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L E C T U R E 4
T H E O R I E S O F W O R K M O T I V A T I O N
M O T I V A T I O N I N P R A C T I C E
ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOURMOS 2181B
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Overview
Introduction to motivation
Theories of work motivation Need theories of motivation
Process theories of motivation
Motivation in practice Money
Job design
Management by objectives
Alternative work schedules
Exam review
Activity
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INTRODUCTION TO
MOTIVATION
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Motivation
Extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal
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Motivation
Extent to which persistent effort is directed toward a goal
Highest monthly sales inthe company
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Motivation
Extent to which persistent effort is directed towarda goal
Sales as opposed torelationships with
coworkers
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Motivation
Extent to which persistent effortis directed toward a goal
Work hard to achieve thehighest sales possible
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Motivation
Extent to which persistenteffort is directed toward a goal
Work hard the entireshift, every day, to
achieve the highest salespossible
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Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation
Intrinsicmotivation
Extrinsicmotivation
Motivation to perform a behaviour due
to interest or enjoyment
E.g., playing soccer because you enjoythe sport
E.g., working overtime on a project
because of interest in the project
E.g., KPMG has an employee loungewith fireplace, videogames, pool table,
and reflection rooms
Motivation to perform a behaviour to
obtain external rewards
E.g., cutting the grass so your wifestops nagging
E.g., working overtime on a project
because your supervisor requires it
E.g., KPMG has a profit-sharingprogram
Passer (2003); www.canadastop100.com/national/
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Extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation
Some motivators are not clearly extrinsic or clearlyintrinsic. Consider the following:
EllisDon provides employees paid time off to volunteer with
charitable organizations
The National Ballet offers a variety of training programs andfinancial bonuses for some course completion
www.canadastop100.com/national/
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The motivation-performance relationship
Motivation Performance
Intelligence
Emotional intelligence
Task understanding
Luck
Education
Personality
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Theories of motivation
Need theories Maslows hierarchy of needs
AlderfersERG theory
McClellands theory of needs
Process theories
Expectancy theory
Equity theory Goal-setting theory
Explain whatmotivates
Explain howmotivation
occurs
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Motivation in practice
Money Using pay to motivate workers
Using pay to motivate teamwork
Job design
Job scope Job characteristics model
Job enrichment
Management by objectives
Alternative working schedules Flextime
Compressed workweek
Job and work sharing
Telecommuting
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NEED THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
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Maslows hierarchy of needs
The lowest level unsatisfied need category has thegreatest motivating potential
A satisfied need is no longer an effective motivator
Self-actualization
Self-esteem
Belongingness
Safety
Physiological
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AlderfersERG theory
The more lower-level needs are gratified...
The more higher-level need satisfaction is desired
The less higher-level needs are gratified...
The more lower-level need satisfaction is desired
Growth
Relatedness
Existence
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McClellands theory of needs
Needs reflect relatively stable personality characteristicsacquired through early life experiences and exposure tosociety
People will be motivated to seek out and perform well in
jobs that match their needs
Need forachievement
Need foraffiliation
Need forpower
Desire to performchallenging tasks
well
Desire to establishfriendly,
compatiblerelationships
Desire to haveinfluence over andimpact on others
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Research support
Maslows hierarchy of needs
Little support for the idea that satisfied needs become lessimportant
Little support for the idea that needs are hierarchical
AlderfersERG theory
Good support for the idea that frustration of relatednessneeds increases the strength of existence needs
McClellands theory of needs Good support for the idea that particular needs are
motivational when the work environment permits
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Managerial implications
Appreciate diversity
Offer incentives or goals that correspond to individualemployee needs
Appreciate intrinsic motivation Meet basic needs, then make jobs more stimulating and
challenging
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PROCESS THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
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Expectancy theory
Motivation is determined by the outcomes that peopleexpect to occur as a result of their actions on the job
Components:
Outcomes (first-level and second-level)
Instrumentality
Valence
Expectancy
ForceRelative degree ofeffort directedtoward outcomes
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Expectancy theory
First-level outcomes:
Outcomes of interest to the organization (performance)
E.g., a good quality paper
E.g., high productivity vs. average productivity
Second-level outcomes:
Outcomes of interest to the worker (outcomes)
Consequences that follow the attainment of a particular first-
level outcome
E.g., a good grade on a paper
E.g., pay, sense of accomplishment, fatigue
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Expectancy theory
Force = Expectancy x ( instrumentalities x second-level valences)
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Expectancy theory
Force= Expectancy x ( instrumentalities x second-level valences)
Degree of effort directed toward
various first-level outcomes
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Expectancy theory
Force = Expectancyx ( instrumentalities x second-level valences)
Link between effort and performance
E.g., I am fairly confident that I can put in sufficienteffort to produce a good quality paper
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Expectancy theory
Force = Expectancy x ( instrumentalitiesx second-level valences)
Link between performance and outcome
E.g., The odds are decent that my good quality paper willget me an A+
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Expectancy theory
Force = Expectancy x ( instrumentalities x second-level valences)
Aamodt (2013)
Expectancy theory applied in a Virginia bank
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Expectancy theory
Force= Expectancy x ( instrumentalities x second-level valences)
I am not motivated to increase my
customer recruitment
Expectancy theory applied in a Virginia bank
Aamodt (2013)
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Expectancy theory
Force = Expectancyx ( instrumentalities x second-level valences)
No matter how hard I work, I
cant generate 25 newcustomers
Aamodt (2013)
Expectancy theory applied in a Virginia bank
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Expectancy theory
Force = Expectancy x ( instrumentalitiesx second-level valences)
I know that I will receive $5 extra per
month if I recruit 25 new customers
Aamodt (2013)
Expectancy theory applied in a Virginia bank
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Expectancy theory
Force = Expectancy x ( instrumentalities x second-level valences)
I do not value an extra $5 per
month
Aamodt (2013)
Expectancy theory applied in a Virginia bank
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Expectancy theory
2 key points:
People will be motivated to perform those activities that theyfind attractive and feel they can accomplish
The attractiveness of various activities depends on the extent
to which they lead to favourable personal consequences
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Expectancy theory
Research support:
Moderate support
Good evidence that value of first-level outcomes depends onthe extent to which they lead to favourable second-level
outcomes Complexity of the theory makes it difficult to test
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Expectancy theory
Managerial implications:
Boost expectancies
Provide proper equipment, offer training, demonstrate correctprocedures, explain how performance is evaluated
Clarify reward contingencies Clearly explain policies for obtaining outcomes, provide challenging
tasks
Appreciate diverse needs
Create individualized motivational packages to meet employee
needs
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Equity theory
Workers compare their inputs and outcomes to those ofother employees
Individuals are motivated to maintain an equitableexchange relationship and reduce inequity
Inequity results when:
My Outcomes
My Inputs
Others Outcomes
Others Inputs
biography.com wikipedia.org
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Equity theory
What happens when inequity is realized?
Distort own inputs or outcomes
Distort others inputs or outcomes
Choose another comparison person
Alter ones inputs or outcomes
Leave the exchange relationship
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Equity theory
Research support: Research supports underpaymentemployees produce less
work (hourly system) or lower-quality work (piece-ratesystem)
Research is less supportive for overpayment
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Equity theory
Managerial implications: Need to find equity in organizations to avoid low
productivity, low quality, theft, and turnover
Need to be aware of the comparison persons of employees
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Goal-setting theory
Goals are most motivational when... Specific
Challenging
Organizational members are committed to them
Feedback about progress toward the goal is provided
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Goal-setting theory
Learning goalorientation
Focus on acquiringnew knowledge and
skills
Performance goalorientation
Focus on outcomes ofperformance
vs.
Performance-proveSeek favourable
judgments aboutoutcome ofperformance
Performance-avoid
Avoid negativejudgments aboutoutcome of
performance
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Goal-setting theory
Distal goalsLong-term or end
goalsE.g., becoming the top
salesperson in the
company
Proximal goalsShort-term or sub-
goalsE.g., meeting your
weekly goal of number
of customers to visit
vs.
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Goal-setting theory
Research support: One of the most valid and practical theories of employee
motivation
E.g., study of loggers assigned specific, challenging goals of
loading their trucks to capacity
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Goal-setting theory
Managerial implications: Set specific and challenging goals
Provide ongoing feedback so individuals can compareperformance with goals
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MOTIVATION IN PRACTICE:
MONEY
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Using pay to motivate workers
Production jobs
wage incentive plansPrototype: piece-rate (pay for each unit produced)
E.g., $3 for every garment sewnProblems: lowered quality, differential opportunity, reduced cooperation,
incompatible job design, restriction of productivity
White-collar jobs
merit pay plansPrototype: periodic performance review and pay increase
E.g., 1% pay increase for a performance evaluation of good or betterProblems: low discrimination, small increases, pay secrecy
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Using pay to motivate teamwork
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MOTIVATION IN PRACTICE:
JOB DESIGN
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Job design
Structure, content, and configuration of a persons worktasks and roles
Goal = identify characteristics that make tasks more
motivating and capture these characteristics in design ofjobs
Traditional view Contemporary view
Job simplification Job scope(breadth and depth)
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Job scope
Breadth
Number of different activitiesperformed on the job
Require worker to do a numberof different tasks
E.g., professor teaches, grades,
researches, writes
Depth
Degree of control over how tasksare performed
Emphasize freedom in planninghow to do the tasks
E.g., professor has discretionover teaching style, grading
format, research area
High-scope jobs have both breadth and depth
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Job characteristics model
Core jobcharacteristics
Critical psychologicalstates
Outcomes
Skill variety
Task identityTask significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Experienced
meaningfulness ofwork
Experiencedresponsibility for
outcomes of work
Knowledge of actualresults of work activities
Internal work motivation
Performance
Satisfaction with work
Growth need strength
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Job enrichment
Design of jobs to enhance intrinsic motivation,quality of work life, and job involvement
Job enrichment may involve...
Combining tasks
Establishing internal/external client relationships
Reducing supervision or reliance on others
Forming work teams
Making feedback more direct
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Potential problems with job enrichment
Poor diagnosis Job enlargement
Job engorgement
Lack of desire or skill
Demand for rewards
Union resistance
Supervisory resistance
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Management by objectives (MBO)
Ongoing management program to facilitate goalestablishment and accomplishment + employeedevelopment
Objectives = goals Steps:
Manager and employee meet to developand agree on objectives
Meetings are held to determine progresstoward objectives
Appraisal meeting is held to determineextent to which objectives achieved
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MOTIVATION IN PRACTICE:
ALTERNATIVE WORK SCHEDULES
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Alternative work schedules
FlextimeArrival and departure
times are flexible
Compressed workweekEmployees work fewerthan the normal 5 daysa week (but still put in
normal work hours)
Job sharingTwo part-time
employees divide thework of a full-time job
Work sharingHours that employeeswork are reduced to
avoid layoffs
TelecommutingEmployees work at
home but stay in touch
with their officethrough technology
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For next class...
Exam #1GOOD LUCK