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BondingBonding
Covalent (share valence e-)Covalent (share valence e-)
All NonmetalsAll Nonmetals
Made of Made of carbon,carbon, hydrogenhydrogen and other and other
nonmetals like sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen etcnonmetals like sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen etc..
Carbon Based MoleculesCarbon Based Molecules
Carbon Atoms Form the “Backbone”Carbon Atoms Form the “Backbone”
Carbon has 4 valence and need 4 moreCarbon has 4 valence and need 4 more
ALWAYSALWAYS form 4 bonds form 4 bonds
Bonds can be single, double or tripleBonds can be single, double or triple
Due to variety and number of bonds Due to variety and number of bonds carbon can form you can have an carbon can form you can have an enormous number of combinationsenormous number of combinations
Melting Point Temp.Melting Point Temp.Relatively Low MPRelatively Low MP
(compared to ionic, metallic)(compared to ionic, metallic)MP depends on strength of IMF MP depends on strength of IMF
Non-polar moleculesNon-polar molecules: (Lowest MP): (Lowest MP)only have VDW attractions (weak)only have VDW attractions (weak)
Polar moleculesPolar molecules: (Slightly Higher MP): (Slightly Higher MP)Dipole-dipole attractions or H-bonding Dipole-dipole attractions or H-bonding Molecules held together moreMolecules held together more
SolubilitySolubility
Polar molecules:Polar molecules: soluble in polar solvents like watersoluble in polar solvents like water
Nonpolar molecules:Nonpolar molecules: soluble in nonpolar solvents like hexanesoluble in nonpolar solvents like hexane
Look for:Look for: Symmetry = nonpolarSymmetry = nonpolar Assymmetry = polarAssymmetry = polar
Conductivity in SolutionConductivity in Solution
Organic Molecules usually DO NOT ionizeOrganic Molecules usually DO NOT ionizedon’t conduct in solutiondon’t conduct in solution
NONELECTROLYTESNONELECTROLYTES
Important Exception:Important Exception: ORGANIC ACIDSORGANIC ACIDS
Ex: CHEx: CH33COOHCOOH
In AdditionIn Addition
Organic Molecules:Organic Molecules:Undergo combustionUndergo combustion in the presence of in the presence of oxygenoxygen
Slow rates of reactionSlow rates of reaction due to complexity of due to complexity of bonds (often catalyst needed)bonds (often catalyst needed)
Breakdown/decompose at low temperatureBreakdown/decompose at low temperature compared to other compoundscompared to other compounds
Types of FormulasTypes of Formulas
MolecularMolecularEmpiricalEmpiricalStructuralStructural
Condensed StructuralCondensed Structural
Organic Prefixes (Table P)Organic Prefixes (Table P)MethMethEthEth
PropPropButButPentPentHexHexHeptHeptOctOctNonNonDecDec
Indicate how many carbon atoms are in the entire moleculeIndicate how many carbon atoms are in the entire moleculeYou will only see molecules with a max of 10 carbonsYou will only see molecules with a max of 10 carbons
Homologous Series of Homologous Series of Hydrocarbons (Table Q)Hydrocarbons (Table Q)
Have unique general “formula”Have unique general “formula”
Each member of the series differs by oneEach member of the series differs by one
carbon and a certain # of hydrogencarbon and a certain # of hydrogen
AlkanesAlkanes
General Formula:General Formula: CCnnHH2n+22n+2
All All singlesingle bonds between carbon atoms bonds between carbon atoms
Name ends in “ane”Name ends in “ane”
SATURATEDSATURATED hydrocarbons hydrocarbons(holding as many hydrogen atoms as possible)(holding as many hydrogen atoms as possible)
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/orgonaming1.htm
AlkenesAlkenes
General Formula:General Formula: CCnnHH2n2n
One One doubledouble carbon to carbon bond carbon to carbon bond
*Address needed for bond location*Address needed for bond location
Name ends in “ene”Name ends in “ene”
UNSATURATED UNSATURATED hydrocarbonshydrocarbons(not totally filled with hydrogen)(not totally filled with hydrogen)
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/orgonaming2.htm
AlkynesAlkynes
General Formula: General Formula: CCnnHH2n-22n-2
One One tripletriple carbon to carbon bond carbon to carbon bond
*Address needed for bond location*Address needed for bond location
Name ends in “yne”Name ends in “yne”
UNSATURATED UNSATURATED hydrocarbonshydrocarbons(not totally filled with hydrogen)(not totally filled with hydrogen)
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/orgonaming3.htm
dienes, diynes etc…dienes, diynes etc…
Have multiple double or triple bonds.Have multiple double or triple bonds.
Give the address for each multiple bond.Give the address for each multiple bond.
End of name becomes “-diene…or –triene”End of name becomes “-diene…or –triene”
Use prefix “di/tri/tetra/penta” etc…if more Use prefix “di/tri/tetra/penta” etc…if more than one of the same thing on the chain.than one of the same thing on the chain.
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/orgonaming5.htmhttp://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/orgonaming6.htm
Branching HydrocarbonsBranching Hydrocarbons
Have hydrocarbon “branches” off the main Have hydrocarbon “branches” off the main carbon chain.carbon chain.
Called Called “alkyl” groups“alkyl” groups
Naming Branched HydrocarbonsNaming Branched Hydrocarbons
Find longest continuous carbon chain and Find longest continuous carbon chain and name itname it (parent chain)(parent chain)
Find address of each branch Find address of each branch
Count carbons in each branchCount carbons in each branch
Name branches using prefix ending in “yl”Name branches using prefix ending in “yl” Ex: 2 carbon branch would be an “ethyl” branch.Ex: 2 carbon branch would be an “ethyl” branch.
NoteNote: : If more than one of the same type of branch use If more than one of the same type of branch use ““di”, “tri”, “tetra” etc…instead of repeating the namedi”, “tri”, “tetra” etc…instead of repeating the name
IsomersIsomers
Same molecular formulas, but different Same molecular formulas, but different structural formulasstructural formulas..
Atoms in the molecule have a different Atoms in the molecule have a different arrangement.arrangement.
The more atoms the larger the number of The more atoms the larger the number of possible isomers possible isomers
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/isomersofalkanes.htm
Cyclical HydrocarbonsCyclical Hydrocarbons
Form ringsForm rings
Start with “cyclo-”Start with “cyclo-”
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/orgonaming7.htm
Benzene SeriesBenzene Series
Benzene SeriesBenzene Series::6 carbon ring with alternating double bonds.6 carbon ring with alternating double bonds.
Electrons in double bonds “resonate” between Electrons in double bonds “resonate” between bond sites giving more strength to all the bondsbond sites giving more strength to all the bonds
Branches and functional groups are often Branches and functional groups are often attached to the ringattached to the ring
Ortho/Meta/Para locationsOrtho/Meta/Para locations
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/orgonaming4.htm
HalidesHalides
Contain one or more halogen atoms.Contain one or more halogen atoms.
Fluoro / chloro / bromo / iodo prefixFluoro / chloro / bromo / iodo prefix
Use address Use address
Use di, tri, tetra if more than one of sameUse di, tri, tetra if more than one of same
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/halides.htm
AlcoholsAlcohols
Have one or more Have one or more “Hydroxyl” groups (-OH)“Hydroxyl” groups (-OH)
Use address
Name ends in “-ol”
If more than one (–OH), name ends in “diol”, or “triol”
Important Example: Glycerol or 1, 2, 3 propantriolImportant Example: Glycerol or 1, 2, 3 propantriol
Types of AlcoholsTypes of Alcohols
PrimaryPrimary
SecondarySecondary
TertiaryTertiary
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/alcohols.htm
Aldehydes Aldehydes
Carbon double bonded to oxygen Carbon double bonded to oxygen at endat end
of a carbon chain (“carbonyl” group)of a carbon chain (“carbonyl” group)
ADDRESS NOT NEEDED (always at end!)ADDRESS NOT NEEDED (always at end!)
End in “–al”End in “–al”
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/Aldehydes.htm
KetonesKetones
Carbon double bonded to oxygen Carbon double bonded to oxygen in middlein middle of a carbon chain (“carbonyl” group)of a carbon chain (“carbonyl” group)
Use addressUse address
End in “-one”End in “-one”
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/Ketones.htm
EthersEthers
Oxygen atom withinOxygen atom within carbon chain carbon chain
Count carbon atoms on either side of oxygen Count carbon atoms on either side of oxygen and name them like “alkyl” branches.and name them like “alkyl” branches.
““Butterflies” with belly buttonsButterflies” with belly buttons
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/ethers.htm
Organic AcidsOrganic Acids
At the endAt the end of the carbon chain is a “carboxyl” of the carbon chain is a “carboxyl” group containing two oxygen atoms.group containing two oxygen atoms.
ADDRESS NOT NEEDEDADDRESS NOT NEEDED (always at end!) (always at end!)
End in “-oic acid”End in “-oic acid”
Has an acidic hydrogen that ionizes so these are Has an acidic hydrogen that ionizes so these are ELECTROLYTESELECTROLYTES
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/OrgAcid.htm
EstersEsters
WithinWithin the chain, there is an oxygen atom that is the chain, there is an oxygen atom that is next to a carbon double bonded to oxygennext to a carbon double bonded to oxygen
Use oxygen inside of chain as middle point. (Sorta Use oxygen inside of chain as middle point. (Sorta like an “ether” belly button)like an “ether” belly button)
Name both sides around the oxygen atomName both sides around the oxygen atom Side with carbon “Alkyl” branch, Side with carbon “Alkyl” branch, ends in “yl”ends in “yl” Side with the double bonded oxygen Side with the double bonded oxygen ends in “oate”ends in “oate”
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/esters.htm
AminesAmines
Have an “amine” group containing Have an “amine” group containing nitrogennitrogen..
Use addressUse address
Ends in “-amine”Ends in “-amine”
Important Example: Amino AcidImportant Example: Amino Acid
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/amines.htm
AmidesAmides
Also have a Also have a nitrogen nitrogen atom, but it is next atom, but it is next to a carbon double bonded to oxygen.to a carbon double bonded to oxygen.
End in “amide”.End in “amide”.
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/amide.htm
CombustionCombustion
Burning or oxidation of a hydrocarbon.Burning or oxidation of a hydrocarbon.Needs ONeeds O22
Produces COProduces CO22 and H and H22OOAlways EXOTHERMICAlways EXOTHERMIC
If not enough OIf not enough O22 present, you can get present, you can get
“incomplete” combustion resulting in “incomplete” combustion resulting in carbon monoxide (CO) and soot (C).carbon monoxide (CO) and soot (C).
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/combustion.htm
FermentationFermentation
Makes ALCOHOL!!!Makes ALCOHOL!!!
Sugar is metabolized by yeast enzymes to Sugar is metabolized by yeast enzymes to make ethanol and COmake ethanol and CO22
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/Fermentation.htm
SubstitutionSubstitution
Happens with Happens with ALKANESALKANES One atom comes off and is “substituted” One atom comes off and is “substituted”
for another atom.for another atom.Results in Results in TWO productsTWO productsEx: Halogen SubstitutionEx: Halogen Substitution
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/Substituition.htm
AdditionAddition
Happens with Happens with ALKENESALKENES and and ALKYNESALKYNES..A double or triple bond “opens up” A double or triple bond “opens up” Two atoms “add on” for each broken bondTwo atoms “add on” for each broken bondResults in Results in ONE productONE product..Ex:Ex:
Halogen AdditionHalogen AdditionHydrogenationHydrogenation
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/Addition.htm
PolymerizationPolymerization
Joining together of many individual “monomers” toJoining together of many individual “monomers” tomake a “polymer”.make a “polymer”.
Ex: Synthetic PolymersEx: Synthetic Polymers NylonNylon RayonRayon PolyethelenePolyethelene PolypropylenePolypropylene Polystyrene (styrofoam)Polystyrene (styrofoam) PolyesterPolyester
Ex: Natural PolymersEx: Natural Polymers DNA/RNADNA/RNA Starch, CelluloseStarch, Cellulose ProteinsProteins
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/polymers.htmhttp://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/polymersswf.htm
Types of PolymerizationTypes of Polymerization
Condensation PolymerizationCondensation PolymerizationRemove water to join monomersRemove water to join monomersEx: Amino Acids joining to make “peptide” bondsEx: Amino Acids joining to make “peptide” bonds
Addition PolymerizationAddition PolymerizationOpen up double/triple bonds to join monomersOpen up double/triple bonds to join monomersHappens to alkenes/alkynesHappens to alkenes/alkynes
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/polymerization.htm
CrackingCracking
BreakingBreaking of long hydrocarbon chains into of long hydrocarbon chains into smaller ones.smaller ones.
Often used on long chain hydrocarbons Often used on long chain hydrocarbons found in petroleum to make them into found in petroleum to make them into more usable fuels.more usable fuels.
Usually involves a catalystUsually involves a catalyst
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/cracking.htm
Fractional DistillationFractional Distillation
Separation of a petroleum mixture by Separation of a petroleum mixture by differences in Boiling Pointdifferences in Boiling Point temperature. temperature.
Most compounds in petroleum are non-Most compounds in petroleum are non-polar hydrocarbons.polar hydrocarbons.
Larger chains = stronger VDW = higher BPLarger chains = stronger VDW = higher BP
Smaller chains = weaker VDW = lower BPSmaller chains = weaker VDW = lower BP
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/Fractional.htm
***Esterification******Esterification***
Dehydration synthesis (water is removed to Dehydration synthesis (water is removed to join molecules)join molecules)
Alcohol + Organic Acid Alcohol + Organic Acid Ester + Water Ester + Water
Ester molecules often have nice Ester molecules often have nice odorsodorsFatsFats are a type of ester made of glycerol and are a type of ester made of glycerol and
3 fatty acid chains3 fatty acid chains
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/esterfication.htm
Saponification Saponification (Making Soap)(Making Soap)
Soap molecules are long molecules that Soap molecules are long molecules that are nonpolar at one end and polar at the are nonpolar at one end and polar at the other end.other end.
Can bring oil and water togetherCan bring oil and water together
Ester + Base Ester + Base Soap + GlycerolSoap + Glycerol
http://www.kentchemistry.com/links/organic/saponification.htm