The Ambiguity of 'Language'

or:

Why English Linguistics should not stick with English

Dafydd Gibbon

Universität Bielefeld

April Conference 2008, Kraków

The argument

Thesis:There are many more kinds of ambiguity than is

generally recognised in linguistics and in literary and cultural studies

Method:cross-disciplinary boundaries need to be recognised in

order to be overcome

Domains:Culture-specific contrastsMetaphorStructural ambiguityAmbiguity of gesture

The context

The ambiguity of languageproduction, representation, interpretation of multiple

meanings

The ambiguity of 'language'standard languagelingua franca core (if it exists)knowledge vs. proficiency

FIRST:

THE AMBIGUITY OF “AMBIGUITY”

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'5

Empson: Seven types of ambiguity

The seven types:*metaphor, metaphysical conceittwo or more meanings resolved into one: two

metaphors at oncetwo ideas connected through context in one wordtwo or more meanings in one word indicate complexityambiguity in writing: simile as a function of two

statementsambiguity in reading: perhaps not intended by authorindecision: opposites indicating a fundamental conflict

in the author's mind

* My grossly abbreviated formulations - DG

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'6

Linguist: At least seven more types ...

Literal semantics:Ambiguity

homonymyhomography, homophony

polysemyVaguenessGenerality

Syntax:Scope

wordssentencestexts

Garden paths

Non-literal semantics:metaphor, metonymyidiom

Translation:false friendsidiom mismatch

Maskingnoise, “cocktail party”inattention, distraction

Effectmisunderstandingpleasure

art; humour

Linguist: ... along several dimensions

Thesisambiguity is pervasive at all ranks of language and

speech

Ranks:dialoguestextssentenceswordssounds

it isn't easy to wreck a nice beachintonation:

list vs. question

(echo) question vs. (iterated) statement

The evidence

Lexical ambiguity:traditional ambiguities

homonymy (homophony, homography), polysemy

Structural ambiguity:garden paths (words, sentences)

Functional ambiguity:Semantic relations:

ambiguity – generality – vaguenessmetaphor, metonymy, idiom

Pragmatics:enjoyment: poetic – humorousmisunderstanding

In any case - ambiguities are infinite

Why?The degree of ambiguity of a sign depends on its

compositionalityIn the case of linear sequences of parts:

Ifeach of its components is ambiguous

and it has n components

and the components are ambiguous

then the number of ambiguities is Πi amb(i)

where amb(i) is the number of ambiguities of any given component.

Situational ambiguity

Sheer apprisal of a situation may be ambiguous:failure to recognise all components

underspecification and ambiguityinterpretability of objects:

ambivalent shapesindistinctness of objects - vagueness

Levels of ambiguity

Dialogue:turn-switch ambiguityspeaker ambiguityaddressee ambiguity

Speech act:indirect speech actimplicit speech actdouble bindhidden intention, e.g. fingers crossed behind back)

Text:implicatureanaphora

PRAGMATICS:

CONNOTATIVE AMBIGUITY

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'13

Ancestral Faces (Kwesi Brew)

They sneaked into the limbo of timeBut could not muffle the gay jinglingBrass bells on the frothy necksOf the sacrificial sheep that limped and nodded after them;They could not hide the moss on the bald pateOf their reverent heads;And the gnarled backs of the wawa tree;Nor the rust on the ancient state-swords;Nor the skulls studded with grinning cowries;They could not silence the drums,The fibre of their souls and ours - The drums that whisper to us behind black sinewy hands.They gazedAnd sweeping like white locusts through the forestsSaw the same men, slightly wizened,Shuffle their sandalled feet to the same rhythms,They heard the same words of wisdom utteredBetween puffs of pale blue smoke:They saw us,And said: They have not changed!

In: Wole Soyinka, ed., 1975. Poems of Black Africa. London, Nairobi, Ibadan: Heinemann.

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'14

Ancestral Faces (Kwesi Brew)

They sneaked into the limbo of timeBut could not muffle the gay jinglingBrass bells on the frothy necksOf the sacrificial sheep that limped and nodded after them;They could not hide the moss on the bald pateOf their reverent heads;And the gnarled backs of the wawa tree;Nor the rust on the ancient state-swords;Nor the skulls studded with grinning cowries;They could not silence the drums,The fibre of their souls and ours - The drums that whisper to us behind black sinewy hands.They gazedAnd sweeping like white locusts through the forestsSaw the same men, slightly wizened,Shuffle their sandalled feet to the same rhythms,They heard the same words of wisdom utteredBetween puffs of pale blue smoke:They saw us,And said: They have not changed!

In: Wole Soyinka, ed., 1975. Poems of Black Africa. London, Nairobi, Ibadan: Heinemann.

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'15

Ancestral Faces (Kwesi Brew)

In: Wole Soyinka, ed., 1975. Poems of Black Africa. London, Nairobi, Ibadan: Heinemann.

They sneaked into the limbo of timeBut could not muffle the gay jinglingBrass bells on the frothy necksOf the sacrificial sheep that limped and nodded after them;They could not hide the moss on the bald pateOf their reverent heads;And the gnarled backs of the wawa tree;Nor the rust on the ancient state-swords;Nor the skulls studded with grinning cowries;They could not silence the drums,The fibre of their souls and ours - The drums that whisper to us behind black sinewy hands.They gazedAnd sweeping like white locusts through the forestsSaw the same men, slightly wizened,Shuffle their sandalled feet to the same rhythms,They heard the same words of wisdom utteredBetween puffs of pale blue smoke:They saw us,And said: They have not changed!

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'16

“cowrie shell”: connotative ambiguity

Symbol of fertilityresemblance to

facial lipsfemale genital lips

Ritual & erotic decorationheaddresscache-sexe etc.

Unit of currencymost widely used currency ever

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'17

Ancestral Faces (Kwesi Brew)

In: Wole Soyinka, ed., 1975. Poems of Black Africa. London, Nairobi, Ibadan: Heinemann.

They sneaked into the limbo of timeBut could not muffle the gay jinglingBrass bells on the frothy necksOf the sacrificial sheep that limped and nodded after them;They could not hide the moss on the bald pateOf their reverent heads;And the gnarled backs of the wawa tree;Nor the rust on the ancient state-swords;Nor the skulls studded with grinning cowries;They could not silence the drums,The fibre of their souls and ours - The drums that whisper to us behind black sinewy hands.They gazedAnd sweeping like white locusts through the forestsSaw the same men, slightly wizened,Shuffle their sandalled feet to the same rhythms,They heard the same words of wisdom utteredBetween puffs of pale blue smoke:They saw us,And said: They have not changed!

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'18

“wawa tree” - connotative ambiguity“wawa aba”wawa seedsymbol ofendurance

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'19

SEMANTICS:

METAPHOR – ANOTHER LINGUISTIC VIEW

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'20

Models of metaphor

Basic structure:tenor, ground, primary termvehicle, figure, secondary termtertium comparationis

Approaches:Arisotelian: comparisonEco: cognitive comparisonBlack: interaction theory (non-compositional)Searle: speech act theory of non-literal meaning

sentence meaning – utterer's meaningLakoff: cognitive model theory

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Lakoff's cognitive model theory

Pretty much everything in language is a metaphor...

Metaphors are not just based on similarities but also on structured models

"Man is a wolf"member

ofpack

lonewolf

createsfear

killer

enemy

aggressive

cares foroffspring

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'22

LEAVING ENGLISH BEHIND:

MULTIMODALITY

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GESTURE SEMANTICS

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Gesture semantics: deixis

Deixis:concentric sphere:

inside: here(ego – hic – nunc)

next: therelast: yonder

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'25

Gesture semantics: deixis

Deixis:concentric sphere:

inside: here(ego – hic – nunc)

next: therelast: yonder

cone:section of sphere, i.e.solid angle in sphere:

sides:

emanate from centre of sphere

base:

intersection with surface of sphere

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'26

Gesture semantics: deixis

Deixis:concentric sphere:

inside: here(ego – hic – nunc)

next: therelast: yonder

cone:section of sphere, i.e.solid angle in sphere:

sides:

emanate from centre of sphere

base:

intersection with surface of sphere

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'27

Gesture semantics: deixis

Deixis:concentric sphere:

inside: here(ego – hic – nunc)

next: therelast: yonder

cone:section of sphere, i.e.solid angle in sphere:

sides:

emanate from centre of sphere

base:

intersection with surface of sphere

ambiguity?generality?vagueness?

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'28

Gesture semantics: deixis

Deixis:concentric sphere:

inside: here(ego – hic – nunc)

next: therelast: yonder

cone:section of sphere, i.e.solid angle in sphere:

sides:

emanate from centre of sphere

base:

intersection with surface of sphere

ambiguity?generality?vagueness?

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'29

GESTURE PRAGMATICS

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'30

Gesture pragmatics: interaction

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Gesture pragmatics: interaction

April conference 11 Kraków 2008-04-23/25 D. Gibbon: "The ambiguity of 'language'32

OUTLOOK

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Functionality of ambiguity

Ambiguity is pervasive, so:does ambiguity have an identifiable functionality?

Yes, ambiguity contributes to major non-Gricean functions of language:as a CAUSE of

misunderstandings, misperceptions, false impressionsdiverse kinds of conflict

as an INGREDIENT of humour:ambivalent situations resolved by punch-linepuns

as a CHARACTERISTIC of literature:see Empson...

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ENVOI

Further dimensions of ambiguity:multimodalitytranslationuniversal language

Language the ambiguity of scientific models:the ambiguity of “English/Englishes” !!!the ambiguity of “language contact”:

Core-periphery models (many authors)Lingua Franca core model (Jenkins)Multiple Centres Network model (“Englishes”)Family Resemblance model (Gibbon)Habitat model (Leitner)

borrowing (copying!), code-switching

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