting potential when

burned (see previous slide), it

contributes to to 24% of the

CO2 emissions in the 2018

U.S. stats

https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/electricity/electricity-in-the-us-

generation-capacity-and-sales.php

Energy-related carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions per source and sector for

the United States, 2018 (million metric tons)

||

Largest CO2-Emitting Power Plants Worldwide

24/02/2020

1. TAICHUNG plant, Taiwan, 41.3 Mt of CO2

2. PORYONG plant, South Korea, 37.8 Mt of CO2

3. CASTLE PEAK plant, China, 35.8 Mt of CO2

4.-8. are all in Asia

9. KENDAL plant, South Africa, 28.6 Mt of CO2

10. JANSCHWALDE Peitz Germany, 27.4 Mt of CO2

www.sciencesdaily.com

www.worldbank.org

Note: Total annual CO2 emission of Switzerland: 38.8 Mt of CO2

Emissions

75

|| 24/02/2020 76

CO2 basics

CO2

CO2 at ambient conditions is a colorless, odorless, non-combustible

(non-explosive) gas

CO2 is heavier than air and can accumulate in depressions – danger of

asphyxiation

CO2 is classified as non-toxic, however, the following exposure limits are

reported for high concentrations

< 2 %, short term: no harmful effects

3 %: breathing rate doubles

5 %: breathing rate 4 times more than normal

> 10%, ca.15 min: difficulties in breathing, impaired hearing, nausea, stupor

within 10 min and loss of consciousness within 15 min

> 20%, 1 min or less: acute danger of death

CO2 takes part in the global carbon cycle, where billions of tons of the gas

are moved between different pools by natural drivers

Source: Free Encyclopedia of Building & Environmental Inspection, Testing, Diagnosis, Repair, www.inspectapedia.com (15.02.13)

2CO air

g g( , 29 )

m o4

o l4

l mM M

|| 24/02/2020 77

The global carbon cycle

CO2

Carbon

Carbon Dioxide

Carbonate

400 kJ/mole

60...180 kJ/mole

The ground state ofcarbon is a mineral

carbonate

Carbon

Carbon Dioxide

Carbonate

400 kJ/mole

60...180 kJ/mole

The ground state ofcarbon is a mineral

carbonate

|| 24/02/2020 78

The global carbon cycle (in units of mass of C)

CO2

IPCC, 2013: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis

Atmosphere: 800 Gt

Hydrosphere: 40,000 Gt Lithosphere: 65,000,000 Gt

Biosphere: 2,500 GtAnthroposphere: 2-3 Gt

Natural fluxes: 100 Gt/a

Anthropogenic GHG: 10 Gt/a

CCS

|| 24/02/2020 79

CO2 phase diagram

CO2

Sublimation point

-78.5°C, 1bar

Triple point

-56.6°C, 5.1 bar

Critical point

31.1°C, 73.9 bar

10’000.0

1’000.0

100.0

10.0

1.0

0.1

-100 -90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Temperature [°C]

CO2 gas

1999, ChemicaLogic Corporation

Drawn with CO2

Tab V1.0

CO2 liquid

CO2 solid

Sublimatio

n line

Saturation line

Melting line

Pre

ssu

re [b

ar]

|| 24/02/2020 80

CO2

Depth

(km

)

Density of CO 2 (kg/m3)

©CO2CRC2.5

op

tima

l

de

pth

for s

tora

ge

0 200 400 600 800 1’000

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Volume = 100%

10%

2%

1.1%

0.32%

0.28%

0.27%

0.27%

CO2

(gaseous state)

CO2

(supercritical)

Earth’s surface

Pressure [MPa]

Depth

[m]

Depth

[m]

800 m limit 800 m limit

Geothermal

Gradients

Source: Diamond et al, Uni Bern

Density of CO2 with depth

||

Pressure [MPa]

Depth

[m]

Depth

[m]

800 m limit 800 m limit

Geothermal

Gradients

24/02/2020 81

CO2

Depth

(km

)

Density of CO 2 (kg/m3)

©CO2CRC2.5

op

tima

l

de

pth

for s

tora

ge

0 200 400 600 800 1’000

0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

Volume = 100%

10%

2%

1.1%

0.32%

0.28%

0.27%

0.27%

CO2

(gaseous state)

CO2

(supercritical)

Earth’s surface

Diamond et al, Swiss J Geosci. 103 (2010) 3:427-455

Density of CO2 with depth

||

Daniel Yergin „The prize – The epic quest for oil, money &

power“, 1991

Daniel Yergin „The quest – Energy, security, and the

remaking of the modern world“, 2011

Vaclav Smil „Energy at the crossroads – Global

perspectives and uncertainties“, 2003 (chapter 4)

Rachel Maddow „Blowout – Corrupted democracy, rogue

state Russia, and the richest, most destructive industry on

earth“, 2019

William T. Vollmann „No immediate danger – Vol. 1 of

carbon ideologies“, 2018 (nuclear)

William T. Vollmann „No good alternative – Vol. 2 of

carbon ideologies“, 2018 (coal, natural gas and oil)24/02/2020 82

Readings

||

Oil: Production vs. reserves Brazilian “pré-sal” discoveries

offshore and Venezuela’s «claims»

(incl. vast oil sand deposits)

BP

Sta

tistical R

evie

w o

fW

orld E

nerg

y2014,

pro

ved

reserv

es

pie

-chart

rescale

dto

repre

sentto

tal re

l. to

1993

Oil & Gas: production, consumption and trade

24/02/2020 83

||

Gas: Production vs. reserves

BP

Sta

tistical R

evie

w o

fW

orld E

nerg

y2014,

pro

ved

reserv

es

pie

-chart

rescale

dto

repre

sentto

tal re

l. to

1993


24/02/2020 84

||

Oil: Production vs. consumption

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014


24/02/2020 85

||

Gas: Production vs. consumption



24/02/2020 86

||

Conventional oil & gas

Worldw

ide O

ffshore

Activity

and S

edim

enta

ry B

asin

s"

Oil

and G

as

Journ

al, (

Novem

ber

1970);

Petr

ole

um

Publis

hin

g C

o., T

uls

a

Sedimentary basins and

petroleum-producing areas of the world

Oil & Gas: global distribution

24/02/2020 87

||

Unconventional gas resources in Europe

www.economist.com


24/02/2020 88

||

Who has the oil?

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014 Each country’s size is proportional to the amount of oil reserves as of 2004: Data based on BP statistical review 2004, and eia


24/02/2020 89

||

Oil producing countries

Wikipedia: 01.03.2015


24/02/2020 90

||

Oil producing countries

Wikipedia: 01.03.2015, CIA 2010 The World factbook


24/02/2020 91

||

Oil: Consumption per capita



24/02/2020 92

||

Oil: Major trade movements 2013



24/02/2020 93

||

Gas producing countries

Wikipedia: 01.03.2015


24/02/2020 94

||

Gas: Consumption per capita



24/02/2020 95

||

Gas: Major trade movements 2013



24/02/2020 96

||

Global coal distribution

24/02/2020

http://www.britannica.com/bps/media-view/142296/1/0/0

… and have

significant

coal reserves.

Coal: global distribution

97

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