Organizational Behaviour Canadian Edition Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Prepared by: Joan...

Organizational Behaviour Organizational Behaviour Canadian Edition Canadian Edition

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, CurrieSchermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie

Prepared by: Joan CondiePrepared by: Joan Condie

Chapter 6 Chapter 6

Motivation and ReinforcementMotivation and Reinforcement

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

Questions Questions

What is motivation to work?What is motivation to work? How are reinforcement theories linked to motivation?How are reinforcement theories linked to motivation? What do the content theories suggest about individual What do the content theories suggest about individual

needs and motivation?needs and motivation? What do the process theories suggest about individual What do the process theories suggest about individual

motivation?motivation? How can satisfaction and its connection to How can satisfaction and its connection to

performance help bring together the insights of the performance help bring together the insights of the motivational theories, leading to an integrated motivational theories, leading to an integrated motivational model?motivational model?


What Is Motivation?What Is Motivation?

Motivation = the forces inside an individual that Motivation = the forces inside an individual that lead to the lead to the levellevel, , directiondirection, and , and persistencepersistence of of effort he or she makes at workeffort he or she makes at work

WhereWherelevel level = amount of effort (great or small)= amount of effort (great or small)directiondirection = choice as to where to direct effort when = choice as to where to direct effort when given alternativesgiven alternativespersistencepersistence = time spent continuing to try in = time spent continuing to try inan actionan action


Three Categories of Motivational Three Categories of Motivational TheoriesTheories

A.A. Reinforcement theoriesReinforcement theories• Emphasize controlling an individual’s behaviour Emphasize controlling an individual’s behaviour

through manipulating its consequencesthrough manipulating its consequences

B.B. Content theoriesContent theories• Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour, Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour,

i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies we feel compelled to reducewe feel compelled to reduce

C.C. Process theoriesProcess theories• Seek to understand the thought processes that Seek to understand the thought processes that

determine behaviour, why a person acts in a certain determine behaviour, why a person acts in a certain way given available rewards and work opportunitiesway given available rewards and work opportunities


Reinforcement Approach to MotivationReinforcement Approach to Motivation

Reinforcement = the administration of a Reinforcement = the administration of a consequence as a result of behaviourconsequence as a result of behaviour

Theoretical background:Theoretical background: Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning: learning through learning through

association association Operant conditioning:Operant conditioning: the process of controlling the process of controlling

behaviour by manipulating consequencesbehaviour by manipulating consequences Law of effectLaw of effect states behaviour resulting in states behaviour resulting in

pleasing outcomes is likely to be repeated & pleasing outcomes is likely to be repeated & behaviour resulting in unpleasant outcomes is behaviour resulting in unpleasant outcomes is not likely to be repeatednot likely to be repeated


Reinforcement StrategiesReinforcement Strategies

To increase a behaviour:To increase a behaviour:• Positive reinforcementPositive reinforcement• Negative reinforcementNegative reinforcement

To decrease a behaviour:To decrease a behaviour:• PunishmentPunishment• Extinction Extinction


Increasing Behaviour: Increasing Behaviour: Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement = the administration of Positive reinforcement = the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in similar settingssimilar settings

Rewards are positive reinforcers if they have the Rewards are positive reinforcers if they have the impact of increasing future behaviourimpact of increasing future behaviour

The reward must be contingent on the desired The reward must be contingent on the desired behaviour behaviour (law of contingent reinforcement)(law of contingent reinforcement) and and should be given as soon as possible after the should be given as soon as possible after the desired behaviour desired behaviour (law of immediate (law of immediate reinforcement)reinforcement)


Positive ReinforcementPositive Reinforcement

ShapingShaping is the gradual building of a is the gradual building of a behaviour by rewarding successive behaviour by rewarding successive approximations leading to the desired approximations leading to the desired behaviourbehaviour

Scheduling of reinforcementScheduling of reinforcement is either: is either: Continuous reinforcementContinuous reinforcement (desired (desired

behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs) behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs) oror

Intermittent reinforcementIntermittent reinforcement (desired (desired behaviour is rewarded only periodically)behaviour is rewarded only periodically)


Scheduling of ReinforcementScheduling of Reinforcement

Continuous reinforcementContinuous reinforcement Leads to quick acquisition of the desired Leads to quick acquisition of the desired

behaviour therefore effective in training behaviour therefore effective in training butbut Costly and less resistant to extinctionCostly and less resistant to extinction Therefore, after a behaviour is acquired, the Therefore, after a behaviour is acquired, the

reinforcement schedule changes from reinforcement schedule changes from continuous to intermittent in order to maintain itcontinuous to intermittent in order to maintain it


Scheduling of ReinforcementScheduling of Reinforcement

Intermittent reinforcement can be given in one of Intermittent reinforcement can be given in one of four ways:four ways: Fixed ratioFixed ratio – reward a specific number of – reward a specific number of

behavioursbehaviours Fixed intervalFixed interval – reward the first behaviour after – reward the first behaviour after

specific time has elapsedspecific time has elapsed Variable ratioVariable ratio – reward a random number of – reward a random number of

occurrences of the behaviouroccurrences of the behaviour Variable intervalVariable interval – reward at random times – reward at random times Note that variable schedules lead to more consistent Note that variable schedules lead to more consistent

patterns of behaviourpatterns of behaviour


Increasing Behaviour: Increasing Behaviour: Negative Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement (or avoidance) = the Negative reinforcement (or avoidance) = the withdrawal of negative consequences, which withdrawal of negative consequences, which leads to the likelihood of desirable behaviour leads to the likelihood of desirable behaviour being repeated in a similar setting (i.e., reward being repeated in a similar setting (i.e., reward by taking away something bad)by taking away something bad)

E.g., more likely to keep work area tidy if it E.g., more likely to keep work area tidy if it means supervisor no longer nagsmeans supervisor no longer nags


Decreasing Behaviour: PunishmentDecreasing Behaviour: Punishment

Punishment = the administration of Punishment = the administration of negative consequences that tend to negative consequences that tend to reduce the likelihood of the behaviour reduce the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in similar settingsbeing repeated in similar settings

Evidence that well handled punishment for poor Evidence that well handled punishment for poor performance can improve performance while performance can improve performance while maintaining satisfaction, but punishment seen maintaining satisfaction, but punishment seen as arbitrary or erratic can harm both as arbitrary or erratic can harm both satisfaction and performancesatisfaction and performance


Decreasing Behaviour: Extinction Decreasing Behaviour: Extinction

Extinction = the withdrawal of the reinforcing Extinction = the withdrawal of the reinforcing consequences for a particular behaviourconsequences for a particular behaviour

E.g., not responding to someone’s complaints E.g., not responding to someone’s complaints and whining may lead them to stop doing it in and whining may lead them to stop doing it in front of you as they do not receive the attention front of you as they do not receive the attention they seekthey seek


Issues in Using Issues in Using Reinforcement StrategiesReinforcement Strategies

Are observed improvements in performance due to Are observed improvements in performance due to reinforcement or the goal-setting involved (that reinforcement or the goal-setting involved (that holds people accountable for specific holds people accountable for specific accomplishments)?accomplishments)?

Ethics – use of reinforcement can lead to Ethics – use of reinforcement can lead to demeaning view of people and lead managers to demeaning view of people and lead managers to abuse their power through control over behaviourabuse their power through control over behaviour Counterclaim is that control is inevitable part of Counterclaim is that control is inevitable part of

manager’s job, and OK if done ethically, fairly and manager’s job, and OK if done ethically, fairly and constructivelyconstructively


Content Theories of MotivationContent Theories of Motivation

1.1. Hierarchy of Needs TheoryHierarchy of Needs Theory

2.2. ERG TheoryERG Theory

3.3. Acquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs Theory

4.4. Two-Factor TheoryTwo-Factor Theory Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour, Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour,

i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies we feel compelled to reducewe feel compelled to reduce


Hierarchy of Needs TheoryHierarchy of Needs Theory

Maslow’s pyramid of needs: physiological, safety, Maslow’s pyramid of needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization needssocial, esteem, and self-actualization needs Those lower on the pyramid claim greater priorityThose lower on the pyramid claim greater priority

Research does not support the five levelsResearch does not support the five levels Instead suggests that they more likely operate in a Instead suggests that they more likely operate in a

flexible hierarchy and the importance of each varies with flexible hierarchy and the importance of each varies with cultureculture

Appears that higher order needs (esteem and self-Appears that higher order needs (esteem and self-actualization) become more important than lower order actualization) become more important than lower order needs (physiological, safety, social) as one moves up needs (physiological, safety, social) as one moves up corporate laddercorporate ladder


ERG TheoryERG Theory

Compressed Maslow’s five need categories to three: Compressed Maslow’s five need categories to three: existence, relatedness, growthexistence, relatedness, growth (ERG) (ERG)

Offers Offers frustration-regression hypothesisfrustration-regression hypothesis: when a : when a higher-level need cannot be satisfied (is frustrated) , a higher-level need cannot be satisfied (is frustrated) , a lower level need can become reactivatedlower level need can become reactivated E.g., in a dead-end job where one’s growth needs are E.g., in a dead-end job where one’s growth needs are

frustrated, relatedness can become a key motivatorfrustrated, relatedness can become a key motivator Claims Claims more than one need can be activatedmore than one need can be activated at the at the

same timesame time


Acquired Needs TheoryAcquired Needs Theory

Emphasizes importance of three needs acquired Emphasizes importance of three needs acquired through experiences:through experiences: Need for achievement (nAch)Need for achievement (nAch) Need for power (nPower)Need for power (nPower) Need for affiliation (nAff)Need for affiliation (nAff)

Research measures these through use of TAT Research measures these through use of TAT projective test; McClelland encourages managers to projective test; McClelland encourages managers to identify the presence of these needs through identify the presence of these needs through observation and create appropriate work environmentsobservation and create appropriate work environments


Acquired Needs Theory Acquired Needs Theory

Needs are associated with work preferencesNeeds are associated with work preferences High nAchHigh nAch: individual responsibilities, challenging : individual responsibilities, challenging

goals, performance feedbackgoals, performance feedback High nAffHigh nAff: interpersonal relationships, opportunities : interpersonal relationships, opportunities

for communicationfor communication High nPowerHigh nPower: attention, recognition, opportunity for : attention, recognition, opportunity for

influence over othersinfluence over others Senior executive success associated with high Senior executive success associated with high

need for power and low need for affiliationneed for power and low need for affiliation


Two-factor Theory Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

Herzberg:Herzberg: Job contextJob context is source of dissatisfaction is source of dissatisfaction

• Problems with Problems with hygiene factorshygiene factors (e.g., pay, (e.g., pay, working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack of problems means lack of dissatisfactionof problems means lack of dissatisfaction

Job contentJob content is the source of job satisfaction is the source of job satisfaction• Motivator factorsMotivator factors (e.g., achievement, (e.g., achievement,

responsibility) link with job performance; if high, responsibility) link with job performance; if high, satisfaction high and performance strongsatisfaction high and performance strong


Two-factor Theory Two-factor Theory (or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)

Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using different methodsdifferent methods

Still does not explain individual differences, Still does not explain individual differences, professional or cultural differencesprofessional or cultural differences


Equity TheoryEquity Theory

Adams: we will Adams: we will act toact to eliminate any eliminate any unfairnessunfairness that we see in the rewards that we see in the rewards we receive for our work compared to we receive for our work compared to what others receivewhat others receive



Suggests person feeling under Suggests person feeling under rewarded or overrewarded will do rewarded or overrewarded will do one of following to restore equity:one of following to restore equity: Change own work inputs (e.g., effort)Change own work inputs (e.g., effort) Change own outcomes received (e.g., ask for raise)Change own outcomes received (e.g., ask for raise) Leave situationLeave situation Change comparison personChange comparison person Psychologically distort the comparisonsPsychologically distort the comparisons Act to change the inputs or outcomes of comparison Act to change the inputs or outcomes of comparison

personperson



Suggests that the ways in which any reward is Suggests that the ways in which any reward is received will be affected by equity comparisons; it is received will be affected by equity comparisons; it is the the receiver’s perception that countsreceiver’s perception that counts, not the reward , not the reward giver’s intentionsgiver’s intentions

Research suggests people who feel Research suggests people who feel underpaid do underpaid do reduce the quantity or qualityreduce the quantity or quality of their work but those of their work but those who feel overpaid not as likely to improve their work as who feel overpaid not as likely to improve their work as overpayment is not as uncomfortable as overpayment is not as uncomfortable as underpaymentunderpayment

Different results in other cultures; concern over Different results in other cultures; concern over equality more an issue than equity in collectivistic equality more an issue than equity in collectivistic culturescultures


Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Vroom argues that work motivation is determined Vroom argues that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs about effort-performance by individual beliefs about effort-performance relationships and work outcomesrelationships and work outcomes

In deciding whether to do something, a person In deciding whether to do something, a person assesses:assesses: ExpectancyExpectancy – Can I do it? How hard must I work? – Can I do it? How hard must I work? InstrumentalityInstrumentality – What will happen as a result of my – What will happen as a result of my

success?success? ValenceValence – How much do I care about those – How much do I care about those

outcomes?outcomes?


Expectancy TheoryExpectancy Theory

Claims Claims M = E x I x VM = E x I x V where where M is motivationM is motivation E is expectancyE is expectancy I is instrumentalityI is instrumentality V is valenceV is valence

The The multiplier effectmultiplier effect means that all must be means that all must be high for high motivation, yet even one low one high for high motivation, yet even one low one can destroy motivationcan destroy motivation

Generally strong research supportGenerally strong research support


Job SatisfactionJob Satisfaction

Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively individuals feel about their jobsindividuals feel about their jobs

Observable informally through observation and Observable informally through observation and interpretation of behaviour and wordsinterpretation of behaviour and words

Measured formally in questionnairesMeasured formally in questionnaires E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction QuestionnaireE.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire E.g., Job Descriptive IndexE.g., Job Descriptive Index


Effects of Job SatisfactionEffects of Job Satisfaction

Link to absenteeism Link to absenteeism Satisfied have lower absenteeismSatisfied have lower absenteeism

Link to turnover Link to turnover Dissatisfied more likely to quitDissatisfied more likely to quit

Link to performance complexLink to performance complex Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual

performanceperformance Successful performance does seem to lead to greater Successful performance does seem to lead to greater

satisfactionsatisfaction Proper allocation of rewards can increase both Proper allocation of rewards can increase both

performance and satisfactionperformance and satisfaction


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Amount and Amount and schedule of schedule of contingent contingent extrinsic extrinsic rewardsrewards

Net amount Net amount of valent of valent intrinsic intrinsic rewardsrewards

Equity Equity comparisoncomparison

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Work Work effort effort neededneeded

IndividualIndividualattributesattributes

Organizational Organizational supportsupport

An Integrated Model of Individual An Integrated Model of Individual Motivation to WorkMotivation to Work

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