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ENGLISH
UNIT I – CHAUCER TO SHAKESPEARE
Geoffrey Chaucer: The Book of the Duchess
Edmund Spencer: Epithalamion
Shakespeare:Sonnet(8,15,24,30,37,40,46,76,82,91,112,116,126,140,144,147,154)
Francis Bacon: of Oxford
of Nobility
of Travel
of Friendship
of Love
Ben Jonson: Volpone or the Fox
Christopher Marlowe: Dr. Faustus
Sir Jhomas More: Utopia
John Webster: The White Devil
William Langland: Piers the plowman
Shakespeare: The comedy of Errors
A Midsummer Night's Dream
Hamlet
Henry VIII
Love's Labour Lost
UNIT 2- JACOBEAN TO AUGUSTAN AGE
John Milton: Paradise Regained
John Dryden: All for Love
Alexander pope: The Rape of the Lock
Andrew Marwell: Garden
Thomas gray: Elegy written in a country churchyard
Jonathan swift: A Tale of a Tub
Addison and Steele: The spectators and the coverly papers. (Essays 1-10, Macmillan
Edn)
Oliver Goldsmith: The Deserted village
Henry Fielding: Joseph Andrews
Samuel Daniel: Christ Victoric
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Triumph
Sir Thomas Brown: The Garden of Cyrus
William Blake: Songs of Experience
Daniel Defoe: Robinson Crusoe
Jonathan Swift: Gulliver's Travels
Henry Vaughan: Regeneration
UNIT 3 – ROMANTIC PERIOD
William Wordsworth: The Daffodils The Solitary Reaper
Samuel Taylor Coleridge: Lyrical Ballads
Biographia Literaria
P. B. Shelly: Ode to the west wind
John keats: Ode to Autumn
Charles Lamb: The Essays of Elia
1) Oxford in the vacation
2) New year's Eve
3) Dream children: A Reverie
4) The price of chimney-sweeper
5) My Relations
Byron: Prometheus
Jane Austen: Emma
Walter Scott: The Talisman
William Hazlit: Characters of Shakespeare's plays.
Emily Bronte: Wuthering Heights
UNIT 4 - VICTORIAN AGE
Tennyson: The princess: A Medley
Robert Browning: Men and Women
Andrea Del Sarto
Mathew Arnold: Rugby Chapel
Dover beach.
D.G.Rosetti : The Blessed Damozel
George Eliot: Romola
W.M Thackeray: Vanity Fair
R.L.Stevenson: Treasure Island
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John Ruskein: Sesame and Lilies
Charles Dickens: A Tale of two cities.
UNIT 5 - MODERN AND CONTEMPORARY PERIODS
W.B.Yeats : Sailing to Byzantium
Thomas Hardy: The Woodlanders.
Virginia Woolf: Mr.Bennet and Mrs.Brown
A.L. Huxley: Time Must Have a Stop
E.M.Forster: Where Angels Fear to Tread
T.S.Eliot: Murder in Cathedral
C.P.Snow: Corridors of Power
G.B. Shaw: The Devil's Disciple
Ezra Pound: The Pisan Cantos
Oscar Wilde: The Importance of Being Earnest
UNIT 6 - AMERICAN LITERATURE
Whitman: When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd
H.W.Long Fellow : The May Queen
Edgar Allam Poe: The Haunted Palace
To my Mother
The Lake
Emily Dickinson: A something in a Summer's Day
Bless God, he went as soldier's
How happy is the little Stone
This is my Letter to The World.
Robert Frost: Blue Berries
Wallace Stevens: The Snow man
Emerson: The American Scholar
Henry James: The lesson of the master
O'Neill: The Great God Brown
Hawthorne: A House of the Seven Gables
Edward Albe: The American Dream
Alice Walker: By the light of my Father's smile
Mark Twain: The Adventures of Tom Sawyer
Earnest Hemingway: The Old Man and The Sea
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UNIT 7 - INDIAN AND ENGLISH LITERATURE
Nissin Ezekiel: Night of the Scorpion
A.K. Ramanujam: A River
R. Parthasarathy: Lines for a Photograph
Toru Dutt: Our Casuarina Tree
Sarojini Naidu: The Soul's Prayer
Anita Desai: Where shal we go for this summer?
Badal Surcar: Evam Indrajit
Sri Aurobindo: Rose of God.
Arundhati Roy: The God of Small Things
Mulk Raj Anand: Untouchable
Deshpande: The Dark Holds No Terror
Kirish karnard: Tugulaq
UNIT 8 - LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS.
Family of Indo European Languages
Historical Linguistics
LSRW
Theories of Language acquisition
Dialects
Phonology
Affixes
Derivational and inflectional affixes
Morphemes
Acronyms
Phrase and structures
Phonetics and phonology
Minimal Pairs
Sociolinguistics
Semantics and Pragmatics
Neurolinguistics
Dichotic listening
Lingua franca
Jargon
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UNIT 9 - CRITICISM AND LITERARY THEORIES
Plato: Republic
Francis Bacon: The Advancement of learning
Samuel Johnson: On fiction
Preface to Shakespeare
S.T Coleridge: Biographia Literaria
Mathew Arnold: The function of criticism at the present time
I A Richards: Practical Criticism
Northrop Frye: The critical path
T.S.Eliot: Hamlet and his Problems
I A Richards: Principles of Literary Criticism
Rene Wellek: Concepts of Criticism
Aristotle: Poetics
Ezra Pound: The ABC of Reading
Wayne C. Booth: The Rhetoric of fiction
Empson: Seven types of Ambiguity
UNIT 10 - POST COLONIAL LITERATURE AND EUROPEAN LITERATURE IN
TRANSLATION
Atwood: Surfacing
Lawrence: The Fire Dwellers
P.K.Page : Adolescence
Chinua Achebe: Arrow of God
Wole Soyinka: A Dance of the Forests
Wilfered Campbell: The Winter Lakes
AG.Smith: The White House
Ondaatje: There's a trick with a knife I'm learning to do
George Ryga: Portrait of Angelica
In the shadow of the vulture
Ibsen: The lady from the sea
Moliere: The comic pastoral
Sir Thomas More: The Four Last Things
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1 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
UNIT – 8
LINGUISTICS & ELT
Classification of Languages
Indo-European family of languages
Italic / Latin
o Romance
Catalan
French
Italian
Occitan / Provençal
Portuguese
Rhaeto-Romansch
Romanian
Spanish
Germanic
o North Germanic
Danish
Faroese
Icelandic
Norwegian
Swedish
o East Germanic
Gothic (extinct)
o West Germanic
Afrikaans
Dutch
English
Flemish
Frisian
German
Yiddish
Slavic
o Western
Czech
Polish
Slovak
Sorbian
o Eastern
Belarusian
Russian
Ukrainian
o Southern
Bulgarian
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2 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Croatian
Macedonian
Old Church Slavonic
Serbian
Slovene
Baltic
o Latvian
o Lithuanian
o Old Prussian (extinct)
Celtic
o Brythonic
Breton
Cornish (extinct)
Gaulish (extinct)
Welsh
o Goidelic
Irish
Manx Gaelic (extinct)
Scots Gaelic
Hellenic / Greek
Albanian
Armenian
Anatolian (extinct)
Tocharian (extinct)
Indo-Iranian
o Indo-Aryan (Indic)
Assamese
Bengali
Bihari
Gujarati
Hindi-Urdu
Marathi
Punjabi
Romani
Sanskrit
Sindhi
Singhalese
o Iranian
Avestan
Balochi
Farsi / Persian
Kurdish
Pashtu / Afghan
Sogdian
Uralic (or Finno-Ugric) is the other major family of languages spoken on the European continent.
Finnish, Estonian and Hungarian are examples.
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3 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Afro-Asiatic languages are spoken in Northern Africa and the Middle East. They include Berber,
Egyptian, Omotic and Cushitic languages (Somali, Iraqw) as well as the modern Semitic languages of
Hebrew, Arabic and Amharic, in addition to languages spoken in biblical times, such as Aramaic,
Akkadian, Babylonian, Canaanite, and Phoenician.
The Altaic languages are classified as Japanese and Korean, though some linguists separate these
languages into their own groups.
Sino-Tibetan languages include Mandarin, Hakka, Wu, Burmese, Tibetan, and all of the Chinese
"dialects."
Austro-tai languages include Indonesian, Javanese and Thai; while the Asiatic group includes
Vietnamese.
The Dravidian languages of Tamil and Telugu are spoken in southeastern India and Sri Lanka.
The Caucasian language family consists of 40 different languages, and is divided into Cartvelian (south
Caucasian), North-West Caucasian and North-East Caucasian language groups. Some languages are
Georgian, Megrelian, Chechen, Ingush Avarian, Lezgian and Dargin. These languages are mostly spoken
in Georgia, Turkey, Syria, Iran, Jordan and parts of the Russian federation.
The Niger-Congo family includes most of the African languages. About 1,500 languages belong to this
group, including the Bantu languages of Swahili, Tswana, Xhosa, Zulu, Kikuyu, and Shona. Other
languages are Ewe, Mina, Yoruba, Igbo, Wolof, Kordofanian and Fulfulde.
Other African language groups are Nilo-Saharan, which includes 200 languages spoken in Central and
Eastern Africa; and Khoisan, the click languages of southern Africa. The Khoisan group only
contains about 30 languages, most of which are spoken in Namibia and Botswana.
The Austronesian family includes about 900 languages, mostly spoken in the South Pacific and Asia.
Hawaiian, Maori, Tagalog, and Malay are all representatives of this language family.
Many Amerindian languages are, or were, spoken in North and South America by the indigenous
populations before European colonization. Knowledge of these languages is somewhat limited, and sadly
many of these languages are endangered and may die out over the next 50 to 100 years.
Family of Indo European Language
The Indo-European languages are a family of related languages that today are widely spoken in the
Americas, Europe, and also Western and Southern Asia. Just as languages such as Spanish, French,
Portuguese and Italian are all descended from Latin, Indo-European languages are believed to derive from
a hypothetical language known as Proto-Indo-European, which is no longer spoken.
It is highly probable that the earliest speakers of this language originally lived around Ukraine and
neighbouring regions in the Caucasus and Southern Russia, then spread to most of the rest of Europe and
later down into India. The earliest possible end of Proto-Indo-European linguistic unity is believed to be
around 3400 BCE.
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4 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Since the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language did not develop a writing system, we have no
physical evidence of it. The science of linguistics has been trying to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European
language using several methods and, although an accurate reconstruction of it seems impossible, we have
today a general picture of what Proto-Indo-European speakers had in common, both linguistically and
culturally. In addition to the use of comparative methods, there are studies based on the comparison of
myths, laws, and social institutions.
THE ANCIENTS CAME UP WITH THE EXPLANATION THAT THE LATIN LANGUAGE
WAS A DESCENDANT OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE.
BRANCHES OF INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES
The Indo-European languages have a large number of branches: Anatolian, Indo-Iranian, Greek,
Italic, Celtic, Germanic, Armenian, Tocharian, Balto-Slavic and Albanian.
Anatolian
This branch of languages was predominant in the Asian portion of Turkey and some areas in
northern Syria. The most famous of these languages is Hittite. In 1906 CE, a large amount of Hittite finds
were made on the site of Hattusas, the capital of the Hittite Kingdom, where about
10,000 cuneiform tablets and various other fragments were found in the remains of a royal archive. These
texts date back to the mid to late second millennium BCE. Luvian, Palaic, Lycian, and Lydian are other
examples of families belonging to this group.
All languages of this branch are currently extinct. This branch has the oldest surviving evidence of an
Indo-European language, dated about 1800 BCE.
Indo-Iranian
This branch includes two sub-branches: Indic and Iranian. Today these languages are predominant in
India, Pakistan, Iran, and its vicinity and also in areas from the Black Sea to western China.
Sanskrit, which belongs to the Indic sub-branch, is the best known among the early languages of this
branch; its oldest variety, Vedic Sanskrit, is preserved in the Vedas, a collection of hymns and other
religious texts of ancient India. Indic speakers entered into the Indian subcontinent, coming from central
Asia around 1500 BCE: In the Rig-Veda, the hymn 1.131 speaks about a legendary journey that may be
considered a distant memory of this migration.
Avestan is a language that forms part of the Iranian group. Old Avestan (sometimes called Gathic
Avestan) is the oldest preserved language of the Iranian sub-branch, the “sister” of Sanskrit, which is the
language used in the early Zoroastrian religious texts. Another important language of the Iranian sub-
branch is Old Persian, which is the language found in the royal inscriptions of the Achaemenid dynasty,
starting in the late 6th century BCE. The earliest datable evidence of this branch dates back to about 1300
BCE.
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5 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Today, many Indic languages are spoken in India and Pakistan, such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi, and Bengali.
Iranian languages such as Farsi (modern Persian), Pashto, and Kurdish are spoken in Iraq, Iran,
Afghanistan, and Tajikistan.
Greek
Rather than a branch of languages, Greek is a group of dialects: During more than 3000 years of written
history, Greek dialects never evolved into mutually incomprehensible languages. Greek was predominant
in the southern end of the Balkans, the Peloponnesepeninsula, and the Aegean Sea and its vicinity. The
earliest surviving written evidence of a Greek language is Mycenaean, the dialect of the Mycenaean
civilization, mainly found on clay tablets and ceramic vessels on the isle of Crete. Mycenaean did not
have an alphabetic written system, rather it had a syllabic script known as the Linear B script.
The first alphabetic inscriptions have been dated back to the early 8th century BCE, which is probably the
time when the Homeric epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, reached their present form. There were many
Greek dialects in ancient times, but because of Athens cultural supremacy in the 5th century BCE, it was
the Athens dialect, called Attic, the one that became the standard literary language during the Classical
period (480-323 BCE). Therefore, the most famous Greek poetry and prose written in Classical times were
written in Attic: Aristophanes, Aristotle, Euripides, and Plato are just a few examples of authors who
wrote in Attic.
Italic
This branch was predominant in the Italian peninsula. The Italic people were not natives of Italy; they
entered Italy crossing the Alps around 1000 BCE and gradually moved southward. Latin, the most famous
language in this group, was originally a relatively small local language spoken by pastoral tribes living in
small agricultural settlements in the centre of the Italian peninsula. The first inscriptions in Latin appeared
in the 7th century BCE and by the 6th century BCE it had spread significantly.
Rome was responsible for the growth of Latin in ancient times. Classical Latin is the form of Latin used
by the most famous works of Roman authors like Ovid, Cicero, Seneca, Pliny, and Marcus Aurelius.
Other languages of this branch are: Faliscan, Sabellic, Umbrian, South Picene, and Oscan, all of them
extinct.
Today Romance languages are the only surviving descendants of the Italic branch.
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6 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Map of Indo-Euopean Migrations
Celtic
This branch contains two sub-branches: Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic. By about 600 BCE, Celtic-
speaking tribes had spread from what today are southern Germany, Austria, and Western Czech Republic
in almost all directions, to France, Belgium, Spain, and the British Isles, then by 400 BCE, they also
moved southward into northern Italy and southeast into the Balkans and even beyond. During the early 1st
century BCE, Celtic-speaking tribes dominated a very significant portion of Europe. On 50 BCE, Julius
Caesarconquered Gaul (ancient France) and Britain was also conquered about a century later by the
emperor Claudius. As a result, this large Celtic-speaking area was absorbed by Rome, Latin became the
dominant language, and the Continental Celtic languages eventually died out. The chief Continental
language was Gaulish.
Insular Celtic developed in the British Isles after Celtic-speaking tribes entered around the 6th century
BCE. In Ireland, Insular Celtic flourished, aided by the geographical isolation which kept Ireland
relatively safe from the Roman and Anglo-Saxon invasion.
The only Celtic languages still spoken today (Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Breton) all come
from Insular Celtic.
Germanic
The Germanic branch is divided in three sub-branches: East Germanic, currently extinct; North Germanic,
containing Old Norse, the ancestor of all modern Scandinavian languages; and West Germanic, containing
Old English, Old Saxon, and Old High German.
The earliest evidence of Germanic-speaking people dates back to first half of the 1st millennium BCE, and
they lived in an area stretching from southern Scandinavia to the coast of the North Baltic Sea. During
prehistoric times, the Germanic speaking tribes came into contact with Finnic speakers in the north and
also with Balto-Slavic tribes in the east. As a result of this interaction, the Germanic language borrowed
several terms from Finnish and Balto-Slavic.
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7 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Several varieties of Old Norse were spoken by most Vikings. Native Nordic pre-Christian
Germanic mythology and folklore has been also preserved in Old Norse, in a dialect named Old Icelandic.
Dutch, English, Frisian, and Yiddish are some examples of modern survivors of the West Germanic sub-
branch, while Danish, Faroese, Icelandic, Norwegian, and Swedish are survivors of the North Germanic
branch.
Armenian
The origins of the Armenian-speaking people is a topic still unresolved. It is probable that the Armenians
and the Phrygians belonged to the same migratory wave that entered Anatolia, coming from the Balkans
around the late 2nd millennium BCE. The Armenians settled in an area around Lake Van, currently
Turkey; this region belonged to the state of Urartu during the early 1st millennium BCE. In the 8th
century BCE, Urartu came under Assyrian control and in the 7th century BCE, the Armenians took over
the region. The Medes absorbed the region soon after and Armenia became a vassal state. During the time
of the Achaemenid Empire, the region turned into a Persian satrap. The Persian domination had a strong
linguistic impact on Armenian, which mislead many scholars in the past to believe that Armenian actually
belonged to the Iranian group.
Tocharian
The history of the Tocharian-speaking people is still surrounded by mystery. We know that they lived in
the Taklamakan Desert, located in western China. Most of the Tocharian texts left are translations from
well-known Buddhist works, and all of these texts have been dated between the 6th and the 8th centuries
CE. None of these texts speak about the Tocharians themselves. Two different languages belong to this
branch: Tocharian A and Tocharian B. Remains of the Tocharian A language have only been found in
places where Tocharian B documents have also been found, which would suggest that Tocharian A was
already extinct, kept alive only as a religious or poetic language, while Tocharian B was the living
language used for administrative purposes.
Many well-preserved mummies with Caucasoid features such as tall stature, red, blonde, and brown hair,
have been discovered in the Taklamakan Desert, dating between 1800 BCE to 200 CE. The weaving style
and patterns of their clothes is similar to the Hallstatt culture in central Europe. Physical analysis and
genetic evidence have revealed resemblances with the inhabitants of western Eurasia.
This branch is completely extinct. Among all ancient Indo-European languages, Tocharian was spoken
farthest to the east.
Balto-Slavic
This branch contains two sub-branches: Baltic and Slavic.
During the late Bronze Age, the Balts' territory may have stretched from around western Poland all the
way across to the Ural Mountains. Afterwards, the Balts occupied a small region along the Baltic Sea.
Those in the northern part of the territory occupied by the Balts were in close contact with Finnic tribes,
whose language was not part of the Indo-European language family: Finnic speakers borrowed a
considerable amount of Baltic words, which suggests that the Balts had an important cultural prestige in
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8 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
that area. Under the pressure of Gothic and Slavic migrations, the territory of the Balts was reduced
towards the 5th century CE.
Archaeological evidence shows that from 1500 BCE, either the Slavs or their ancestors occupied an area
stretching from near the western Polish borders towards the Dnieper River in Belarus. During the 6th
century CE, the Slav-speaking tribes expanded their territory, migrating into Greece and the Balkans: this
is when they are mentioned for the first time, in Byzantine records referring to this large migration. Either
some or all of the Slavs were once located further to the east, in or around Iranian territory, since many
Iranian words were borrowed into pre-Slavic at an early stage. Later on, as they moved westward, they
came into contact with German tribes and again borrowed several additional terms.
Only two Baltic languages survive today: Latvian and Lithuanian. A large number of Slavic languages
survive today, such as Bulgarian, Czech, Croatian, Polish, Serbian, Slovak, Russian, and many others.
Albanian
Albanian is the last branch of Indo-European languages to appear in written form. There are two
hypotheses on the origin of Albanian. The first one says that Albanian is a modern descendant of Illyrian,
a language which was widely spoken in the region during classical times. Since we know very little about
Illyrian, this assertion can be neither denied nor confirmed from a linguistic standpoint. From a historical
and geographical perspective, however, this assertion makes sense. Another hypotheses says that Albanian
is a descendant of Thracian, another lost language that was spoken farther east than Illyrian.
Today Albanian is spoken in Albania as the official language, in several other areas in of the former
Yugoslavia and also in small enclaves in southern Italy, Greece and the Republic of Macedonia.
Unaffiliated Languages
All languages in this group are either extinct or they are a former stage of a modern language. Examples
of this groups of languages are Phrygian, Thracian, Ancient Macedonian (not to be confused with
Macedonian, a language currently spoken in the Republic of Macedonia, part of the Slavic branch),
Illyrian, Venetic, Messapic, and Lusitanian.
INDO-EUROPEAN HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
In ancient times it was noticed that some languages presented striking similarities: Greek and Latin are a
well-known example. During classical antiquity it was noted, for example, that Greek héks “six”
and heptá “seven” were similar to the Latin sex and septem. Furthermore, the regular correspondence of
the initial h- in Greek to the initial s- in Latin was pointed out.
The explanation that the ancients came up with was that the Latin language was a descendant of Greek
language. Centuries later, during and after the Renaissance, the close similarities between more languages
were also noted, and it was understood that certain groups of languages were related, such as Icelandic and
English, and also the Romance languages. Despite all of these observations, the science of linguistics did
not develop much further until the 18th century CE.
During the British colonial expansion into India, a British orientalist and jurist named Sir William Jones
became familiar with the Sanskrit language. Jones was also knowledgeable in Greek and Latin and was
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9 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
surprised by the similarities between these three languages. During a lecture on February 2, 1786 CE, Sir
William Jones expressed his new ideas:
The Sanskrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of a wonderful structure; more perfect than the Greek,
more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet bearing to both of them a
stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and the forms of grammar, than could possibly have been
produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no philologer could examine them all three, without believing
them to have sprung from some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists; there is a similar
reason, though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothic and the Celtic, though blended
with a very different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskrit; and the old Persian might be added to
the same family, if this were the place for discussing any question concerning the antiquity of Persia.
(Fortson, p. 9)
The idea that Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and Persian were derived from a common source was revolutionary
at that time. This was a turning point in the history of linguistics. Rather than the “daughter” of Greek,
Latin was for the first time understood as the “sister” of Greek. By becoming familiar with Sanskrit, a
language geographically far removed from Greek and Latin, and realizing that chance was an insufficient
explanation for the similarities between these languages, Sir William Jones presented a new insight which
triggered the development of modern linguistics.
What is Historical Linguistics?
The study of linguistic change is called historical and comparative linguistics. Linguists identify regular
sound correspondences using the comparative method among the cognates (words that developed from
the same ancestral language) of related languages. They can restructure an earlier protolanguage and this
allows linguists to determine the history of a language family.
Languages that evolve from a common source are genetically related. These languages were once
dialects of the same language. Earlier forms of Germanic languages, such as German, English, and
Swedish were dialects of Proto-Germanic, while earlier forms of Romance languages, such as Spanish,
French, and Italian were dialects of Latin. Furthermore, earlier forms of Proto-Germanic and Latin were
once dialects of Indo-European.
Linguistic changes like sound shift is found in the history of all languages, as evidenced by the regular
sound correspondences that exist between different stages of the same language, different dialects, and
different languages. Words, morphemes, and phonemes may be altered, added or lost. The meaning of
words may broaden, narrow or shift. New words may be introduced into a language by borrowing, or by
coinage, blends and acronyms. The lexicon may also shrink as older words become obsolete.
Change comes about as a result of the restructuring of grammar by children learning the language.
Grammars seem to become simple and regular, but these simplifications may be compensated for by
more complexities. Sound changes can occur because of assimilation, a process of ease of articulation.
Some grammatical changes are analogic changes, generalizations that lead to more regularity, such as
sweeped instead of swept.
Old English, Middle English, Modern English
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10 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Old English 499-1066 CE Beowulf
Middle English 1066-1500 CE Canterbury Tales
Modern English 1500-present Shakespeare
Phonological change: Between 1400 and 1600 CE, the Great Vowel Shift took place. The seven long
vowels of Middle English underwent changes. The high vowels [i] and [u] became the diphthongs [aj]
and [aw]. The long vowels increased tongue height and shifted upward, and [a] was fronted. Many of the
spelling inconsistencies of English are because of the Great Vowel Shift. Our spelling system still
reflects the way words were pronounced before the shift took place.
Morphological change: Many Indo-European languages had extensive case endings that governed word
order, but these are no longer found in Romance languages or English. Although pronouns still show a
trace of the case system (he vs. him), English uses prepositions to show the case. Instead of the dative
case (indirect objects), English usually the words to or for. Instead of the genitive case, English uses the
word of or 's after a noun to show possession. Other cases include the nominative (subject pronouns),
accusative (direct objects), and vocative.
Syntactic change: Because of the lack of the case system, word order has become more rigid and strict
in Modern English. Now it is strictly Subject - Verb - Object order.
Orthographic change: Consonant clusters have become simplified, such as hlaf becoming loaf and
hnecca becoming neck. However, some of these clusters are still written, but are no longer pronounced,
such as gnaw, write, and dumb.
Lexical change: Old English borrowed place names from Celtic, army, religious and educational words
from Latin, and everyday words from Scandinavian. Angle and Saxon (German dialects) form the basis
of Old English phonology, morphology, syntax and lexicon. Middle English borrowed many words from
French in the areas of government, law, religion, literature and education because of the Norman
Conquest in 1066 CE. Modern English borrowed words from Latin and Greek because of the influence of
the classics, with much scientific terminology.
Four Skills Activities: Reading, Writing, Speaking & Listening
What are the four skills?
Reading (comprehension skill)
Listening (comprehension skill)
Speaking (production skill)
Writing (production skill)
How are the four skills used in the language classroom?
Through daily activities, teachers provide learners with opportunities to develop each skill:
students listen(to the teacher use the target language, to a song, to one another in a pair
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11 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
activity), speak(pronunciation practice, greetings, dialogue creation or recitation, songs, substitution drills,
oral speed reading, role play), read (instructions, written grammar drills, cards for playing games,
flashcards) and write (fill-in-the-blank sheets, sentences that describe a feeling, sight or experience, a
dialogue script, a journal entry).
This approach, however, does not combine the four skills so that they can be used together to reach the
same end (i.e. language development that is well-rounded).
How can the four skills be used together effectively?
The four skills work in tandem when the activities that require their use are designed to support learners in
the process of learning, creating and producing a specific product. Four approaches in particular are
structured so that the four skills can be used simultaneously. These approaches are: the focal skill
approach, content-based instruction, task-based instruction and the project-based approach.
The Focal Skill Approach
The goal of the focal skill approach is studying in the SL in order to acquire it. This second language
curriculum stresses the balanced development of listening, speaking, reading and writing by measuring
competency in each skill and then focusing on the development of the weakest skill. Resources like those
developed by the International Center for Focal Skills (ICFS) use placement tests to identify weak skill
areas.
Content-based Instruction(CBI)
Oxford (2001) describes approaches to CBI, which include theme-based & adjunct learning. Theme-based
CBI focuses on a theme of high interest to students and develops a wide range of language skills around
that theme. The learning of the content requires considerable exposure to a variety of forms of
information, which, in turn, requires the use of all four modalities.
In the adjunct form of CBI, language and content courses are taught separately but are carefully
coordinated so that literacy, oral language development and thinking skills are positively enhanced. In this
approach, the content teacher presents content to students while the language teacher brings vocabulary,
grammar and subskill development to students’ attention through typical exercises, all of which focus on
the lexicon of the content.
Task-based Instruction (TBI)
According to Nunan (1999), task-based instruction (TBI) uses tasks or stand-aline activities which require
comprehending, producing, manipulating or interacting in the target language. The amount of listening,
speaking, reading and writing involved to complete the problem posed by the task is dictated by the task
itself; however, most complex (multi step) real-life tasks that take learners into the world outside the
classroom will utilize all four skills. TBI helps learners explore the multitude of communication
opportunities provided in their surroundings. The tasks themselves are scaffolded according to the
cognitive demand required to complete them and can be carried out individually, in pairs or in small
cooperative groups.
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12 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
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Project-based approach
This approach concretizes the integration of not only the four skills but also language, culture, experience
and learning strategies (Turnbull, 1999). With the careful selection of a final project that requires learners
to demonstrate what they have learned through both oral and written production, the teacher plans
backwards to identify what aspects of language, culture, experience and learning strategies are required to
complete the end project.
What are some examples of activities that integrate the four skills?
Two activities that make use of all four skills in tandem are Self-introduction and Reading and Retell.
Self-introduction takes the answers to a series of personal questions (name, age, grade level, where you
live, members of your family, favourite sports, animals, colours, subjects, etc.) and sequences them into a
self introduction. Students are given large visuals to trigger each component of the self introduction. The
teacher can point to each picture while modeling a self-introduction (students are listening) and then invite
learners to introduce themselves (speaking) to one or two if their peers. Some of the visuals can then be
changed and the students can be invited to introduce themselves to others in the class to whom they have
never spoken. This activity can be adapted to become a regular (daily, weekly) warm-up activity to get
learners talking in the target language. Having covered listening and speaking in the oral self-introduction,
a scenario can then be created wherein learners must write a self-introduction to a potential homestay host.
The same picture cues can be used, reconfigured to show a salutation, closing and signature. The picture
cues provide learners with support without giving them a text to memorize.
In multilevel SL classes, graded readers can be excellent springboards for another activity that integrates
the four skills- a reading and retell. First, learners select a book or story at their own level and read it.
Learners are then given a template to follow to summarize their thoughts about the story (writing). The
summary is designed to help learners gauge the amount of detail required in a retell. After additional
practice reading the summary silently and aloud several times, learners are asked to select two or three
illustrations from the book to help them tell the story. They then practice telling the story by using the
pictures and remembering what they wrote in the template. Students find a partner who has not read the
same story and retell (speaking) their story to one another using the selected illustrations. Partners not only
listen to the retell but also complete a feedback checklist (writing) about the retell. After reading the
feedback, partners switch roles.
Why are four skills activities useful?
Four skills activities in the language classroom serve many valuable purposes: they give learners
scaffolded support, opportunities to create, contexts in which to use the language for exchanges of real
information, evidence of their own ability (proof of learning) and, most important, confidence.
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13 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Theories of Language Acquisition
The First Five Years
A few months after it is born, an infant starts to babble and coo. These meaningless sounds signify the
initial stage in the development of language, which proceeds at an unbelievably rapid rate during the first
five years of a child’s life. Babbling increasingly starts to approximate the language spoken by the child’s
caregivers, initially through similarities in pitch and tone, and later on, through similarities in sounds.
When the child reaches his first year, most sounds that are not heard in his mother tongue will disappear
from the child’s babbling repertoire. At this age, even though most children still cannot produce words,
they can already comprehend a considerable number of words, demonstrating that language
comprehension comes before language production. Children’s ability to understand language, also called
receptive language, develops earlier than their ability to speak and use their words to communicate, known
as expressive language.
As toddlers, children start to produce two-word utterances and demonstrate an increase in number of
words used. Most toddlers possess a vocabulary of about fifty words, which exponentially multiplies to
several hundred words in just a few months. At this time, children can be heard to speak in simple
telegraphic sentences, with the ability to pick out important components of their ideas.
By the time they are three years old, children explore grammar rules, with oftentimes inappropriate use of
plurals, as in ‘mouses’, and of the past tense, as in ‘I already drinked my milk.’
By the time children are five years old, the process of language acquisition is almost complete, with only
increases in vocabulary and sophistication to be expected in the lifetime ahead. The rest of their lifetime is
devoted to enriching vocabulary and mastering the rules, peculiarities and oddities of their language.
Behaviorist / Learning Theory Approach: Nurture
Language acquisition is explained by the learning-theory approach as a product of the environment and of
principles of reinforcement and conditioning. When a child who incessantly babbles happens to utter a
meaningful word, such as ‘mama’, he is immediately rewarded with squeals of delight, applause and even
a tight hug. Such responses make it more likely that the child will repeat the pleasure-invoking word.
Through this highly interactive process of imitation, shaping and reinforcement, the child develops
language that more and more resembles adult speech, a view proposed by B.F. Skinner, the major
proponent of the learning theory approach.
Biological Approach: Nature
An alternative approach to explaining the mechanisms and processes involved in language acquisition was
proffered by Noam Chomsky, a distinguished linguist. Chomsky believed that language learning is
facilitated by biological influences, particularly, innate mechanisms and capacities that emerge due to
maturation. He further hypothesized that the brain of humans has a neural system which he termed the
language-acquisition device (LAD) which allows the individual to understand the structure of language
and develop strategies and techniques for learning characteristics that are unique to certain languages.
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Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
It is further proposed that all children are equipped with a universal grammar at birth, which predisposes
them to be receptive to the general features of all languages, thereby facilitating the natural acquisition of
language.
Some evidence presented in support of this theory include documentation of the stages of language
development in children which occur at roughly the same ages, the similarity in pattern that children’s
language development follows across diverse cultures, and the relative ease with which children acquire
language skills.
Nature and Nurture
Both nature and nurture theories have their share of criticism, particularly having to do with the limitations
of each theory in accounting for all aspects of language development. As such, many researchers advocate
the necessity of both nature and nurture factors in the development of language. The popular viewpoint is
that while children are born with an innate capacity for learning language, it is through their significant
interactions with others that the development of language skills is facilitated.
Second Language Acquisition
Second language acquisition (SLA), otherwise known as sequential language acquisition, involves the
process of learning a second language, other than the one that the individual has first learned. It is believed
that for second language acquisition to be successful, exposure to the second language should ideally
occur before the onset of puberty and preferably in the home environment for greater opportunity to
practice the language.
Many theories have offered explanations as to how a second language is acquired, including the
behaviorist perspective which again proposes that learners imitate what they hear. The cognitive
perspective, on the other hand, suggests that learners use their cognitive skills in trial and error fashion to
independently figure out the patterns and rules of the second language.
The critical period hypothesis, in turn, supports the view that second language acquisition is most
successful only during the critical period of puberty, when the brain has not yet fully developed while the
natural order hypothesis perceives SLA as a process that occurs in a consistent, universal and predictable
order, following the same patterns as learning the first language.
As a subject having an interdisciplinary nature, the field of second language acquisition still holds much to
be learned about the exact processes and factors involved in it.
2
THEORIES OF LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Over the last fifty years, several theories have been put forward to explain the process by which children
learn to understand and speak a language. They can be summarized as follows:
Theory Central Idea Individual with
theory
Behaviourist Children imitate adults. Their correct utterances are reinforced
when they get what they want or are praised.
Skinner
Innateness A child's brain contains special language-learning mechanisms at Chomsky
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birth.
Cognitive Language is just one aspect of a child's overall intellectual
development.
Piaget
Interaction This theory emphasises the interaction between children and their
care-givers.
Bruner
We shall consider each of these in turn. Before we do, it is important to recognise that they should not be
seen simply as conflicting theories, replacing each other in a sequence. Although Behaviourism is now
seen as offering only a very limited explanation, each theory has added to our overall understanding,
placing emphasis on different aspects of the process.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist psychologists developed their theories while carrying out a series of experiments on
animals. They observed that rats or birds, for example, could be taught to perform various tasks by
encouraging habit-forming. Researchers rewarded desirable behaviour. This was known as positive
reinforcement. Undesirable behaviour was punished or simply not rewarded - negative reinforcement.
The behaviourist B. F. Skinner then proposed this theory as an explanation for language acquisition in
humans. In Verbal Behaviour (1957), he stated:
"The basic processes and relations which give verbal behaviour its special characteristics are now
fairly well understood. Much of the experimental work responsible for this advance has been
carried out on other species, but the results have proved to be surprisingly free of species
restrictions. Recent work has shown that the methods can be extended to human behaviour
without serious modifications."
(cited in Lowe and Graham, 1998, p68)
Skinner suggested that a child imitates the language of its parents or carers. Successful attempts are
rewarded because an adult who recognises a word spoken by a child will praise the child and/or give it
what it is asking for. Successful utterances are therefore reinforced while unsuccessful ones are forgotten.
Limitations of Behaviourism
While there must be some truth in Skinner's explanation, there are many objections to it.
Language is based on a set of structures or rules, which could not be worked out simply by imitating
individual utterances. The mistakes made by children reveal that they are not simply imitating but actively
working out and applying rules. For example, a child who says "drinked" instead of "drank" is not
copying an adult but rather over-applying a rule. The child has discovered that past tense verbs are
formed by adding a /d/ or /t/ sound to the base form. The "mistakes" occur because there are irregular
verbs which do not behave in this way. Such forms are often referred to as intelligent mistakes or
virtuous errors.
The vast majority of children go through the same stages of language acquisition. There appears to be a
definite sequence of steps. We refer to developmental milestones. Apart from certain extreme cases (see
the case of Genie), the sequence seems to be largely unaffected by the treatment the child receives or the
type of society in which s/he grows up.
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16 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
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Children are often unable to repeat what an adult says, especially if the adult utterance contains a
structure the child has not yet started to use. The classic demonstration comes from the American
psycholinguist David McNeill. The structure in question here involves negating verbs:
Child: Nobody don't like me
Mother: No, say, "Nobody likes me."
Child: Nobody don't like me.
(Eight repetitions of this dialogue)
Mother: No, now listen carefully: say, "Nobody likes me."
Child: Oh! Nobody don't likes me.
(McNeil in The Genesis of Language, 1966)
Few children receive much explicit grammatical correction. Parents are more interested in politeness
and truthfulness. According to Brown, Cazden and Bellugi (1969): "It seems to be truth value rather
than well-formed syntax that chiefly governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents - which renders
mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is
highly grammatical but not notably truthful." (cited in Lowe and Graham, 1998)
There is evidence for a critical period for language acquisition. Children who have not acquired
language by the age of about seven will never entirely catch up. The most famous example is that of
Genie, discovered in 1970 at the age of 13. She had been severely neglected, brought up in isolation and
deprived of normal human contact. Of course, she was disturbed and underdeveloped in many ways.
During subsequent attempts at rehabilitation, her carers tried to teach her to speak. Despite some success,
mainly in learning vocabulary, she never became a fluent speaker, failing to acquire the grammatical
competence of the average five-year-old.
Innateness
Noam Chomsky published a criticism of the behaviourist theory in 1957. In addition to some of the
arguments listed above, he focused particularly on the impoverished language input children receive.
Adults do not typically speak in grammatically complete sentences. In addition, what the child hears is
only a small sample of language.
Chomsky concluded that children must have an inborn faculty for language acquisition. According to
this theory, the process is biologically determined - the human species has evolved a brain whose neural
circuits contain linguistic information at birth. The child's natural predisposition to learn language is
triggered by hearing speech and the child's brain is able to interpret what s/he hears according to the
underlying principles or structures it already contains. This natural faculty has become known as the
Language Acquisition Device (LAD). Chomsky did not suggest that an English child is born knowing
anything specific about English, of course. He stated that all human languages share common principles.
(For example, they all have words for things and actions - nouns and verbs.) It is the child's task to
establish how the specific language s/he hears expresses these underlying principles.
For example, the LAD already contains the concept of verb tense. By listening to such forms as
"worked", "played" and "patted", the child will form the hypothesis that the past tense of verbs is formed
by adding the sound /d/, /t/ or /id/ to the base form. This, in turn, will lead to the "virtuous errors"
mentioned above. It hardly needs saying that the process is unconscious. Chomsky does not envisage the
small child lying in its cot working out grammatical rules consciously!
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17 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Chomsky's ground-breaking theory remains at the centre of the debate about language acquisition.
However, it has been modified, both by Chomsky himself and by others. Chomsky's original position was
that the LAD contained specific knowledge about language. Dan Isaac Slobin has proposed that it may
be more like a mechanism for working out the rules of language:
"It seems to me that the child is born not with a set of linguistic categories but with some sort of
process mechanism - a set of procedures and inference rules, if you will - that he uses to process
linguistic data. These mechanisms are such that, applying them to the input data, the child ends up
with something which is a member of the class of human languages. The linguistic universals,
then, are the result of an innate cognitive competence rather than the content of such a
competence."
(cited in Russell, 2001)
Evidence to support the innateness theory
Work in several areas of language study has provided support for the idea of an innate language faculty.
Three types of evidence are offered here:
1. Slobin has pointed out that human anatomy is peculiarly adapted to the production of speech.
Unlike our nearest relatives, the great apes, we have evolved a vocal tract which allows the
precise articulation of a wide repertoire of vocal sounds. Neuro-science has also identified specific
areas of the brain with distinctly linguistic functions, notably Broca's area and Wernicke's area.
Stroke victims provide valuable data: depending on the site of brain damage, they may suffer a
range of language dysfunction, from problems with finding words to an inability to interpret
syntax. Experiments aimed at teaching chimpanzees to communicate using plastic symbols or
manual gestures have proved controversial. It seems likely that our ape cousins, while able to learn
individual "words", have little or no grammatical competence. Pinker (1994) offers a good
account of this research.
2. The formation of creole varieties of English appears to be the result of the LAD at work. The
linguist Derek Bickerton has studied the formation of Dutch-based creoles in Surinam. Escaped
slaves, living together but originally from different language groups, were forced to communicate
in their very limited Dutch. The result was the restricted form of language known as a pidgin. The
adult speakers were past the critical age at which they could learn a new language fluently - they
had learned Dutch as a foreign language and under unfavourable conditions. Remarkably, the
children of these slaves turned the pidgin into a full language, known by linguists as a creole.
They were presumably unaware of the process but the outcome was a language variety which
follows its own consistent rules and has a full expressive range. Creoles based on English are also
found, in the Caribbean and elsewhere.
3. Studies of the sign languages used by the deaf have shown that, far from being crude gestures
replacing spoken words, these are complex, fully grammatical languages in their own right. A sign
language may exist in several dialects. Children learning to sign as a first language pass through
similar stages to hearing children learning spoken language. Deprived of speech, the urge to
communicate is realised through a manual system which fulfils the same function. There is even a
signing creole, again developed by children, in Nicaragua. For an account of this, see Pinker, 1994
(pp 36-7).
(Note: some of this section is derived from the BBC television documentary The Mind Machine.)
Limitations of Chomsky's theory
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Chomsky's work on language was theoretical. He was interested in grammar and much of his work
consists of complex explanations of grammatical rules. He did not study real children. The theory relies
on children being exposed to language but takes no account of the interaction between children and their
carers. Nor does it recognise the reasons why a child might want to speak, the functions of language.
In 1977, Bard and Sachs published a study of a child known as Jim, the hearing son of deaf parents. Jim's
parents wanted their son to learn speech rather than the sign language they used between themselves. He
watched a lot of television and listened to the radio, therefore receiving frequent language input.
However, his progress was limited until a speech therapist was enlisted to work with him. Simply being
exposed to language was not enough. Without the associated interaction, it meant little to him.
Subsequent theories have placed greater emphasis on the ways in which real children develop language to
fulfil their needs and interact with their environment, including other people.
The Cognitive Theory
The Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget placed acquisition of language within the context of a child's mental
or cognitive development. He argued that a child has to understand a concept before s/he can acquire the
particular language form which expresses that concept.
A good example of this is seriation. There will be a point in a child's intellectual development when s/he
can compare objects with respect to size. This means that if you gave the child a number of sticks, s/he
could arrange them in order of size. Piaget suggested that a child who had not yet reached this stage
would not be able to learn and use comparative adjectives like "bigger" or "smaller".
Object permanence is another phenomenon often cited in relation to the cognitive theory. During the first
year of life, children seem unaware of the existence of objects they cannot see. An object which moves
out of sight ceases to exist. By the time they reach the age of 18 months, children have realised that
objects have an existence independently of their perception. The cognitive theory draws attention to the
large increase in children's vocabulary at around this age, suggesting a link between object permanence
and the learning of labels for objects.
Limitations of the Cognitive Theory
During the first year to 18 months, connections of the type explained above are possible to trace but, as a
child continues to develop, so it becomes harder to find clear links between language and intellect. Some
studies have focused on children who have learned to speak fluently despite abnormal mental
development. Syntax in particular does not appear to rely on general intellectual growth.
Input or Interactionist Theories
In contrast to the work of Chomsky, more recent theorists have stressed the importance of the language
input children receive from their care-givers. Language exists for the purpose of communication and can
only be learned in the context of interaction with people who want to communicate with you.
Interactionists such as Jerome Bruner suggest that the language behaviour of adults when talking to
children (known by several names by most easily referred to as child-directed speech or CDS) is specially
adapted to support the acquisition process. This support is often described to as scaffolding for the child's
language learning. Bruner also coined the term Language Acquisition Support System or LASS in
response to Chomsky's LAD. Colwyn Trevarthen studied the interaction between parents and babies who
were too young to speak. He concluded that the turn-taking structure of conversation is developed
through games and non-verbal communication long before actual words are uttered.
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19 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
Limitations of Input theories
These theories serve as a useful corrective to Chomsky's early position and it seems likely that a child will
learn more quickly with frequent interaction. However, it has already been noted that children in all
cultures pass through the same stages in acquiring language. We have also seen that there are cultures in
which adults do not adopt special ways of talking to children, so CDS may be useful but seems not to be
essential.
As stated earlier, the various theories should not be seen simply as alternatives. Rather, each of them
offers a partial explanation of the process.
Languages, Dialects, Pidgins and Creoles
One of the greatest differences between a language and a dialect1 in most people’s minds is that the former
is bigger than the latter both with regard to the area it covers and the people who speak it. In other words,
languages are perceived to include several dialects. On this view, the English language would include the
varieties spoken in Edinburgh, Newcastle, New York, Atlanta, Sydney, Wellington, Jamaica, etc.
When we use the term the English language, what normally comes to mind is Standard English. Standard
languages are seen to have greater prestige than a dialect. Part of this prestige is due to the fact that they
have a written code while a dialect does not. So when we talk about German, French, Norwegian,
Chinese, Russian, etc. we are actually referring to the standard versions of these languages.
Hudson (1980: 32) sees the standard versions of a language as rather abnormal in that they are the result of
deliberate intervention by society. Standard languages are quite a modern invention and historically are
often due to the desire to distinguish one region or nation from another. Dialects, on the other hand,
generally develop without conscious development by the people who speak them. It is clear then that a
standard does not just appear.
The Language of the Rulers
First there is a selection process in which one particular variety is chosen. In the case of English, a variety
spoken by the monarchy, the nobility and bureaucrats within the triangle formed by London, Oxford and
Cambridge. Normally, a significant proportion of the population consciously or unconsciously accepts a
particular variety as the standard even though it is not the variety that they speak. It is quite common to
hear people who do not speak Standard English say things like “I can’t speak proper English”. The
selection process might take years and can involve coercion on the part of powerful members of society.
For example, in might not be possible to get certain jobs if one does not have a standard accent. Some
standard national languages are resisted by part of the population of a nation –normally because they
speak another variety of the same language or a different language. That is why some people say that a
language is a dialect with an army and a navy.
Printing Press Creates Standards
For a variety to become the standard there is always a codification process in which the correct forms and
meanings of words are recorded in dictionaries and the morphology and syntax of the language are
recorded in grammars. Caxton, who brought the printing press to England, was influential in setting a
written standard. He was a businessman at heart and standardizing spelling meant he could sell his books
all over the country.
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20 S. Jerald Sagaya Nathan, M.A., M. Phil., Set., Net., (Ph.D)., Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398
Sacred Heart English Academy, Salem – 07
At the same time the language is adapted so it can function in all the contexts found in a modern society,
such as government, science, law, etc. This has happened quite recently in the case of Catalan, for
example.
Standard Language is Also a Dialect
One of the results of the Standardization process is that one variety is given precedence over all the others.
In effect this means that varieties that are considered dialects are not as prestigious as the standard and are
not taught, for instance, at school. We should not forget, however, that even the standard is a dialect albeit
one with prestige. For linguists all varieties of a language are equally important and worthy of study.
Pidgins and Creoles
Pidgins are basically contact languages. They evolve between people who speak different languages and
need some way of communicating with each other to carry out trade or work. Many English pidgins were
created when slaves were shipped from the west coast of Africa to the colonies in the West Indies or the
United States. Pidgins are languages stripped of all but the bare necessities (Romaine 1988: 24). In other
words, they are normally very simple from a grammatical point of view.
Several linguists say that part of the evolution of English itself is due to language contact between the
Scandinavian conquerors from Sweden, Norway and Denmark in the Midlands and North of England2 and
the defeated Anglo-Saxon population. Both communities spoke different dialects of a common Germanic
ancestor language. Basically, the roots of the words were the same but the endings were different. It has
been put forward that this is the reason why English lost its case endings3 while other languages like
German, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, etc. kept them.
Creoles
A pidgin becomes a creole when it is learned as a first language of a new generation. From a linguistic
point of view, creoles are made up of a superstrate4 language such as English and one or more substrate
languages such as those of Western Africa. The creole is not limited to certain functions but takes on all
the functions needed by the speech community. Some creoles go through the same standardization process
described above for Standard English and become the vehicle for education, law and government. This is
the case of Afrikaans made up of a Dutch superstrate and English and Bantu substrates.
In countries in which Standard English exists alongside the creole, the former might exert pressure on the
latter. The process by which a creole becomes more like the standard superstrate is called decreolization.
In Jamaica, for example, one kind of creole, the acrolect, has become more and more like Standard
English. Other varieties of creole, called basilects, are very different from Standard English5. Between
these two extremes we find the mesolects (Bickerton 1975). There is no exact division between these
types but a continuum. Such a situation, in which different varieties of a language live side by side, is
quite normal. For example, many people in Newcastle are speakers of Standard English while most of the
population speaks what can be a very different variety of English called Geordie. Some English speakers
find Geordie very hard to understand indeed. Many people in England could be described as bilingual in
that they are able to switch from their local dialect to Standard English and vice-versa without any
difficulty6 and this is also the case in Jamaica and many parts of the English-Speaking world.
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SACRED HEART ENGLISH ACADEMY, SALEM – 07.
Cell: 9843287913/ 9629287913/ 9944118398 Page 76
Methods and Approaches to Language Teaching
The Grammar-Translation Method
The Classical or Grammar-Translation method represents the tradition of language teaching
adopted in western society and developed over centuries of teaching not only the classical
languages such as Latin and Greek, but also foreign languages.
The focus was on studying grammatical rules and morphology, doing written exercises,
memorizing vocabulary, translating texts from and prose passages into the language.
It remained popular in modern language pedagogy, even after the introduction of newer methods.
In America, the Coleman Report in 1929 recommended an emphasis on the skill of reading in
schools and colleges as it was felt at that time that there would be few opportunities to practise
the spoken language.
Goals
To be able to read literature in target language; learn grammar rules and vocabulary; develop
mental acuity.
Roles
Teacher has authority; students follow instructions to learn what teacher knows.
Teaching/Learning Process
Students learn by translating from one language to the other, often translating reading passages
in the target language to the native language. Grammar is usually learned deductively on the
basis of grammar rules and examples.
Students memorize the rules, then apply them to other examples.
They learn paradigms such as verb conjugations, and they learn the native language equivalents
of vocabulary words.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
Most interaction is teacher-to-student; student-initiated interaction and student-student
interaction is minimal.
Dealing with Feelings
n/a
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes
Vocabulary; grammar emphasize; reading, writing are primary skills; pronunciation and other
speaking/listening skills not emphasized.
Role of Students' Native Language
Native language provides key to meanings in the target language; native language is used freely
in class.
Means for Evaluation
Tests require translation from native to target and target to native language; applying grammar
rules, answering questions about foreign culture.
Response to Students' Errors
Heavy emphasis placed on correct answers; teacher supplies correct answers when students
cannot.
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The Direct Method
While Henri Gouin’s The Art of Learning and Studying Foreign Languages, published in 1880,
can be seen as the precursor of modern language teaching methods with its naturalistic approach,
the credit for popularising the Direct Method usually goes to Charles Berlitz, who marketed it as
the Berlitz Method.
The basic premise of the Direct Method was that one should attempt to learn a second language
in much the same way as children learn their first language.
The method emphasised oral interaction, spontaneous use of language, no translation between
first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammar rules.
Goals
To communicate in target language; to think in target language.
Roles
Teacher directs class activities, but students and teacher are partners in the teaching/learning process.
Teaching/Learning Process
Students are taught to associate meaning and the target language directly.
New target language words or phrases are introduced through the use of realia, pictures or
pantomime, never the native language.
Students speak in the target language a great deal and communicate as if in real situations.
Grammar rules are learned inductively – by generalizing from examples.
Students practice new vocabulary using words in sentences.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
Both teacher and students initiate interaction, though student-initiated interaction with teacher or
among each other, is usually teacher-directed.
Dealing with Feelings
n/a
View of Language, Culture
Language is primary spoken, not written. Students study common, everyday speech in the target
language.
Aspects of foreign culture are studied such as history, geography, daily life.
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes
Vocabulary emphasized over grammar; oral communication considered basic, with reading, writing
based on oral practice; pronunciation emphasized from outset.
Role of Students' Native Language
Not used in the classroom.
Means for Evaluation
Students tested through actual use, such as in oral interviews and assigned written paragraphs.
Response to Students' Errors
Self-correction encouraged whenever possible.
The Audio-Lingual Method
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The Audiolingual/Audiovisual Method is derived from "The Army Method," so called because it
was developed through a U.S. Army programme devised after World War II to produce speakers
proficient in the languages of friend and foes.
In this method, grounded in the habit formation model of behaviourist psychology and on a
Structural Linguistics theory of language, the emphasis was on memorisation through pattern
drills and conversation practices rather than promoting communicative ability.
Goals
Use the target language communicatively; over learn it, so as to be able to use it automatically by
forming new habits in the target language and overcoming native language habits.
Roles
Teacher directs, controls students' language behavior, provides good model for imitation; students
repeat, respond as quickly and accurately as possible.
Teaching/Learning Process
New vocabulary, structures presented through dialogs, which are learned through imitation,
repetition. Drills are based on patterns in dialog. Students' correct responses are positively
reinforced; grammar is induced from models.
Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogs or presented by the teacher. Reading, writing
tasks are based on oral work.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
Students interact during chain drills or when taking roles in dialogs, all at teacher's direction. Most
interaction is between teacher and student, initiated by teacher.
Dealing with Feelings
n/a
View of Language, Culture
Descriptive linguistics influence: every language seen as having its own unique system of
phonological, morphological, and syntactic patterns.
Method emphasizes everyday speech and uses a graded syllabus from simple to difficult linguistic
structures.
Culture comprises everyday language and behavior.
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes
Language structures emphasized; vocabulary contextualized in dialogs but is limited because
syntactic patterns are foremost; natural priority of skills – listening, speaking, reading, writing, with
emphasis on first two; pronunciation taught from beginning, often with language lab work and
minimal pair drills.
Role of Students' Native Language
Students' native language habits are considered as interfering, thus native language is not used in
classroom.
Contrastive analysis is considered helpful for determining points of interference.
Means for Evaluation
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Discrete-point tests in which students distinguish between words or provide an appropriate verb for a
sentence, etc.
Response to Students' Errors
Teachers strive to prevent student errors by predicting trouble spots and tightly controlling what they
teach students to say.
The Oral-Situational Approach
This resembles the Audiolingual approach as it is based on a structural syllabus but it emphasises
the meanings expressed by the linguistic structures, not just the forms, and also the situations or
contexts chosen to practice the structures.
It can be found in courses dating from the 1970s which are now criticised for not achieving the
hoped-for results.
As they were based on behaviourist psychology the Audio-method and Oral-situational approach
were limited by their neglect of cognitive learning.
The drill-based approach in the classroom re-emerged in early Computer Assisted Language
Learning (CALL) software where it was perceived to motivate pupils and develop autonomous
study and learning.
CALL is now more sophisticated and can foster cognitive learning as well.
Psychological Traditions
Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour.
Since the middle of the 20th century, psychological views of teaching and learning have been
dominated by Behaviourist and then Cognitive theory.
There is an abundance of sources describing and discussing these theories.
Behaviourism
The behaviourist view of learning emphasizes the repetitive conditioning of learner responses.
Behaviourism is based on the proposition that behaviour can be researched scientifically.
Learning is an automatic process which does not involve any cognitive processes in the brain.
Pavlov’s “Respondent Conditioning” results from the association of two stimuli, such as causing
dogs to salivate at the sound a tuning fork.
Skinner developed “Operant Conditioning” where the “Stimulus-Response” association is
elicited through selective reinforcement (rewards or punishments) to shape behaviour
o Behaviourist Learning Theory is a process of forming habits; the teacher controls the
learning environment and learners are empty vessels into which the teacher pours
knowledge.
o Behaviourist Language Theory is based upon Structuralist Linguistics and is identified
with the Audiolingual/ Audiovisual method, - associated with the use of rote learning
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with repetitive drills. Behaviourists argued that teachers could link together content
involving lower level skills and create a learning “chain” to teach higher skills.
Nevertheless, while circumstances and classroom practice might still benefit from such an
approach, the limitations of behaviourism are apparent as it lacks recognition of problem solving
and learning strategies.
Cognitivism
As a reaction to behaviourism, the "cognitive revolution" in the 1950s combined new thinking in
psychology, anthropology and linguistics with the emerging fields of computer science and
neuroscience.
Cognitive Learning Theory emphasized the learner’s cognitive activity, involving
reasoning and mental processes rather than habit formation
Cognitive Language Theory emerged from the Chomskyan Revolution which gave rise in
Language Method to Cognitive Code Learning, etc
Cognitive learning goes beyond the behaviourist learning of facts and skills, adding cognitive
apprenticeship to the learning process.
Learners are encouraged to work out rules deductively for themselves. It focuses on building a
learner’s experiences and providing learning tasks that can challenge, but also function as
“intellectual scaffolding” to help pupils learn and progress through the curriculum.
Broadly speaking, cognitive theory is interested in how people understand material, and thus in
aptitude and capacity to learn and learning styles
As such it is the basis of constructivism and can be placed somewhere in the middle of the scale
between behavioural and constructivist learning.
Chomsky
Noam Chomsky is identified with the Innatist or Nativist theory.
As seen in the discussion under the age factor, Chomsky claims that children are biologically
programmed to acquire language, as they are for other biological functions such as walking,
which a child normally learns without being taught.
While the environment supplies people who talk to the child, language acquisition is an
unconscious process.
The child activates the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), an innate capability or blueprint
that endows the child with the capability to develop speech from a universal grammar.
Cognitive Code Learning
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With the Chomskyan revolution in linguistics, the attention of linguists and language teachers
was drawn towards the “deep structure” of language and a more cognitive psychology.
Chomsky’s theory of Transformational-generative Grammar focused attention again on the rule-
governed nature of language and language acquisition rather than habit formation.
This gave rise in the 1960s to Cognitive Code Learning where learners were encouraged to
work out grammar rules deductively for themselves.
Alternative or ‘Designer’ methods
The 1970s saw the emergence of some alternative, less-commonly used methods and approaches,
such as Suggestopedia; The Silent Way; Total Physical Response.
The Silent Way
Goals
To use language for self-expression: to develop independence from the teacher, to develop inner
criteria for correctness.
Roles
Teaching should be subordinated to learning.
Teachers should give students only what they absolutely need to promote their learning.
Learners are responsible for their own learning.
Teaching/Learning Process
Students begin with sounds, introduced through association of sounds in native language to a sound-
color chart.
Teacher then sets up situations, often using Cuisenaire rods, to focus students' attention on
structures. Students interact as the situation requires.
Teachers see students' errors as clues to where the target language is unclear, and they adjust
instruction accordingly.
Students are urged to take responsibility for their learning.
Additional learning is thought to take place during sleep.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
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The teacher is silent much of the time, but very active setting up situations, listening to students,
speaking only to give clues, not to model speech. Student-student interaction is encouraged.
Dealing with feelings Teachers monitor students' feelings and actively try to prevent their feelings
from interfering with their learning.
Students express their feelings during feedback sessions after class.
View of Language, Culture
Language and culture are inseparable, and each language is seen to be unique despite similarities in
structure with other languages.
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes
All four skill areas worked on from beginning (reading, writing, speaking, listening); pronunciation
especially, because sounds are basic and carry the melody of the language.
Structural patterns are practiced in meaningful interactions.
Syllabus develops according to learning abilities and needs. Reading and writing exercises reinforce
oral learning.
Role of Students' Native Language
Although translation is not used at all, the native language is considered a resource because of the
overlap that is bound to exist between the two languages.
The teacher should take into account what the students already know.
Means for Evaluation
Assessment is continual; but only to determine continually changing learning needs.
Teachers observe students' ability to transfer what they have learned to new contexts.
To encourage the development of inner criteria, neither praise nor criticism is offered.
Students are expected to learn at different rates, and to make progress, not necessarily speak
perfectly in the beginning.
Response to Students' Errors
Errors are inevitable, a natural, indispensable part of learning.
Suggestopedia
Goals
To learn, at accelerated pace, a foreign language for everyday communication by tapping mental
powers, overcoming psychological barriers.
Roles
Teacher has authority, commands trust and respect of students; teacher “desuggests” negative
feelings and limits to learning; if teacher succeeds in assuming this role, students assume childlike
role, spontaneous and uninhibited.
Teaching/Learning Process
Students learn in a relaxing environment.
They choose a new identity (name, occupation) in the target language and culture.
They use texts of dialogs accompanied by translations and notes in their native language.
Each dialog is presented during two musical concerts; once with the teacher matching his or her
voice to the rhythm and pitch of the music while students follow along.
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The second time, the teacher reads normally and students relax and listen.
At night and on waking, the students read it over.
Then students gain facility with the new material through activities such as dramatizations, games,
songs, and question-and-answer sessions.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
At first, teacher initiates all interaction and students respond only nonverbally or with a few words in
target language that they have practiced.
Eventually, students initiate interaction. Students interact with each other throughout, as directed by
teacher.
Dealing with Feelings
Great importance is placed on students' feelings, in making them feel confident and relaxed, in
“desuggesting” their psychological barriers.
View of Language, Culture
Language is one plane; nonverbal parts of messages are another.
Culture includes everyday life and fine arts.
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes Vocabulary emphasized some explicit grammar.
Students focus on communicative use rather than form; reading, writing also have place.
Role of Students' Native Language
Translation clarifies dialogs' meaning; teacher uses native language, more at first than later, when
necessary.
Means for Evaluation
Students' normal in-class performance is evaluated.
There are no tests, which would threaten relaxed environment.
Response to Students' Errors
Errors are not immediately corrected; teacher models correct forms later during class.
Community Language Learning
Goals
To learn language communicatively, to take responsibility for learning, to approach the task
nondefensively, never separating intellect from feelings.
Roles
Teacher acts as counselor, supporting students with understanding of their struggle to master
language in often threatening new learning situation.
Student is at first a dependent client of the counselor and becomes increasingly independent through
five specified stages.
Teaching/Learning Process
Nondefensively learning requires six elements: security, aggression (students have opportunities to
assert, involve themselves), attention, reflection (students think about both the language and their
experience learning it), retention, and discrimination (sorting out differences among target language
forms).
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
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Both students and teacher make decisions in the class.
Sometimes the teacher directs action, other times the students interact independently.
A spirit of cooperation is encouraged.
Dealing with Feelings
Teacher routinely probes for students' feelings about learning and shows understanding, helping
them overcome negative feelings.
View of Language, Culture
Language is for communication, a medium of interpersonal sharing and belonging, and creative
thinking.
Culture is integrated with language.
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes
At first, since students design syllabus, they determine aspects of language studied; later teacher may
bring in published texts.
Particular grammar, pronunciation points are treated, and particular vocabulary based on students'
expressed needs.
Understanding and speaking are emphasized, though reading and writing have a place.
Role of Students' Native Language
Use of native language enhances students' security.
Students have conversations in their native language; target language translations of these become
the text around which subsequent activities revolve. Also, instructions and sessions for expressing
feelings are in native language.
Target language is used progressively more.
Where students do not share the same native language, the target language is used from the outset,
though alternatives such as pantomime are also used.
Means for Evaluation
No specific means are recommended, but adherence to principles is urged.
Teacher would help students prepare for any test required by school, integrative tests would be
preferred over discrete-point tests; self-evaluation would be encouraged, promoting students'
awareness of their own progress.
Response to Students' Errors
Nonthreatening style is encouraged; modeling of correct forms.
Total Physical Response Method
Goals
To provide an enjoyable learning experience, having a minimum of the stress that typically
accompanies learning a foreign language.
Roles
At first the teacher gives commands and students follow them. Once students are “ready to speak,”
they take on directing roles.
Teaching/Learning Process
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Lessons begin with commands by the teacher; students demonstrate their understanding by acting
these out; teacher recombines their instructions in novel and often humorous ways; eventually
students follow suit.
Activities later include games and skits.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
Teacher interacts with individual students and with the group, starting with the teacher speaking and
the students responding nonverbally.
Later this is reversed; students issue commands to teacher as well as to each other.
Dealing with Feelings
The method was developed principally to reduce the stress associated with language learning;
students are not forced to speak before they are ready and learning is made as enjoyable as possible,
stimulating feelings of success and low anxiety.
View of Language, Culture
Oral modality is primary; culture is the lifestyle of native speakers of the target language.
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes
Grammatical structures and vocabulary are emphasized, imbedded in imperatives.
Understanding precedes production; spoken language precedes the written word.
Role of Students' Native Language
Method is introduced in students' native language, but rarely used later in course.
Meaning is made clear through actions.
Means for Evaluation
Teachers can evaluate students through simple observation of their actions.
Formal evaluation is achieved by commanding a student to perform a series of actions.
Response to Students' Errors
Students are expected to make errors once they begin speaking. Teachers only correct major error,
and do this unobtrusively. “Fine-tuning” occurs later.
The Communicative Approach
Goals
To become communicatively competent, able to use language appropriate for a given social context;
to manage the process of negotiating meaning with interlocutors.
Roles
Teacher facilitates students' learning by managing classroom activities, setting up communicative
situations.
Students are communicators, actively engaged in negotiating meaning.
Teaching/Learning Process
Activities are communicative—they represent an information gap that needs to be filled; speakers
have a choice of what to say and how to say it; they receive feedback from the listener that will
verify that a purpose has been achieved.
Authentic materials are used. Students usually work in small groups.
Interaction: Student-Teacher & Student-Student
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Teacher initiates interactions between students and participates sometimes.
Students interact a great deal with each other in many configurations.
Dealing with Feelings
Emphasis is on developing motivation to learn through establishing meaningful, purposeful things to
do with the target language.
Individuality is encouraged, as well as cooperation with peers, which both contribute to sense of
emotional security with the target language.
View of Language, Culture
Language is for communication.
Linguistic competence must be coupled with an ability to convey intended meaning appropriately in
different social contexts.
Culture is the everyday lifestyle of native speakers of the target language.
Nonverbal behavior is important.
Aspects of Language the Approach Emphasizes
Functions are emphasized over forms, with simple forms learned for each function at first, then more
complex forms.
Students work at discourse level.
They work on speaking, listening, reading, and writing from the beginning.
Consistent focus on negotiated meaning.
Role of Students' Native Language
Students' native language usually plays no role.
Means for Evaluation
Informal evaluation takes place when teacher advises or communicates; formal evaluation is by
means of an integrative test with a real communicative function.
Response to Students' Errors
Errors of form are considered natural; students with incomplete knowledge can still succeed as
communicators.
Edward Anthony’s tripartite distinction of Approach, Method and Technique (Anthony: 1963)
helps in the distinction of “Method”.
This distinction was developed and recast by Richards and Rodgers (1982, 1985) as Approach,
Design and Procedure, encompassed within the overall concept of Method, “an umbrella term
for the specification and interrelation of theory and practice” (Richards & Rodgers 1985: 16)
where,
o Approach refers to the beliefs and theories about language, language learning and
teaching that underlie a method
o Design relates the theories of language and learning to the form and function of teaching
materials and activities in the classroom;
o Procedure concerns the techniques and practices employed in the classroom as
consequences of particular approaches and designs.
o
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Journalism and Creative Writing in English
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