Parking Lots to Parks Kansas City

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concepts in sustainable parking-lot planning and design

introduction Chances are, you pass by dozens every day. Most days,

you use one or more. And you probably don’t spend much time at all considering to what extent parking lots make up the Kansas City region's urban and suburban landscapes.

Parking lots have a significant impact on consumers' transportation habits, the local economy and the environment. Parking provides accessibility and independence that allows residents to choose where they live, work and play. Although some amount of parking is essential, how much parking to supply is a question with which many communities struggle.

When the automobile first became widely popular, too little parking was a problem. Not enough parking causes crowding and congestion, upsets business owners and increases time spent getting to a destination. But more recently, too much parking has become a problem. In the Kansas City region, large masses of unoccupied parking are left unused for days, weeks or even months. This underutilized infrastructure has both direct and indirect impacts on the environment. Vast expanses of asphalt contribute to the urban heat island effect, a warming pattern induced by man-made structures. Surface parking lots also impact the region’s air and water quality, and increase stormwater runoff and the risk of flooding.

The Kansas City region comprises 4,423 square miles, more than 840 of which is developed land. Although downtowns generally have higher amounts of parking than suburban and rural areas, in general, 10 percent of regions' urban areas are

More than 20 percent of the land cover in downtown Kansas City, Mo., is made up of off-street parking. This does not account for on-street parking or underground parking garages — in reality the amount of parking downtown is much greater. The map above highlights major surface lots.

typically devoted to parking.1 A study by the Houston Advanced Research Center found that 15 percent of Houston’s developed area is dedicated to parking.2 If a similar 10–15 percent of the Kansas City region’s developable area is dedicated to parking lots, the region could have as much as 126 square miles of parking.

Besides taking up land that could be used for other purposes, an oversupply of parking has indirect effects. Expanses of free parking can mask the true cost of driving and discourage alternative modes of transportation, such as transit and cycling.

Parking is often called the link between transportation and land-use planning. Although regions are required by federal law to develop long-range transportation plans, parking is guided primarily by local needs and development. Developing sustainable regions must not only consider regional and local assets, but also how those assets can be accessed by the public. Sustainable parking policies encourage parking lots that not only lessen their environmental impacts, but produce a healthier society and economy.

This guide looks at parking strategies that aim to reduce overall demand for parking, as well as design guidelines that reduce the direct impacts of parking lots. Sustainable parking policy has been discussed by professionals throughout the region for the past year and a half. Through workshops, case studies, national examples, conceptualizing local plans and research, these professionals from varied backgrounds collaborated and formed the Parking Lots to Parks Task Force. This document reflects their recommendations and findings.

parking lots to parks project conceptGoal: Add more green space, or "parks," throughout the region by redesigning parking lots to make them more sustainable

Baseline: 51 square miles of parks, up to 126 square miles of parking

Parks provide many benefits — including reduced air temperature, stormwater filtration, and cleaner air and water — that do not exist for most traditional parking lots. Parks are designed for people, not for cars.

Making the region's existing parking lots more sustainable will help offset the impacts parking lots have and create greener, healthier environments.

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sustainable parking: a snapshot of issues and solutions

the environmental issueParking lots are often made up of large expanses of dark asphalt, which absorb sunlight and increase air and surface temperatures. Increased temperatures lead to more energy used to keep buildings cool, increased amounts of ozone pollution, and decreased health and comfort. As the region loses green space to pavement, it also creates large areas through which water can no longer filter. This contributes to flash flooding, degraded water quality, and stream and river erosion.

plant shade treesShade trees combat many of these problems by blocking sunlight and reducing surface and air temperatures. Requiring shade trees in parking lots is one of the best solutions for reducing the negative effects of large amounts of paved surfaces.

the space issueParking lots are often built too large, and are therefore vacant most of the time. Vast amounts of vacant parking are not only an eyesore, they’re also a barrier for pedestrians and cyclists, who often can’t cross them safely. Parking lots can also obscure storefronts. These types of developments are difficult to serve by transit, which further encourages automobile use.

set maximum parking ratiosThe easiest way to cut down on the oversupply of parking is to set maximum parking ratios, which set an upper limit on parking.

the price issueThe majority of parking is “free.” But rather than paying directly for parking, consumers pay for it indirectly through higher rent on apartments, increased sale prices, or reduced paychecks. This hides the economic and social costs of driving and perpetuates the cycle that supports auto-travel subsidies, leaving other modes of transportation struggling to catch up.

uncover the costsBy supporting alternative transportation, such as transit and bicycle/pedestrian facilities, consumers can begin to reduce dependence on cars. Reducing free parking near transit stops and pedestrian-friendly nodes helps support other transportation modes.

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impacts of parking economic impactsParking is anything but free, but in many places, consumers often pay nothing to park; the cost of parking is hidden by charging higher prices for everything else. Donald Shoup, professor of urban planning at the University of California–Los Angeles notes that “we unknowingly support our cars with almost every commercial transaction we make because a small share of the money changing hands pays for parking.”3

Parking is only one of the many ways the region continues to subsidize auto travel. As Greater Kansas City works to make alternative modes of transportation viable, it should consider strategies that unmask the cost of parking.

social impactsSubsidizing auto transportation perpetuates a cycle of dependence on the car, which not all citizens can afford. If you live in a home, you probably have a place to park a vehicle — or several. You probably didn’t have to request this space, but you are paying for it whether you use it or not. Most homeowners who don’t own cars still have to pay for the additional land space and square footage used to house a car.

Although the cost of surface lots varies considerably across the U.S., studies show that the construction of a single surface parking space could range from $2,000–$8,000.


environmental impactsUrban Heat Island Effect

Without landscaping and trees, sunlight beats down on dark pavement in parking lots, adding to the urban heat island effect. The effect refers to the increased temperature that urban environments experience over their grassier, rural counterparts. The reduced vegetation and concentration of dark, heat-absorbing materials, such as pavement and building materials, can raise the temperature of an urban environment up to 22 degrees above that of comparable countryside. These increased temperatures lead to a number of problems including:

• Increased energy consumption. Peak utility loads can increase 1.5–2 percent for every 1 degree increase in temperature.5

• Thermal water pollution

• Increased ozone pollution

• Compromised human health and comfort

Parking lots constructed with dark materials and without vegetation play a large role in contributing to the urban heat island effect.

Air Quality

Parked cars emit evaporative hydrocarbons that contribute to ozone pollution. The warmer a car’s fuel tank at rest, the greater amount of emissions it produces — which is why fighting the urban heat island effect is so important. Exposure

Unshaded asphalt surfaces can reach temperatures of 160 degrees, more than twice as hot as vegetated surfaces with moist soil.4


to even low levels of ozone pollution has been shown to cause a number of breathing problems, particularly in urban areas where exposure occurs consistently over a long period of time. Some of the ways that ozone pollution affects health include:

• Irritation of the respiratory system

• Reduced lung function

• Difficulty breathing

• Worsened asthma symptoms

• Damage to the lining of the lungs

Roughly one out of three people in the U.S. are at risk of experiencing ozone-related health effects.6 Children, seniors and adults who work outdoors are among the most susceptible populations. The Environmental Protection Agency is in the process of strengthening ozone standards due to increased understanding about the health risks of ground-level ozone. The region has struggled to meet ozone standards for decades, and with stricter standards on the way, it is important that strategies to reduce harmful emissions be considered.

Stormwater Volume and Impaired Water Quality

Parking lots are typically constructed out of impervious surfaces — those that do not allow water to penetrate through to the soil below. Instead of being absorbed into the soil, water runs into storm drains that funnel stormwater into nearby streams. This prevents groundwater recharge, increases pollution in streams, increases the risk of flooding, and erodes stream banks. Decreasing the amount of impervious surfaces

One small parking lot with 145 spots can generate as much as 34,000 gallons of stormwater during a single Kansas City rainstorm.


the region constructs can reduce flooding, allow soil and vegetation to filter pollution, and help reduce the urban heat island effect.

Parking lots, with their expansive amounts of impervious surface, can lead to more frequent and severe flooding, and as a result, decreased water quality. Flooding is the second most common natural disaster across the country, second only to fire. Since 1993, the region has suffered a cumulative total of 14 deaths, $49 million in crop damages and $111.6 million in property damage as a result of floods.7 The most common and dangerous type of flood is a flash flood, which is generally caused by brief, heavy rainfall. Parking areas have a high amount of pollution from vehicle leaks, so it is important to manage stormwater runoff from lots appropriately.

Parts of Kansas City, Mo., and Wyandotte County have combined sewer systems. Stormwater runoff entering storm drains within these communities mixes with raw sewage and gets cleaned before returning to rivers. With combined sewer systems, because of the large amount of impervious surfaces, rain events often cause a sudden increase in stormwater runoff, causing runoff mixed with raw sewage to back up and overflow.

A flash flood on Brush Creek in July 2010 illustrates the importance of managing stormwater wisely.

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influences on parkingThe amount and quality of parking lots throughout the Kansas

City region is a result of everyday decisions. If everyone chooses to drive a vehicle daily, the demand for places to store those vehicles increases. If people choose to ride a bike or take the bus, demand for parking lots decreases. In addition to consumer decisions, parking policy and guidelines are set forth in local communities’ zoning codes. The region’s landscape contains a patchwork of parking policies from the 120 cities that make up the metro area.

This section examines topics — including travel trends and parking policies — that help explain why the region has the parking lots it does today.

population and densityThere are about 1.9 million people living in Greater Kansas City, and those residents are spread across about 4,423 square miles. In the last several decades, population in the region has shifted further away from the urban core. The region has consistently maintained one of the lowest population densities in the nation, and its location in the Great Plains has allowed it to consume the plentiful, inexpensive land around it. The way Greater Kansas City develops across its landscape affects the region’s travel trends, and in turn, the supply and demand of parking.

The average Kansas City resident travels 29 miles per day, which puts the city among the top 15 U.S. cities of its size for most miles traveled daily per capita.8


travel patternsThe relationship between where the region’s 1.9 million residents live and where they work greatly impacts the need for parking. Although populations continue to shift outward, downtown remains a large employment hub. Significant employment corridors also exist along I-35 and College Boulevard in Johnson County. Although some individuals live close enough to walk to work, most of the region does not have that option. In 2008, 82 percent of commuters in the Kansas City region traveled to work by driving alone.

Supplying free parking reinforces single-occupancy vehicle trips. The region’s low-density development pattern also impacts the number of vehicle trips in the region and the distance traveled on each of those trips. Land-use and transportation patterns necessitate a large amount of transportation infrastructure to serve the area. The Kansas City region holds the national record for greatest number of lane-miles per capita. This infrastructure correlates with low traffic congestion and the ability to travel further, faster.

The spatial mismatch between population and employment, as well as the well-established highway infrastructure, correlates with high per-capita vehicle miles traveled. In fact, the region has a 20 percent higher-than-average auto travel rate than other metropolitan areas its size.

alternative transportationTransportation is the second-largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S., accounting for 27 percent of emissions

In 2008, 82 percent of commuters in the Kansas City region traveled to work by driving alone.

since 1990.9 The region’s rate of walking and bicycling as a percent of trips is about one-half the national average. Although these figures did increase from 1990 to 2004, they are still increasing at half the rate of the national average. The region also has a patchwork of different transit providers. Only 2 percent of the population traveled to work by transit in 2008.

But the decision to use alternative transportation cannot happen if opportunities aren’t made available. Currently only 42 percent of the region’s population has transit available within a half-mile — about a 10-minute walk.

planning and policyBoth regional and local policies impact parking and the region’s overall transportation system. Transportation Outlook 2040, the region’s long-range transportation plan, guides transportation infrastructure decisions based on a regional vision and goals. At the local level, zoning codes guide land-use decisions. Coordinated land-use planning is key for the success of a regional vision.

Zoning codes in cities throughout the region affect both the amount of parking and the design of parking. Most cities determine parking supply by requiring a minimum number of parking spaces for different types of development. The design of parking lots is often guided by parking stall-size requirements and interior landscaping requirements. These policies are key in influencing daily modal choice and urban design throughout the region.

Currently only 42 percent of the region’s population has transit available within a half-mile — about a 10-minute walk.


Transportation Outlook 2040 goals

Local Parking PolicyTraditional Challenges Opportunities

Accessibility Maximize mobility and access to opportunities for all residents.

Providing too much parking encourages car use and discourages alternative travel.

Maximum parking requirements make other modes of transportation — such as walking, biking and transit — more viable options.

Climate Change and Energy Use Decrease fossil fuel use by reducing travel demand, supporting technology advancements and making the transition to renewable energy.

Parking availability increases energy and fossil-fuel use by encouraging driving.

Economic Vitality Support an innovative, competitive economy.

Too much parking wastes money on land and maintenance. Free parking itself creates no local tax revenue.

Turning parking lots into parks or other community assets can create new opportunities to generate revenue.

Environment Protect and restore the region’s natural resources through proactive environmental stewardship.

Traditional parking-lot design often does not mitigate environmental impacts.

Green parking-lot design — such as adding shade trees and energy-friendly lighting — reduces the impact parking has on the environment.

Place Making Coordinate transportation and land-use planning to create quality places in existing and developing areas.

An abundance of unused parking does not contribute to a place’s identity.

Changing the location of parking lots from the front of a building to the side or back creates inviting storefronts.

Public Health Facilitate healthy, active living.Free parking encourages driving over walking or taking alternative transportation.

Maximum parking requirements and altering the location of parking makes alternative, active transportation more viable.

Safety and Security Improve safety and security for all transportation users.

Parking lots are often unsafe environments for pedestrians.

Lighting levels and the location of parking in relation to development help provide safety and security for pedestrians.

System Condition Ensure the transportation system is in good condition.

Large, underused parking lots create maintenance traps.

Constructing fewer new parking lots saves money, which can be used to better maintain existing infrastructure.

System Performance Manage the system to achieve reliable and efficient performance.

Without knowing the current supply of parking and what percent is actually used, the region continues to pave more than it needs.

Look for innovative ways to use and retrofit existing parking lots.

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the road to sustainable parkingThis section identifies a few of the many strategies that the

region could consider to reduce parking supply and demand. Several of these strategies are already in action or have been recently put into place by area cities. Some of those projects are noted where applicable.

The first step toward sustainable parking is to ensure that too much parking is not built, and the second is to reduce demand for parking.

reducing parking supplyMaximum Parking Requirements

Flexible Parking Options

Shared Parking

Landscaped Reserves

reducing demand for parkingTransit Investment and Transit-Oriented Design

Unbundling Parking

Bicycle Requirements

Traditional surface parking lots are part of Kansas City's landscape. But do they need to be?


maximum parking requirementsWhat is it?

A maximum parking ratio establishes a maximum amount of parking that can be built for a particular development. Maximum parking ratios work the same way minimum ratios do — by setting out a parking ratio based on land use that cannot be exceeded. Maximum parking ratios can work independently or in conjunction with minimum parking ratios.

Why change?

The opposite of maximum ratios, minimum ratios were adopted by most communities in the 1950s and 1960s as the first form of parking requirements. Minimum parking ratios worked for a long time doing the job they were intended to do: ensuring the growing number of automobiles had a place to park. Today, the region faces a different problem than it did a half-century ago: too much parking.

Minimum parking ratios often require more parking than is needed. There are two main reasons for this. The first is that they often do not reflect actual demand for parking. Some cities implemented parking ratios many years ago and haven’t updated them. Other communities use national ratio standards or copy other cities’ requirements when looking for minimums, which do not accurately reflect demand in their community.

Another reason minimum parking ratios are inefficient is that they reflect peak demand rather than typical or average demand. A retail store for instance, may be required to provide

Businesses that supplement on-street parking with smaller lots help communities make the most out of surrounding land.

enough parking for customers shopping on the busiest day of the year, rather than an average day. This leaves the majority of parking spaces sitting vacant a most of the time.

Another problem with minimum parking ratios is that they encourage more parking than needed. Developers often build two to three times the amount of parking required; but sometimes, this is due to the fact that many lenders require additional parking. Local regulations for maximum parking could help respond to this challenge.

Maximum parking ratios can be particularly beneficial in suburban settings, where “big box” developments routinely overbuild their parking supply. But communities hesitant to relinquish minimum parking requirements have the ability to develop maximum parking ratios as well. By keeping minimum ratios and establishing maximum ratios, communities provide a comfortable range that developers can build within while ensuring developers provide enough — but not too much — parking.

Local examples

The cities of Leawood and Liberty both have maximum parking requirements in place. Leawood does not allow more parking than the minimum requirements without approval. In other words, the city’s parking ratios function both as minimum and maximum requirements. Liberty requires developments not to exceed 150 percent of the minimum parking requirements.

The value of the free-parking subsidy to cars was at least $127 billion in 2002, and possibly much more.3


shared parkingWhat is it?

Shared parking reduces minimum parking requirements for new development in close proximity to another parking lot or lots that are being used at different peak-demand periods. For instance, an office building near a restaurant or bar provides an opportunity for shared parking arrangements. Office buildings experience most of their business during weekday business hours, and a restaurant or bar experiences peak demand on nights and weekends.

Why change?

No parking lot is full around the clock. Most parking lots have a specific time that they receive the majority of their use. There are few reasons why two businesses or organizations located next to one another cannot share parking. Shared parking reduces the overall amount of land dedicated to parking, providing more efficient use of that land and saving space for other amenities.

Local examples

Across the region, shared parking policies are much more prevalent than many other sustainable parking practices. About half of communities that participated in a regional survey had some form of shared parking policy.

Three restaurants sharing the same lot still makes for plentiful parking in downtown Kansas City, Mo.

landscaped parking reservesWhat are they?

Landscaped parking reserves allow for a percentage of required parking to be left as landscaping, or a land bank, to be developed if and when the full amount of parking is needed.

Why change?

Many types of development do not experience their anticipated demand immediately, but rather slowly over time. Other types of developments are completed in phases, which can take years. Landscaped reserves are a viable option that allow for increased demand over time.

Sometimes, the demand for parking on a site is not really known, and providing a landscaped reserve can allow jurisdictions to provide less parking while feeling comfortable about having options to expand parking in the future. Building uses and demand for parking can change over time regardless of how a parking lot is built the first time. Landscaped reserves help communities supply less parking, especially when there are still concerns about running out in the future.

Local examples

Several cities across the region are managing space effectively; Excelsior Springs, Mission and Harrisonville all allow for landscaped reserves.

Building uses and demand for parking can change over time regardless of how a parking lot is built the first time.


transit investments and transit-oriented development (TOD) What is it?

Investing in transit and policies that support transit is one of the most effective ways to reduce demand for parking. This can be done by investing directly in transit services and amenities, or by encouraging TODs or location-efficient “pedestrian pockets,” which contain a mix of different types of development around a transit station.

Why change?

Transit services have to compete with the automobile, which is heavily subsidized. To give transit a chance to succeed, parking supplies must be reduced around transit investments. Several cities within the region have created overlay districts, which encourage TOD or pedestrian-friendly environments. Eliminating or reducing parking within these districts is key to their success.

Local examples

The city of Kansas City, Mo., allows for a reduction in parking for lots located within 500 feet of a rapid-transit stop. Other cities, such as Lenexa, allow for a reduction when a developer can show that a portion of parking demand is met by transit.

Pedestrian- and transit-friendly areas like this one in the Kansas City, Mo., Jazz District encourage the use of transportation modes other than cars.


unbundling parkingWhat is it?

“Unbundling” parking means separating the cost of parking from other expenses that are often lumped together. A common example is renting an apartment, where the cost of renting a parking space is included as part of the price of renting the apartment. Unbundled parking would provide consumers the option of also renting a parking space rather than having it included in the rent cost.

Why?

The cost of parking is generally lumped in with other costs, masking the true price of parking. Unbundled parking allows individuals to not only realize the true cost of parking, but to decide for themselves whether or not to pay for parking. Unbundled parking is a great strategy in urban areas where individuals may bike or choose transit rather than owning their own vehicles.

National example

A condominium development located only a block from the MetroLink public transit system in St. Louis sold parking spaces separately from the units. The development found that 20–25 percent of buyers, when offered the choice, opted not to purchase a parking space.10

On-street parking for residents is one example of how the cost of parking can be separated from costs that traditionally include hidden parking fees, such as rent.


bicycle requirementsWhat are they?

Requiring bicycle facilities on-site is another way to reduce demand for parking. More communities than ever are now requiring a minimum number of bicycle facilities based on the number of spaces allotted for vehicles.

Why change?

Providing bicycle facilities not only guarantees individuals a place to park their bikes, but generally provides an atmosphere that is more welcoming to cyclists and pedestrians, making it easier to choose not to rely on an automobile.

Local examples

The city of Independence requires bicycle parking to be provided in the amount of 5 percent of the obligated off-street parking. Residential uses do not mandate bicycle parking, but schools, libraries and swimming pools require an increased amount of 10 percent of the obligated off-street parking.

The city of Kansas City, Mo., makes the distinction between short- and long-term bicycle parking. In addition to the design of the bicycle parking, Kansas City lays out size and location requirements for both short- and long-term parking.

Ample bike parking is an essential part of encouraging the use of alternative transportation.

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sustainable parking designOnce investigation ensures that parking is not being

oversupplied, the next step is improving the design of new and existing parking lots. Although communities can be planned with reduced need for off-street parking, accessible parking is still necessary to ensure consumer satisfaction and economic viability. But to be sustainable, parking-lot design must reduce the detrimental effect parking lots often have on the environment.

Several concepts are covered in this section:

Shade-Tree Ordinances

Reduce Parking Dimensions

Cool Pavements

Bioretention

Efficient Lighting and Energy Use

Smart design can make a big difference in the environmental impact of a parking lot.


shade-tree ordinancesWhat are they?

Requiring that shade trees be planted throughout the interior and exterior rim of parking lots cools pavement and the vehicles parked there. Shade-tree ordinances come in different forms but the most common are:

• Requiring a percentage of parking lots to be shaded after tree maturity (typically 10–15 years)

• Requiring a minimum number of trees be planted per number of parking spaces

• Requiring parking spaces to be a minimum distance from a shade tree

Why change?

Leaving paved surfaces uncovered allows them to collect sunlight, which perpetuates the urban heat island effect. A study done by NASA in Huntsville, Ala., showed that while daytime temperatures around a mall parking lot had surface temperatures of about 120 degrees, a tree island containing a few small trees in the parking lot reached only 89 degrees.

Direct sunlight also heats up parked vehicles, causing evaporation from a vehicle’s fuel delivery system. About 16 percent of evaporative emissions are the result of daytime heating of parked vehicles.11 Shade trees lower the surface and air temperature in parking lots, reducing the evaporation of hydrocarbons from parked vehicles.

Shade trees keep cars cool and reduce the surface temperature of parking lots.

Interior landscaping requirements are becoming more common in the Kansas City region. These ordinances generally require a percentage of a parking lot’s interior to be landscaped rather than paved. Interior landscaping requirements are an easy way to mandate vegetation in parking lots. Interior landscaping requirements in the Kansas City region generally range from 5–10 percent, depending on the size of the parking lot and the purpose it serves. Although interior vegetation requirements do help, the shade benefits of trees are unparalleled in reducing the urban heat island effect and capturing pollutants.

Local examples

In a survey of area communities, about half had a minimum interior landscaping requirement, which averaged about 5 percent landscaping on the interior of the parking lot. Fewer communities required trees to be planted on the interior of parking lots. The communities of Raymore, Blue Springs and Leawood all require one tree to be planted for every 10 parking spaces.

National example

Several communities in California require parking lots to be 50 percent shaded after 15 years. Although many of the cities found that requiring developers to plant trees has been easy, getting the full benefits of the trees has been more difficult. Trees that are not planted properly or maintained often die or do not develop to their full potential. Requiring minimum dimensions for landscaped islands is one way to ensure trees have a chance to fully develop.

A study done in Davis, Calif., found that fuel tanks in shaded vehicles were 3.6–7.2 degrees cooler than the unshaded vehicles, reducing greenhouse gas emissions.


reduce parking dimensionsWhat are they?

Parking-space dimensions in the region range from a modest 8.5-foot by 18-foot spot to a much larger 9-foot by 20-foot spot. This difference may seem insignificant, but it adds up to a lot of wasted land and unnecessary surfacing.

Why change?

The size of each parking space determines the amount of impervious surface and land that a parking lot will take up. Most cities have development guidelines that require parking spaces to be a certain size, which ensures that the community is getting adequately-sized parking spaces.

Parking spaces should reflect vehicle sizes. With compact vehicles on the rise, opportunities exist to not only reduce required stall sizes, but to also allow for compact parking spaces.

In addition to smaller parking dimensions, many cities are allowing the length of parking spaces to be reduced when vehicles are adjacent to a curbed, landscaped area.

Local examples

The city of Kansas City, Mo., leads the region in allowing developers to build compact parking spaces that measure 7.5 feet by 15 feet. Kansas City, Kan.; Lenexa and Grandview also allow compact parking spaces.

Reducing parking dimensions can help make the most out of limited land.


cool pavementsWhat are they?

A cool pavement reflects a higher amount of sunlight than typical pavement, creating a cooler surface temperatures.

Why change?

Changing material compositions in parking lots can reduce the urban heat island effect. The solar reflectance index, or SRI, is a composite index that the U.S. Green Building Council and others use to estimate how hot a surface will get when fully exposed to the sun. The surface temperature of an object depends on its reflectance, emittance and solar radiation. Emittance is an object’s ability to emit or transfer heat.

Concrete is a classic “cool pavement,” but cool pavements include more than just white concrete. Permeable pavements, which were originally developed for stormwater management, are emerging as cool pavements due to their ability to cool through evaporation. Another method, microsurfacing, applies a thin layer of sealant onto a surface. Microsurfacing has traditionally been applied for maintenance, but is now being used to cool traditional pavements.

Local examples

The cities of Kansas City, Mo.; Independence; Leawood and Mission all specifically allow pervious pavement. Other communities may permit pervious pavement, but referencing it directly in codes or ordinances may encourage its use.

Permeable pavements are emerging as cool pavements due to their ability to cool through evaporation.


bioretentionWhat is it?

Bioretention areas are landscaping features engineered to capture and filter stormwater runoff. Best management practices (BMPs) include a variety of bioretention designs that can be easily incorporated around the exterior of a parking lot. Such features can also be incorporated into the interior of parking lots and parking islands.

Why change?

Parking lots with impervious surfaces drain large amounts of rainfall, which is often polluted by chemicals and oil from vehicles. Bioretention areas allow this rainwater to collect and filter back into the ground. Some parking lots may require catch-basin restrictors or oil/grit separators in order to help prevent chemicals from getting into the water system. As communities increase their stormwater utility fees over time, developers may have an additional incentive to incorporate design features that reduce stormwater runoff.

Local example

Applebee’s Support Center in Overland Park incorporates several stormwater treatment features including terraced, vegetated swales in the parking lots; sediment basins; a surface sand filter; and a downstream wetland. This combination of features treats the pavement runoff near the source, which allows oils, salts and sediments to be cleaned through on-site, natural systems.

Plantings around or within parking lots help mitigate impacts from stormwater runoff.

efficient lighting and energy useWhat is it?

Much of the energy consumed by parking lots is used for lighting. Because many parking lots stay lit 24 hours a day, it is important to consider more sustainable lighting options.

Why change?

Safety and security is a major concern with parking lots. Lighting helps illuminate parking spaces, aisles and pedestrian walkways. Lighting should be appropriate in context and scale to the environment.

Parking lots present challenges in balancing safety issues, reduced energy consumption and light pollution. Using energy-efficient fixtures and bulbs and aiming lighting downward helps reduce energy consumption and light pollution.

Local example

The city of Lee’s Summit uses design standards that require 50 percent of parking-lot lighting to be solar-powered, or 100 percent of lighting to use LED fixtures. About 1.5 million metric tons of

carbon dioxide are released each year as a result of lighting the region's parking lots.


proper locationWhat is it?

Where parking lots are located in relation to city streets and buildings has a big impact on the look of a community. Zoning codes can regulate where parking is located. Some zoning codes allow on-street parking spaces in close proximity to a development to offset the required off-street parking.

Why change?

Parking lots are often placed between major corridors and buildings, creating car-dominated areas. These environments can not only be unappealing, they can be unsafe for pedestrians because they often do not provide designated walkways.

To encourage pedestrian environments, parking should be located behind buildings as opposed to in front. Many communities are now requiring parking in certain districts to be placed on the sides or behind buildings.

Limited parking in front can allow both pedestrians and drivers easy access to stores.

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concept plansThe Parking Lots to Parks Task Force completed concept

plans that would make a traditional parking lot in Kansas City, Mo., more sustainable. The task force was divided into two groups that each completed a plan in order to show a range of options.

A parking lot at 12th Street and Broadway in downtown Kansas City, Mo., was chosen as the site the teams would work to reconceptualize. The parking lot contained none of the elements the task force had been discussing, and it was in such bad shape that a site plan for future improvements was underway by the owner. The goals of the plans were to:

• Demonstrate sustainable parking-lot elements

• Apply principles of sustainability to the Kansas City region

• Provide cost estimates to show the feasibility of the designs

The concept plans were completed over a five-month period. Each plan emphasizes different elements, showing that there can be many approaches to sustainability.

The Parking Lots to Parks Task Force worked in teams to re-envision the parking lot at 12th Street and Broadway.


team A concept planTeam A was torn between creating a concept plan that maximized sustainable elements and creating a concept plan that would be more feasible for a private owner — so the team decided to create both.

The "Green Option" adds sustainable elements, brings the parking lot up to code, and maximizes the number of parking stalls and potential profit. The "Air Quality Enhanced Option" incorporates many more sustainable concepts, including additional canopy cover; permeable pavement; right-of-way improvements to Broadway and 12th streets; and an inlet to capture, clean and filter runoff from 12th Street.

Green features of the new designs included:

Green Option Air Quality Enhanced Green Option

• Rain garden • Rain garden

• 25.5-foot bioswale • 19.5-foot bioswale

• 43 shade trees • 50 shade trees

• Bicycle parking • Pervious pavement

• Bicycle parking

• Capture and treat street runoff

The team also conducted an ordinance comparison for Kansas City, Mo.; Lenexa and Overland Park. It found that new code provisions would be needed in order to allow for and require more sustainable parking opportunities. For example, some current city codes do not allow for reduced parking-stall dimensions.



team B concept planTeam B wanted to create a functional parking lot that met Kansas City's sustainability goals, appealed to the public, created income for the owner, and established a community icon for sustainability. The team also wanted to incorporate multiple methods of conserving stormwater on-site to prevent thousands of gallons of dirty water from dumping into the city’s combined stormwater-sewer system, costing the city money to clean and process. The design also had to be attractive enough to appropriately display the aesthetic quality of sustainable planning and design features.

Green features of the new design included:

• Pervious concrete

• A living wall — a vertical arrangement of plants

• Indigenous plants and trees

• Monarch butterfly station

• Dry detention natural-stone swale

• Bioswales

• Natural sustainable materials used throughout the site

• Recycle, reduce and reuse trash receptacles

• Environmentally friendly, low-VOC paint for striping stalls

The team estimated that these changes could reduce stormwater runoff by as much as 95 percent, saving the city a significant amount in processing costs. The space would also bring more revenue to the owner based on higher parking

fees because consumers would be more inclined to use the lot after the redesign. The new site would also provide parking or access for multiple modes of transportation, including bicycles, cars and buses.

The group also developed recommendations for getting sustainable lots built in the metro area:

• Present similar examples in other markets

• Show where similar examples are locally

• Calculate the financial benefit

• Communicate additional benefits, such as reduced erosion, reduced heat-island effects through cooler pavement, and increased safety and access

• Encourage cities to modify their codes and regulations to encourage sustainable construction methods, mitigate and filter stormwater runoff, and reduce the urban heat island effect.



acknowledgements The Parking Lots to Parks Task Force included Leslie Alford, Blue River Watershed Association; Nate Baldwin, Platte County, Mo.; Mike Beezhold, city of Lenexa, Kan.; Carrie Bradley, Burns & McDonnell; Chris Calahan, OHH/OPP; Steve Casey, Lee's Summit Parks; Noel Challis, Platte County, Mo.; Chris Chiodini, city of Grandview, Mo.; Pete Davis, Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7; Kristen DaMet, American Institute of Architects-Kansas City; Pam Fortun, city of Overland Park, Kan.; Marc Govea, city of Kansas City, Mo.; Steven Hamadi, Wilbur Smith Associates; Alice Hannon, city of Lenexa, Kan.; Ted Hartsig, Olsson Associates; Kerry Herndon, Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7; Cate Holston, Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7; Christina Hoxie, BNIM; Gayle Hubert, Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7; Erica Ise, University of Missouri-Kansas City; Gary Kannenberg, Tellus Group; Leslie Karr, city of Overland Park, Kan.; Tom Krahenbuhl, Jackson County, Mo.; Mike Latka, city of Olathe, Kan.; Brenda Macke, CDM; Dan Maginn, El Dorado Inc.; Christy Martin, Concrete Promotions; Tony Meyers, city of Overland Park, Kan.; Dennis Murphey, city of Kansas City, Mo.; Patty Noll, city of Kansas City, Mo.; Pete Oppeumann, Oppeumann Land Design; Laura Pastine, BNIM; Tony Reames, city of Lee's Summit, Mo.; Jerod Rivers, 180 Degrees Urban Design; Aaron Ross, BNIM; Stan Salva, city of Sugar Creek, Mo.; Andy Sauer, CDM; Jim Schuessler, BNIM; Joann Schwarberg, Landscape Architect, LLC; Debra Smith, city of Kansas City, Mo.; Kim Sorensen, OHH/ OPPC; Laura Turnbull, city of Lenexa, Kan.; Jeff Umbreit, city of Independence, Mo.; Dave Watson, Tellus Group; Gary Welty, city of Lee's Summit, Mo.; and Mandy Whitsitt, Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7.

This book was prepared by MARC staff members Kassandra Shelton and Stephanie Williams, with contributions from Jennifer Blattman, Ginevera Moore, Amanda Graor and Tom Jacobs.

Parking Lots to Parks Task Force members and others participated in several workshops on the topic of sustainable parking-lot design.


SUSTAINABLE SKYLINESK A N S A S C I T YSUSTAINABLE SKYLINESK A N S A S C I T Y

about this project sustainable skylines Greater Kansas City was chosen as one of the first pilot communities to implement the Sustainable Skylines program. This program is a locally led, Environmental Protection Agency-supported initiative to reduce emissions and support sustainability in urban environments.

partners• City of Kansas City, Mo.

• Unified Government of Wyandotte County /Kansas City, Kan.

• Johnson County, Kan.

• Mid-America Regional Council

• Greater Kansas City Chamber of Commerce

• Missouri Department of Natural Resources

• Kansas Department of Health and Environment

• Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7

• Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Air Quality and Planning Standards

These partners identified six projects that would:

• Integrate transportation, energy, land-use and air-quality planning

• Yield measurable air-quality benefits within three years

• Promote collaboration among multiple stakeholders

• Identify and leverage resources among partners

Parking Lots to Parks is one of those six projects.


endnotes 1 Trees, Parking and Green Law: Legal Tools and Strategies for Sustainability. University of Washington. 2004. http://www.cfr.washington.edu/research.envmind/Roadside/Parking_Trees_FS15.pdf.2 Cool Houston! A Plan for Cooling the Region. Houston Advanced Research Center. 2004. http://files.harc.edu/Projects/CoolHouston/CoolHoustonPlan.pdf.3 Shoup, Donald. The High Cost of Free Parking. 2004.4 Trees, Parking and Green Law: Strategies for Sustainability. University of Washington. 2004. http://www.naturewithin.info/Roadside/Trees_Parking.pdf.5 Cooling Summertime Temperatures: Strategies to Reduce Urban Heat Islands. Environmental Protection Agency. 2003. http://www.epa.gov/heatisland/resources/pdf/HIRIbrochure.pdf.6 Santa Barbara County Air Pollution Control District. 2009. http://www.sbcapcd.org/sbc/ozonehealth.htm.7 Regional Hazard Mitigation Plan. MARC. 2010. http://www.marc.org/emergency/pdfs/2010HMP/Section3RiskAssessment.pdf.8 Transportation Outlook 2040, MARC. http://www.marc.org/2040.9 Climate Change Indicators in the United States. Environmental Protection Agency. 2010. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/indicators.html.10 Patterson, Steve. "Downtown Still Going Strong; Neighborhoods and Inner Suburbs Need Leadership." Urban Review STL, Nov. 20, 2006. http://www.urbanreviewstl.com/?p=2849.11 Reducing Air Pollution through Urban Forestry. E. Gregory McPherson and James R. Simpson. 1999. http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/programs/cufr/products/cufr_73.pdf.


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Date post:	07-May-2015
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Parking Lots to Parks Kansas City

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