Organisms and Populations Package

8/13/2019 Organisms and Populations Package

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Aiversity dh Drjlnisfs

Evd`utidnlry [ltterns lna Nlturl` Re`ebtidn

Intrdaubtidn


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a) universl` jenetib bdae= l`` glve tge slfe jenetib bdae.

8. Gdfd`djy = sifi`lr strubtures in sglpe, p`lbefent lna/dr hunbtidn lfdnj aihherent spebies

:. Fdaern syntgesis (


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Zgy fijgt tgere oe `dnj peridas dh stlsis in hdssi` rebdra4l) tissues aia ndt hdssiìze

[gy`djeny lna [ltterns dh Evdùtidn= evdùtidnlry gistdry dh drjlnisfsCinjadf ! [gyùf ! B`lss ! Draer ! Hlfi`y ! Jenus ! Rpebies


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syn - sglrealut ndt sglrea/unsglrea aerivea bglrlbtersynlpdfprgy= sglrea aerivea bglrlbter stltes lfdnj tlxl syfpèisdfdrpgy= trlits dh lnbestrl` drjlnisfs lnlpdfdrpgy= aerivea trlit dn dne jrdup dn tge tree

5. Gdfdp`lsy =Gdfdp`lsidus= bglrlbter stlte tglt inaepenaent`y evd`vea in twd dr fdre tlxl. Exlfpè= winjs dholts lna insebts

8. Xerteorlte vs. Bepgl`dpda eyes.Xerteorlte eyes= lxdns dh retinl` be``s bdnverje intd dptib nerve. @ens bdntrlbts.Dbtdpus eyes= lxdns run intd dptib jlnjìdn. @ens fdve olbc lna hdrtg.

:. Oltesiln fifibry= pl`ltloè spebies tglt fifibs unpl`ltloè spebiesEx= rea spdttea purpè outterh`y fifibs bd`drinj dh pdisdndus swl``dwtli`

Fu`èriln fifibry= twd dr fdre unpl`ltloè spebies glve evd`vea sifi`lr wlrninj sijns.Ex= wlsps lna oees

7. Evdùtidnlry reversl`s = ln ingeritea trlit revertinj olbc td ln elrìer hdrf dver tge bdurse dh flnyjenerltidns. Ex= `dss dh rlau`l in oivl`ves.

9. Flxifuf plrsifdny= inhers l pgy`djenetib tree oy finifizinj tge tdtl` nufoer dh evdùtidnlrysteps/bglnjes


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5. Rpdnje synlpdfdrpgies=l) Bgdlndbytes= bd``lrea h`lje``ltea heeainj be``so) Rystef td pufp wlter witg externl` pdresb) Bl`biuf blrodnlte dr spibuès (sceètdn)a) Gijg be`ù`lr fdoiìty lna tdtipdtenby

Rpdnje syfpèsidfdrpgies= nd neurdns, nd fusbès, nd be``-be`` munbtidn, nd jut, lna nd reprdaubtivedrjlns.

8. [driherl aehinitidnsl) Rpdnjdbde` = `lrje inner blvity ìnea witg bglndbytes wgibg pi`` wlter tgrdujg.o) Bglndbytes = dvdia be``s witg l bd``lr dh fibrdvi`ì surrdunainj dne h`lje`ùf. Rtibcs dut dh

fesdgy`. Qrlppea hdda plrtibès sìae adwn fubus lna lre pgljdbytizea oy be`` oday.b) Rpibuès= sceètdn flae dh bl`biuf blrodnlte spibuès.a) Dstil= inburrent pdres e) Dsbuùf exburrent pdresh) Fesdgy` = je`ltindus fltrix witgin tge spdnje.j) [inlbdbytes= fusbè lna nervdus-ìce tissue/ externl` surhlbe. Rdfe bdntlin fydsin lna lbtin. Bln

b`dse dsbuùf. _espdna td jùtlflte.g) Lrbgledbytes= lfdeodia be``s fdve tgrdujgdut fesdgy`. [gljdbytize hdda plrtibès lt externl`

epitgeìuf lna aijest plrtibès trlppea oy bglndbytes.

:. Bgdlndbytes=Qrlppea hdda plrtibès sìae adwn (fubus) lna lre pgljdbytizea oy be`` oday.Jrelter exit ve`dbity aue td brdss-sebtidnl` lrel dh bgdlndbytes, wgdse tdtl` brdss-sebtidnl` lrel lretgduslnas dh tifes jrelter tgln tge brdss sebtidn dh tge exit burrent lrels

7. [rinbipè dh bdntinuity= h`lje``l . Aespite `dw ve`dbity prdaubea oy h`ljet``ltea bglndbytea, wlter speea ltdsbuùf is inbrelsinj oy flnipu`ltinj/reaubinj brdss sebtidn.

Rpdnjdbde` dsbuùf brdss sebtidn


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9. Lrbgledbytes = hdr aijestidn.Qgree types witg tgree hunbtidns= Rebretes spibuès, spdnjinj hioers dh sceètdn lna hiori``lrbd``ljen, hdrf jeffuès hdr lsexul` reprdaubtidn


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Bl`blrel= spibuès dh bl`biuf blrodnlte. Rfl``. Quoe dr vlse sglpe.Blnl`s= Lsbdndia, sybdndia dr èubdndia.

Aefdspdnjile = spibuès dh siìbedus, spdnjinj dr odtg. Rize rlnjes. L`` èubdndiaGexlbtine`ìal = spibuès witg 8 rlys in `lttibe strubture. Aeep-sel hdrfs. Rybdndia.Gdfdsbèrdfdrpgl = spdnjes witgdut sceètdn dr spibuès.

Rynbytil` trloebu`lr retibuùf `dts dh nubèi èlainj td spdnjdbde`

Bnialril lna BtendpgdrlJlstru`ltidn, tissue-ève` drjlnizltidn, fusbè tissue, nervdus tissue

[d`yp hdrf= tuou`lr oday witg fdutg airebtea upwlra lna surrdunaea oy tentlbès. Fdutg èlas tdjlstrdvlsbu`lr blvity. Lodrl` ena lttlbgea td suostrlte. _eprdaube lsexul``y oy ouaainj dh hissidn

Feausl hdrf = ufore``l sglpea, usul``y hree swiffinj, fdutg airebtea adwnwlra, tentlbès fly extenaadwnwlras. Rdfe feausl equippea witg stltdbysts lna dbe`ì.


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5. Aijestidn is priflri`y extrlbe`ù`lr. (nd respirltdry dr extrlbe`ù`lr drjlns)

Intrlbe`ù`lr aijestidn in jlstrdaerfis=

:. @ihe bybè dh bnialrilns=zyjdte aeve`dps intd p`lnu`l `lrvl ! settès lna fetlfdrpgdses intd pd`yp ! pd`yp prdaubea feausl ! feausl lre flè dr heflè (aidebidus) lna reprdaube sexul``y (jlfetes)

7. bnialrilns ad ndt glve true fusbè tissue=

9. Rwiffinj= bdntrlbtidn dh oday (veùf) pusginj wlter dut lna prdpe`ìnj tge oday hdrwlra.


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5 B`lsses dh Bnialrilnsl) B`lss Lntgdzdl= pd`yps. Rdfetifes bd`dnil`. Glve septl. (sel hln, sel pen)

@ihebybè= pd`yps reprdaube lsexul``y dr sexul``y.o) B`lss Rtlurdzdl= pd`yps lre gd``dw septl. [riflry pd`yp tentlbès lre gd``dw. [`lnu`l witgdut

biìl.b) B`lss Rbypgdzdl= fdtdr nerve net feausl oday hdrf, pd`yp reaubea dr `dst, strdoi`ltidn. _gdplìl

(witg dbe`ì).@ihe bybè= feausl ! zyjdte ! biìltea p`lnu`l `lrvle ! p`lnu`l settès ! strdoiìl ! ifflturefeausl

a) B`lss Buodzdl= odxìce feausle oday, ve`lriuf, bdfpèx eyes. Dne pd`yp lna dne feausl. Nervenet.

e) B`lss Gyardzdl=l. Feausl= oy `lterl` ouaainj. Xeùf. Rtltdbytst lna dbe`ì.o. [d`yps= bd`dnil` lna spebilìzea. Gd``dw pd`yps (nd septl)


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5.l) [rdtdsdfes= spirl` b`elvlje. O`lstdpdre oebdfes tge

fdutg. Hdrfltidn dh l bde`df oy sbgizdbde`y. (Zdrfs lreprdtdstdfes)

o) Aeuterdsdfes= rlail` reju`ltive b`elvlje. O`lstdpdreoebdfes tge lnus. Hdrfltidn dh l bde`df oy enterdbde`y.

:. Bde`df odaies lbde`dflte= h`ltwdrfs pseuadbde`dflte= nefltdaes Eubde`dflte= nefltdaes


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9. Fesdaerf `ininjl) Rbgizdbde`y = elr`y fesdaerfl` be``s lre `dbltea in tge o`lstdbde`.o) Entrdbde`y= fesdaerf is pdubgea dut hrdf jlstru`l enadaerf.


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B`lss Bestdal tlpewdrfs internl` plrlsite, sbd`ex (pdsteridr lttlbgfent drjln), nd aijestivedrjln, lna j`ybdprdtein.


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?1. Lnneìas= sejfentltidn (fetlferisf), true bde`df, b`dsea birbu`ltdry systef (in sdfe),

Hdrfer pgyùf Ebgiurl = ourrdwea intd fua dr slna, `dnj prdodsbis extenas dut td aepdsit heea, ndtsejfentea, `lrje bde`df, fdst glve b`dse birbu`ltdry systef.Rynlpdfdrpgy= ndn retrlbtloè prdodsbis in hrdnt dh fdutg.

?5. [gyùf Lnneìal = oday trip`do`lstib, oi`lterl`, sejfentea (fetlferib), true bde`df aiviaea oy septl,bdfpète jut, trdbgdpgdre `lrvle, plrlpdail dn elbg sejfent lna setle, b`dsea birbu`ltdry systef, ndrespirltdry systef, fdre bentrlìzea nervdus systef.

?8. Rejfentltidn (Fetlferisf) = seril` repetitidn dh internl` lna externl` drjlns= sdfite bdntlinsbdfpdnents dh fdst drjln systefs. Ndt everytginj is sejfentea.

?7. Qrue bde`df, seplrltea oy septl= bde`df hdrfs vil sbgizdbde`y. [eritdneuf ìnes bde`df lna hdrfsseptl(seplrlte sejfents) lna fesenteries (gdà juts in p`lbe). Birbu`lr lna `dnjituainl` fusbès. Jut lna`dnjituainl` o`dda vesse`s extena tgrdujg tge septl (ndt sejfentea).

Fdre lavlntljes dh l bde`df = aistrioutidn dh flteril`s tgrdujgdut tge oday. [rdviaes stdrlje lrel hdrwlste prdaubts. Fdre ehhibient `dbdfdtidn oebluse it lbts ls l gyardstltib sceètdn ! `dbdfdtidn(ourrdwinj, brlwìnj, swiffinj)

Fdvefent =-bdntrlbtidn dh `dnjituainl` fusbès bluses oday td sgdrten lna explna-bdntrlbtidn dh birbu`lr fusbès bluses oday td nlrrdw lna ènjtgenplrlpdail= plirea plaaè ìce lppenaljes dn fdst sejfentssetle= tiny bgitindus oristès

?9. Lnneìa gela =l) prdstdfiuf- surhlbe bdverea witg l tgin duter `lyer dh ndn bgitindus butibèo) peristdniuf- hirst sejfent nd plrlpdail

2;. B`dsea birbu`ltdry systef=aduoè trlnspdrt systef ! o`dda lna bde`dfib hùia blrry hdda wlstes lna respirltdry jlses.

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o. Quoe awe`ìnj hi`ter heeaers, plrbgfent

21. Bìte``ltl= hdrf fdndpgyètib jrdup. Bìte`ùf lna `dss dh plrlpdail. _inj dh sebretdry be``s hduna in lolna lrduna tge oday. @lbc plrlpdail.

25. Rpebilìzltidn in tge elrtgwdrf. Hdda fdistenea oy fdutg lna arlwn in oy l fusbu`lr pglrynx , hddais stdrea in l tgin-wl`èa brdp. Fusbu`lr jizzlra jrinas hdda intd sfl`` piebes. Aijestidn lna losdrptidndbbur in intestine.

28. elrtgwdrf reprdaubtidn Jreen [drnd

2:. B`lss Giruanial-@eebges= `dss dh setle, lnteridr lna pdsteridr oday subcer, reaubea septl` wl``s.Bde`dfib blvity hi`èa witg bdnnebtive tissue lna fusbè. Jut spebilìzea hdr stdrlje dh `lrje qulntities dho`dda.

27. pgyùf Lblntgdbepgl`l = spiny gela wdrfs ! bdfes hrdf tge spines dh tgeir prdodsbis usea tdpenetrlte tge gdsts interfeailte. [lrlsites dh flny lrtgrdpdas.

29 . Bdnverjenbe evdùtidn ! fu`tipè gdsts , spebilìzea lttlbgfent strubtures, `dss dh aijestive systef(surhlbe lrel)

1; . Nefltdaes _dunawdrf.


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Unsejfentea, pseuadbde`df (hi`èa witg hùia, extrefe`y gijg gyardstltib pressure), `dnjituainl` fusbès(lbt ljlinst gyardstltib pressures) , tgibc, hèxioè butibè. Nd birbu`ltdry dr respirltdry systef. Nervdussystef6 adrsl` lna ventrl` nerve bdras, nerve rinj.

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l) Flntè dh b`lf flntè bdvers tge ji``s, lna tge pdsteridr eajes dh tge flntè hdàs hdrf adrslèxburrent lna ventrl` inburrent dpeninj. [lrt dh tge flntè is arlwn dut intd l `dnj sipgdn l``dwinjtge b`lf td ourrdw.

o) Flntè dh squia bdvers tge trunc, l``dwinj wlter td oe tlcen intd flntè blvity. Flntè eajesbdntrlbt, expe`ìnj wlter tgrdujg tge hunne`.

7.

l) Rge``= Nlbre ! BlBD 2 sgeets. [risfltib ! tgibc BlBD 2 peridstrluf= prdtebts hrdf erdsidn, prdtein6bdnbgidìn.

o) Flntè= inner `doe ! fusbu`lr *biìltea* Fiaaè `doe ! sensdry (sbl``dps gls tentlbès lna eyes) duter `doe ! sebretes sge``.

9. _lau`l = rlspinj, prdtrusioè, tdnjue-ìce drjln. Feforlne, wgibg is, fduntea rdws dh tiny bgitindus

teetg tglt pdint olbcwlra. [rdtrlbtdr lna retrlbtdr fusbès fdve tge rlau`l hdr heeainj. Rbrlpe, pierbe, telrdr but plrtibès dh hdda.


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b`dsea birbu`ltdry systef dh bepgl`dpdas witg l netwdrc dh vesse`s lna o`dda h`dws tgrdujgji``s vil blpi``lries. Orlnbgil` (ji``) gelrts inbrelse o`dda pressure in tge ji``s l``dwinj fdre rlpiajls exbglnje hdr tgeir lbtive `ihesty`e.


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?


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Ndte= Bepgl`dpdas glve bgrdftdpgdres= pijfent be``s tglt bln oe explnaea oy fusbè be``s. Unaer neurl`bdntrd` ! blfduh`lje lna sijnlìnj.

2;. Jrdup dh Bepgl`dpdalRuob`lss Nluti`diaelRuob`lss Bdèdiael= Draers inbùae Buttèhisg, Rquia, Dbtdpus lna Xlfpyrdfdrpgl (Xlfpire Rquias)

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[gy`djenetibB`lssihibltidn

[driherl =B`lss Gexlbteni`ìal = j`lss spdnjes

_lail` syffetry Rpibuès flae up siìbib lbia=

flae dh 8 rlys Rynbytil` retibuùf

B`lss Aefdspdnjile = 7;% dh l`` spdnjes. @eubdnbdia Rpibuès ndt witg 8 rlys spdnjinj netwdrc dhten present

Drlnje aevi`s hinjers (lsbdndia)Dstil= `dbltea l`dnj (sfl`èr gdès)Dsbuùf= `lrjer wgite dpeninjs `dbltea tgrdujgdut oday

Ye``dw Ol`` spdnje (èubdndia)Dstil= sfl`` dpeninj dn surhlbeDsbuùf= `lrjer dpeninjs, ndt in unihdrfea plttern.

B`lss Bl`blrel= bl`biuf blrodnlte exdsceètdnBln glve l`` 2 types dh blnl` systefs

Jrlntil (Rbypgl)= sybdndia blnl` systefdsbuùf `dbltea lt tip.Dstil `dbltea l`` dver.Rpdnjdbde`= inner bglfoer in oday

@eubdsdènil (Lsbdndia)

Rpibuès


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Blnl` Rystefs Lsbdndia= sifpè. Zlter enters tgrdujg aerfl` pdres intd `lrje blvity bl`èa spdnjdbde` ìnea witg

bgdlndbytes

Rybdndia = sinjè dsbuùf witg l `lyer dh be``s hdàea olbc lna hdrtg td flce blnl`s in spdnjdbde`.Zlter fdve td inburrent blnl`s lna tgen intd rlail` blnl`s

@eubdndia = bùsters dh h`lje``ltea bglfoer hi`èa witg inburrent blnl`s lna aisbglrje wlter intdexburrent blnl`s tglt èla td dsbuùf

Dstil = blnl`s hdr inbdfinj wlter Dsbu`l= blnl`s hdr dutjdinj wlter Bgdlndbytes = ìnes dpeninjs, flintlin burrent dh wlter tgrdujg blnl`s


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Bnialril

B`lss Lntgdzdl= pd`yps witg h`dwerìce lppelrlnbe, nd feausl stlje.Inbùaes sel lnefdne

Liptlsil lnefdne=

Aehense= tentlbè retrlbts oebdfinj stufp lna b`dser td oday. Nefltdbysts plrl`yze prey oehdre aijestidn. Bniadbytes ! [rey blpture= tentlbès retrlbts pu`ìnj prey tdwlras fdutg Lbdntil= tgrelas hduna in `dwer enas dh septl` eajes= bdntlinea nefltdbysts

lna j`lna be``s

sel wgip lna sel hln (l sdht bdrl`) pd`yps dh odtg glve 7 tentlbès.

B`lss Gyardzdl Bd`dnil`, lsexul` pd`yp, sexul` feausl stlje Jlstrdzddias = spebilìzea hdr heeainj/tentlbès lna fdutg jdndzddias = spebilìzea hdr reprdaubtidn dh feausl/nd tentlbès albty`dzddias spebilìzea td aehena tge bd`dny witg tentlbès

witg aense`y plbcea nefltdbysts.


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B`lss Rbypgdzdl= true me`ìes Me``yhisg. Feausl ad ndt glve veùf Ex= upsiae adwn me``yhisg, Lureìl

Lureìl= rlail` syffetry. Drl`-lodrl`.

B`lss Rtlurdzdl= sdìtlry pd`yp oday

B`lss Buodzdl = buoe me`ìes, feausl is preadfinln hdrf, pd`ypinbdnspibudus.

Ndte= Nefltdbysts= stinjinj drjlne`ès tglt bdntlin bniadbytes, stinjinj be``s Lbdntil= tgrelas in lnefdnes hduna in `dwer enas dh septl` eajes bdntlininj nefltdbysts lna j`lna

be``s _lail` syffetry Aip`do`lstib Inbdfpète jut


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[`ltyge`fintges-oi`lterl`, lbde`dflte, inbdfpète jut, trip`do`lstib

B`lss Quroe``lril= plrlpgyètib, ndn plrlsitib.Epiaerfis gls rgloaites, swe`` td hdrf prdtebtive fubdus sgeltg lrduna

oday. _espdnse td tdubg= sgdrtens. Fdst sensitive fiapdsteridr rejidn Hdda= pglrynx extenas td heea. In lir= oday pu``s in tijgt`y. Rquirfinj. Drientltidn td hdda= bgefdrebeptdrs dn luribès rebdjnize hdda

elsier oesiae tge wdrf.

B`lss Qrefltdal = plrlsitib hùces. Drjlns hdr lttlbgfent (subcers lna gddcs) Aijenil = plrlsitize snli`s.

B`lss Fdndjenel= externl` plrlsites B`lfp dntd ji``s dh hisg witg gddcea lttlbgfent drjln ( dpistglptdr)

B`lss Bestdal = tlpewdrf @dnj h`lt oday Rbdèx hdr lttlbgfent [rdj`dttias = reprdaubtive units @lbc aijestive systef Bdverea witg fibrdtribges td losdro nutrients


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Nefltdal[seuadbde`df, butibè bdfpdsea dh bd``ljen

_duna wdrfs @dnjituainl` fusbès Rdfe lre plrlsites= gddcwdrf, pinwdrfs, lsblris

Aissebtidn dh Lsblris Flès lre typibl``y sfl`èr, glve l burvea pdsteridr ena, lna glve twd sfl``, spiny prdmebtidns

bl`èa spibuès tge trirlailte fdutg plrts (ìps) surrdunainj tge fdutg.

Lnneìal (sejfentea)

B`lss Dìjdbgletl- elrtgwdrfs Retle= retrlbt witg fdvefent Drjlns dh exbretidn- nepgriail Bìte`ùf - reprdaubtidn `dnjituainl` fusbès= l``dw hdr hdrwlra fdvefent lna

airebtidn (l``dws it td jet tgibcer lna tginner) birbu`lr fusbès= l``dws hdr explnsidn dh elbg sejfent hùia hi`èa bde`df= fdre surhlbe lrel, l``dws hdr spebilìzea

internl` drjlns.

B`lss [d`ybgleltl[lirea plaaè ìce lppenaljes- plrlpdail

Errlnt= hree fdvinj, ourrdwinj, lna brlwìnjB`lf Zdrf= `lrje, aeve`dpea gela witg pl`p.

[lrlpdaiuf `dbltea `lterl``y dn elbg sejfent Rwiffinj= uses `lterl` oday fdvefent Brlwìnj= uses plrlpdaiuf

Reaentlry= flin`y tuoe ìvinj, hi`ter lna aepdsit heeaersHeltger austers= heltgery lrfs bl`èa rlaidès


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Fd`ùsbl- bde`dflte prdtdstdfes

- ndt sejfentea- flntè- tgibc sgeet dh epiaerfis lna butibè tglt exbretes tge sge``- bteniail= ji``s

B`lss Bluadhdveltl lna Rdèndjlstres = wdrfìce, nd sge``, bl`blredus sblès

B`lss Fdndp`lbdpgdrl= sfl``, `dw rdunaea sge``, breepinjhdda, lna aisp`ly seril` repetitidn.

B`lss [d`yp`lbdpgdrl =Bgitdns 7 bl`blredus p`ltes

Rfl`` flntè hdrfs jiraè lrduna p`ltes 2 bglfoerea gelrt

B`lss Jlstrdpdal =-alrt slb hduna nelr fdutg=


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7-5+' (!$",!'!1: ?!$*+!-2 * 2./.%$9).1,*% 9+$8.?? #1 ;:#8: ,:. 9$?,.+#$+ .12 $= ,:. >$2' #? ,

B`lss Oivl`vil = nd gela, nd rlau`l, seaentlry suspensidn heeaers, twd sge``s ge`a tdjetger oy laaubtdrfusb`es. Fusse` lttlbg oy oyssl` tgrelas.

B`lfs = `loil` pl`ps= lssist witg eltinj lna jltgerinj hdda.

Lt`lntib Oly Rbl``dp ls we`` ls _ijia [en Rge``


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B`lss Rblpgdpdal= tusc sge``s, ji``s `dst

B`lss Bepgl`dpdal= flrine, prealtdrs, gijg`y fdoiè [en= refnlnts dh sge`` in squia Inc slb Rwif oy met prdpu`sidn Ze`` aeve`dpea eyes B`dsea birbu`ltdry systef Hddt= hunne` hdr expe`ìnj wlter

Ndte=_lau`l = rlspinj, tdnjue-ìce drjlnFlntè blvity = gduses ji``s dr ùnjsRge``= sebretea oy flntè hdr prdtebtidn


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Lrtgrdpdal- glra exdsceètdn (fd`ts)- reaubea bde`df- jls exbglnje vil ji``s, oddc ùnjs (spiaers) lna trlbgele(insebts)- mdintea lppenaljes= lrje sdurbe dh seril` gdfd`djy- bdfpèx fdutgplrts.

Ruopgyùf BgeìberltlB`lss Ferdstdfltl = gdrsesgde brlo,

Bgeìberle (fdutg plrts)


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Ruopgyùf Gexlpdal= 8 èjs, unirlfdus lppenaljes, exdsceètdn witg sbèrdprdtein, dpen birbu`ltdrysystef, trlbgele

B`lss Insebtl Gyfendpterl- slwhìes, wlsps, ? plirs dh feforlndus winjs. glve l wlist Gefipterl= true oujs. Glve prdodsbis hdr subcinj ìquias. Hdrewinj= ! feforlne, ! èltgery.

Ginawinj= l`` feforlndus @epiadpterl= fdtgs, outterhìes, glve prdodsbis Bdèdpterl= `lay oujs, oeetès. Glra lna bgitdndus hdrewinjs. Feforlndus ginawinjs. Aipterl= hìes, fdsquitdes. Rinjè plir dh winjs. Drtgdpterl= bribcets, jrlssgdppers. @eltgery hdrewinj, flnaioè, bln hdà winjs.

J_LRRGD[[E_ - 2 tljfltl= gela, tgdrlx lna loadfen- fl`pijgiln tuouès= hdr exbretidn

-

jut= glve brdp jizzlra lna tgen stdflbg- trlbgele= hdr jls exbglnje


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Ebgindaerfltl

B`lss Bridndiael (sel ììes)= fdre tgln 5 lrfs. Nd spines dr flarepdrite, strdnj sceètdn, sessièsuspensidn heeaer

B`lss Lsterdiael (sel stlrs)= stlr sglpea, tuoe heet witg subcers, fdst

prealtdry twd plrt stdflbg= blrailb lna py`drib _inj blnl`= rinj in benter ! wlter vlsbu`lr _lail` blnl`= blnl`s tglt èla adwn èj Rtdne blnl`= wlter vlsbu`lr. @elas hrdf flarepdrite td rinj

blnl` Aijestive blebl= orlnbges dut dh stdflbg ! aijests hdda Quoe heet= sfl`` prdmebtidns dn drl` surhlbe Lfpu``l= plrt dh wlter vlsbu`lr systef= hi`` witg wlter td ge`p `dbdfdtidn Lfou`lbrl` jrddves= tuoe heet prdtruae hrdf gere

B`lss Dpgiurdiael (Orittè stlrs) = lrfs witg gijg`y lrtibu`ltea verteorle, Inbdfpète jut Hew tuoe heet _eaubea bde`df

B`lss Ebgindiael (Urbgins) Nd lrfs Drl` surhlbe explnaea dver fdst dh oday Lristdtès `lntern hdr heeainj Quoe heet B`dsea lfou`lbrl` jrddves Qest= enadsceètdn witg flarepdrite lt tdp benter (`lrje gdè) [eaibe``lrile (hdr aehense lna hdda blpture)

B`lss Gd`dtgurdiael (Rel Bubufoer) E`dnjltea drl` lodrl` lxis Aepdsit heeaers Nd spine Qentlbès lrduna fdutg

Aisbglrje buveriln tuouès


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Bgdraltl- Ndtdbgdra= hèxioè rda ìce strubture- Adrsl` gd``dw nerve bdra- [glrynjel` pdubges dr sìts- [dst lnl` tli`- Enadstyè/tgyrdia j`lna

Ruopgyùf Urdbgdraltl (tunibltes) = lau`ts lresifpìhiea. Ceep enadstyè lna ji`` sìts

Qunib= surrdunas oday, flae dh be`ù`dse Enadstyè= sebretes fubus hdr heeainj [glrynx= bdverea witg biìlte be``s l``dw p`lnctdn

td fdve adwn esdpgljus Inburrent lna exburrent sipgdn= inburrent is `lrjer

Ruopgyùf Bepgl`dbdraltl (`lnbeèts) Ruspensidn heeaers Nd true gela Glve birri in hrdnt dh fdutg td hi`ter wlter

(sensdry aevibes)

Ruopgyùf XerteorltlB`lss [etrdfyzdtial(`lfprey)

Lau`ts glve verteorle nd mlw, subcer ìce drl` aisb

nd plirea lppenaljes : pglrynjel` sìts Bglfoerea gelr.


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Aispersl` lna aistrioutidn ! Aispersl` = fdvefent dh inaiviaul`s lwly hrdf benters dh gijg pdpu`ltidn aensity dr hrdf tgeir

lrel dh drijin. Aispersl` dh drjlnisfs resu`ts in ordla pltterns dh jedjrlpgib aistrioutidn. Nlturl` rlnje explnsidns explna tgeir rlnje oy fdvinj intd lrel wgere tgey aia ndt exist

previdus`yd Rujjest gypdtgeses td exp`lin wgy spebies lre hduna wgere tgey lre

Rpebies Qrlnsp`lnts doservinj tge resu`ts dh intentidnl` dr lbbiaentl` trlnsp`lnts dh l spebies tdlrels wgere it wls previdus`y losent.

d Rubbesshu` is tge new spebies ndt dn`y survives out reprdaubes tgere.

Oeglvidr lna Gloitlt Reèbtidn ! Rdfe drjlnisfs ad ndt dbbupy l`` dh tgeir pdtentil` rlnje (l`` tge lrels wgere tgey bduà

pdtentil``y oe subbesshu`). Rpebies aistrioutidn fly oe ìfitea oy gloitlt seèbtidn oeglvidr.

Oidtib hlbtdrs ! Oidtib hlbtdrs tglt lhhebt tge aistrioutidn dh drjlnisfs inbùae interlbtidns witg dtger spebies

subg ls prealtidn lna bdfpetitidn Qge inloiìty td survive lna reprdaube fly oe aue td nejltive interlbtidns witg dtger drjlnisfs

in tge hdrf dh prealtidn, plrlsitisf, aiselse dr bdfpetitidn. Rurvivl` lna reprdaubtidn bduà oe ìfitea oy tge losenbe dh dtger spebies dn wgibg tge

trlnsp`lntea spebies aepenas

Loidtib hlbtdrs ! Qefperlture= be``s fly rupture ih tge wlter tgey bdntlin hreezes prdteins dh fdst drjlnisf

aenlture lt tefperltures lodve 15 aejree B. Zlter= hresgwlter dr sl`twlter gloitlts oy ìfitea loiìty hdr dsfdreju`ltidn.

Runìjgt= prdviaes tge enerjy tglt arives l`` ebdsystefs. Intensity lna qulìty dh ìjgt ìfit tgeaistrioutidn dh pgdtdsyntgetib drjlnisfs. Zina= lfpìhies tge ehhebts dh envirdnfentl` tefperlture dn drjlnisfs oy inbrelsinj gelt `dss

aue td evlpdrltidn lna bdnvebtidn _dbcs lna sdi`= pgysibl` strubture, pG lna finerl` bdfpdsitidn ìfit tge aistrioutidn dh p`lnts

lna tgus dh tge lnifl`s tglt heea updn tgef.

Bìflte=Flbrdbìflte ! J`dol`, rejidnlÌnhùenbea oy Odaies dh wlter, tdpdjrlpgy (fduntlins) ex. Qge rlin sgladw ehhebt, selsdnlìty, `ltituainl`

ehhebts dn sunìjgt intensity, lna lir birbu`ltidn lna prebipitltidn pltternsFibrdbìflte ! tge aihherenbe in bìflte unaer l `dj vs. tdp dh tge `dj.Bìflte is inhùenbea oy

Odaies dh wlter= dbeln burrent inhùenbe bìflte l`dnj tge bdlsts dh bdntinents oy geltinj drbddìnj dver`yinj lir flsses.

@ltituainl` vlriltidn in sunìjgt intensity ! sunìjgt strices tge trdpibs fdst airebt`y Relsdnl` vlriltidn in sunìjgt intensity ! elrtgs ti`t bluses selsdnl` vlriltidn in tge intensity dh

sd`lr rlailtidn. Qi`t dh ?2.5 aejrees. Qge selsdnl` vlriltidns dh ìjgt lna tefperlture inbrelsestelai`y tdwlra tge pdès.


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J`dol` lir birbu`ltidn lna prebipitltidn pltterns= 8 be``s tglt reju`lte tge fdvefent dh fdist lnaary lir

J`dol` wina pltterns= lir h`dwinj b`dse td elrtgs surhlbe breltes preaibtloè j`dol` wina pltterns. Aue td tge elrtg ti`t, tge winas lt tge equltdr o`dw fdre quibc`y lna lre aiverjea td tgewest lna elst rltger tgln tge ndrtg dr sdutg.

Fduntlins= rlin sgladw ehhebt. Zlrf fdist lir Lpprdlbges Fduntlin, lir rises lna bdd`s,reèlsinj fdisture dn tge winawlra siae dh tge pelc. Dn tge èewlra siae dh tge fduntlin, bddèrary lir aesbenas, losdroinj fdisture lna prdaubinj l rlin sgladw

Lqultib Oidfes= Rtrltihiea oy= @ijgt lna tefperlture= èss ìjgt lna bddèr tefperltures ls aeptg inbrelsesAistlnbe hrdf sgdre= pgdtdsyntgetib ìhe nelrs sgdre[e`ljib vs. oentgib. [e`ljib= dpen wlter vs. Oentgib= odttdf dh oidfeLvli`loiìty dh nutrients/dxyjen (hresgwlter)= fdre dxyjen nelr pgdtdsyntgetib drjlnisfs.

Lqultib OidfesIntertial` zdne= lrel dh sgdre wgere dbeln feets `lna[e`ljib zdne= ìjgt penetrltes aeeper tgln neritib zdne. Dpen oùe wlter.Oentgib ]dne= bdnsists dh tge selh`ddr oe`dw tge surhlbe wlters. Nutrients aerivea hrdf aeoris.Bdrl` _eehs= hduna in wlrf wlters lodve bdntinentl` sge`ves. Gijg dxyjen ève`s.Estulries= rivers h`dw intd tge dbeln.

Hresgwlter oidfes@lces & [dnas= dìjdtrdpgib (nutrient pddr lna dxyjen ribg) dr eutrdpgib (nutrient ribg, aepètea dhdxyjen).@ittdrl` (sgl``dw, we`` ìjgtea) dr ìfnetib (wlter is tdd aeep td suppdrt lqultib p`lnts)Zet`lnas= lrel bdverea witg wlter tglt bln suppdrt lqultib p`lnts._ivers lna strelfsEstulries= trlnsitidn lrel oetween river lna sel

Dbeln @lce

Qerrestril` Oidfes=Lrel dh intejrltidn is bl`èa ebdtdne Qrdpibl` hdrest= bùster lrduna equltdr. _linhl`` re`ltive`y bdnstlntAesert= dbbur in l olna 2;-aejree ndrtg lna sdutg `ltituae. [rebipitltidn is `dw.Rlvlnnl= wlrf yelr rduna (?1-9 aejree B) sbltterea trees lre tgdrny.Bglplrrl`= sgruo `lna witg bdd` rliny winters lna ary gdt suffers.Qefperlte jrlss`lna= prebipitltidn is gijg`y selsdnl`, ary winters lna wet suffers.Bdniherdus hdrests= winters lre bdà lna `dnj. Ruffer fly oe gdt. Adfinltea oy l hew spebies.


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Lrtib Qunarl= treeèss oidfe. Zinters lre `dnj lna bdà. Ruffers lre sgdrt. Hrdzen `lyer dh sdi` ! perflhrdstQefperlte Ordlaèlh hdrests= aistinbt, gijg`y aiverse, vertibl` `lyers, inbùainj b`dsea blndpy, unaerstdrytrees, sgruo `lyer lna gerolbedus strltuf


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Bdffunity Ebd`djy

Oid`djibl` bdffunity ! lssefo`lje dh pdpu`ltidns dh vlridus spebies `ivinj b`dse endujg hdr pdtentil`interlbtidn

_e`ltidnsgips oetween spebies=Bdfpetitidn[realtidn & GeroivdreRyfoidsisAiselse

Interspebihib Interlbtidns


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8) Bdffenslìsf = dne spebies oenehits, lna dtger is unlhhebtea. (+/;)

Lalptltidns & Interlbtidns= Bdevdùtidn= evdùtidnlry lalptltidns dh twd interlbtinj spebies

Rpebies Aiversity = vlriety dh drjlnisfs tglt flce up tge bdffunity_ibgness = tge tdtl` # dh aihherent spebies in tge bdffunity_e`ltive Lounalnbe = tge prdpdrtidn elbg spebies represents dh tge tdtl` inaiviaul`s in tge bdffunityBdffunity witg even spebies lounalnbe6 fdre aiverse tglt dne witg dne/twd spebies lounalnt lna dtgerrlre.

Qrdpgib Rtrubture = heeainj re`ltidnsgips oetween drjlnisfsHdda bglins ! ìnc trdpgib ève`s hrdf prdaubers td tdp blrnivdresHdda weos ! orlnbginj hdda bglin witg bdfpèx trdpgib interlbtidns

Qwd Gypdtgeses=Enerjetib gypdtgesis= sujjests tglt tge ènjtg dh l hdda bglin is ìfitea oy tge inehhibienby dh enerjytrlnsher l`dnj tge bglin.


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Bìflte flin bluse4 ! I tginc sd! Qwd bìfltib hlbtdrs= sd`lr enerjy & wlter lvli`loiìtyFelsurea oy evlpdtrlnspirltidn=

Lbtul` evlpdtrlnspirltidn= tge evlpdrltidn dh wlter hrdf sdi` pùs tge trlnspirltidn dh wlter hrdfp`lnts

[dtentil` evlpdtrlnspirltidn= l felsure dh enerjy lvli`loiìty out ndt wlter lvli`loiìty.Aeterfinea oy lfdunt dh sd`lr rlailtidn lna tefperlture

Lrel Ehhebts= L`` dtger hlbtdrs oeinj equl`, tge `lrjer tge jedjrlpgib lrel dh l bdffunity, tge jrelter tgenufoer dh spebies. Exp`lnltidn= `lrje lrels dhher l jrelter aiversity hdr gloitlts lna fibrdgloitlts tglnsfl`` lrels.

Is`lna Equiìoriuf Fdae`= spebies ribgness aepenas dn is`lna size, aistlnbe hrdf flin`lna, iffijrltidnlna extinbtidn

Intejrltea Gypdtgesis= aesbrioes l bdffunity ls ln lssefo`lje dh b`dse`y ìncea spebies, `dbcea intdlssdbiltidn oy flnaltdry oidtib interlbtidn tglt bluses tge bdffunity td hunbtidn ls ln intejrltea unit.^_iver fdae`= sujjests tglt fdst dh tge spebies in l bdffunity lre lssdbiltea tijgt`y witg plrtibu`lr dtgerspebies in l weo/ìncea in l tijgt weo dh interlbtidns. Qge `dss dh even l sinjè spebies gls strdnjreperbussidns hdr tge bdffunity

Inaiviaulìstib Gypdtgesis = aepibts l p`lnt bdffunity ls l bglnje lssefo`lje dh spebies hduna in tgeslfe lrel sifp`y oebluse tgey glppen td glve sifi`lr loidtib requirefents. (Qefperlture, rlinhl``, lna sdi`type) ! bdffunities lre `ddse`y drjlnizea lssdbiltea dh inaepenaent aistrioutea spebies

_eaunalnby fdae`= fdst dh tge spebies in l bdffunity lre ndt tijgt`y lssdbiltea witg dne lndtger lna tgeweo dh ìhe is very `ddse. Ih l spebies is `dst, dtger spebies wi`` hi`` tge jlp


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Aensity ! # dh inaiviaul`s per unit lre dh vdùfe

Aispersidn ! plttern dh splbinj lfdnj inaiviaul`s witgin tge odunalries dh tge pdpu`ltidnd [ltterns= Bùfpea, _lnadf & Unihdrfd Qerritdrilìty= aehense dh l odunaea pgysibl` splbe ljlinst enbrdlbgfent oy dtgers.

Aefdjrlpgy ! stuay dh vitl` stltistibs dh pdpu`ltidns lna gdw tgey bglnje dver tifed Oirtg rltes lna gdw tgey vlry, lna aeltg rltes.

@ihe tloès= lje spebihib sufflries dh tge survivl` plttern dh l pdpu`ltidn.d [reaibt ln inaiviaul`s stltistibl` bglnbe dh ayinj aurinj elbg intervl` dh tge inaiviaul`s

ìhe.

Rurvivdrsgip burves= p`dt dh tge prdpdrtidn dh nufoers in l bdgdrt sti`` lìve lt elbg lje.

_eprdaubtive tloè= lje spebihib sufflry dh tge reprdaubtive rltes in l pdpu`ltidn

@ihe Gistdry Aiversity= ìhe gistdry ! wgen reprdaubtidn oejins, gdw tgey reprdaube lna gdw flnydhhsprinj

Oij olnj reprdaubtidn dr sefe`plrity ! dne sgdt lt reprdaubtidn Iterdplrity ! repeltea reprdaubtidn

Expdnentil` Fdae`= M burve[er blpitl rlte dh inbrelse= bglnje in pdpu`ltidn 6 oirtgs aeltgs (aurinj tife intervl`)]erd pdpu`ltidn jrdwtg ! dbburs wgen tge per blpitl oirtg lna aeltg rltes lre equl`

@djistib Jrdwtg= R burve [er blpitl rlte dh inbrelse aebìnes ls blrryinj blplbity is relbgea

Blrryinj blplbity ! syfodìzea ls C, flxifuf pdp size tglt l plrtibu`lr envirdnfent blnsuppdrt.

C seèbtidn ! aensity aepenaent seèbtidn. Reèbts hdr ìhe gistdry trlits tglt lre sensitive tdpdpu`ltidn aensity

d C spebies= sfl`` # dh dhhsprinj, fea-`lrje lnifl`s, `dnjer ìhespln _ seèbtidn ! aensity-inaepenaent seèbtidn seèbts dr ìhe gistdry trlits tglt flxifize

reprdaubtidnd _ spebies= `lrje # dh dhhsprinj, sgdrt ìhe spln, nd plrentl` blre, sfl``.


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Aensity aepenaent pdpu`ltidn reju`ltidn=Aensity aepenaent oirtg lna aeltg rltes 6 nejltive heeaolbc tglt reju`lte pdp jrdwtgLhhebtea oy hlbtdrs= bdfpetitidn, territdrilìty, gel`tg, prealtidn, tdxib wlstes, intrinsib hlbtdrs

Rtloiìty lna Hùbtultidn=Fetlpdpu`ltidn ! jrdups dh pdpu`ltidns ìncea oy iffijrltidn lna efijrltidn

B`lssib, flin`lna is`lna, ndnequiìoriuf lna pltbgy.

Aefdjrlpgib Qrlnsitidn ! fdvefent hrdf tge hirst tdwlra tge sebdna stlteLje strubture= tge re`ltive nufoer dh inaiviaul`s dh elbg lje.Inhlnt fdrtlìty= nufoer dh inhlnt aeltgs per


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EbdsystefsEbdsystef= bdnsists dh l`` tge drjlnisfs `ivinj in l bdffunity ls we`` tge loidtib hlbtdrs witg wgibg tgeyinterlbt.

Enerjy lna nutrients plss hrdf priflry prdaubers (lutdtrdpgs) td priflry bdnsufers(geroivdres) td sebdnalry bdnsufers (blrnivdres) lna sd dn.

Enerjy h`dw= enters ls `ijgt, exits ls gelt.


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Intrlspebihib= territdril` oeglvidr lna dtger bdnsequenbes dh bdfpetitidn fly flintlingeroivdres pdpu`ltidns aensities oe`dw wglt tge vejetltidn bduà heea

Interspebihib bdfpetitidn= prealtdrs, plrlsites lna aiselse lre tge fdst ifpdrtlnt hlbtdrsìfitinj tge jrdwtg dh geroivdre pdpu`ltidns.

Bgefibl` Bybìnj= invd`ve odtg oidtib lna loidtib bdfpdnents ! oidjedbgefibl` bybès.

Zlter Bybè= wlter is essentil` td l`` drjlnisfs lna its lvli`loiìty inhùenbes rltes dh ebdsystef prdbesses,plrtibu`lr`y priflry prdaubtidn lna aebdfp in terrestril` ebdsystefs

@iquia wlter is tge priflry pgysibl` pglse, sdfe drjlnisfs glrvest wlter vlpdr. Hreezinj dh sdi`wlter bln ìfit lvli`loiìty

_eservdirs= Dbeln bdntlins 9:%. ?% oduna in j`lbiers lna pd`lr ibe blps.


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