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7/29/2019 Pietro Monaco Fb 2000 http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/pietro-monaco-fb-2000 1/21 Review of General Psychology Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation 2000, Vol. 4, No. 2, 155-175 1089-2680/00/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037111089-2680.4.2.155 The Internal Working Models Concept: What Do We Really Know About the Self in Relation to Others? Paula R, Pietromonaco University of Massachusetts at Amherst Lisa Feldman Barrett Boston College The internal working models concept is the foundation for understanding how attach- ment processes operate in adult relationships, yet many questions exist about the precise nature and structure of working models. To clarify the working models concept, the authors evaluate the empirical evidence relevant to the content, structure, operation, and stability of working models in adult relationships. They also identify 4 theoretical issues that are critical for clarifying the properties of working models. These issues focus on the central role of affect and goals in working models, the degree to which working models are individual difference or relational variables, and the definition of attachment relationships and felt security in adulthood. Each individual builds working models of the world and of himself in it, with the aid of which he perceives events, forecasts the future, and constructs his plans. In the working models of the world that anyone builds a key feature is his notion of who his attachment figures are, where they may be found, and how they may be expected to respond. Similarly, in the working model of the self that anyone builds a key feature is his notion of how acceptable or unacceptable he himself is in the eyes of his attachment figures. (Bowlby, 1973, p, 203) Attachment theory (Bowlby, 1969, 1973, 1979, 1980) has profoundly influenced research and theorizing about the nature of human rela- tionships across the life span. The primary as- sumption of attachment theory is that humans form close emotional bonds in the interest of survival. These bonds facilitate the develop- ment and maintenance of mental representa- tions of the self and others, or "internal working models," that help individuals predict and un- derstand their environment, engage in survival- promoting behaviors such as proximity mainte- nance, and establish a psychological sense of The concept of attachment trajectory was developed in discussions with Wayne Bylsma and John Wall. Preparation of this article was facilitated by National Science Founda- tion Grant 9727896. Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- dressed to Paula R. Pietromonaco, Department of Psychol- ogy, Tobin Hall, Box 37710, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003-7710, or to Lisa Feldman Barrett, Department of Psychology, Boston College, 427 McGuinn Hall, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 01246. Elec- tronic mail may be sent to [email protected] or [email protected]. "felt" security (cf. Bretherton, 1985; Sroufe & Waters, 1977). The internal working models concept, as a mediator of attachment-related experience, is the cornerstone of attachment theory. Bowlby (1979) claimed that mental represen- tations of the self and others, formed in the context of the child-caregiver relationship, carry forward and influence thought, feeling, and behavior in adult relationships. Further work (Hazan & Shaver, 1987) elaborated on this idea, highlighting the parallels between the child-caregiver relationship and the relation- ship between romantic partners. Since Hazan and Shaver' s article, a growing number of stud- ies have examined attachment patterns in adult relationships. Many of these studies have at- tempted to examine aspects of internal working models, the hypothesized mechanism through which attachment behaviors are transferred to different relationship partners throughout the life span. Although the working models concept is the foundation for understanding how attach- ment processes operate throughout the life course, many unanswered questions about the nature and structure of working models remain. The purpose of this article is to evaluate exactly what is known about the working models con- cept in attachment between adults and to iden- tify critical areas that remain to be clarified. Although our focus is on the working models concept as it functions in adult relationships, we draw on the literature examining children's working models when appropriate. 155
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Page 1: Pietro Monaco Fb 2000

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Rev i ew of General Psychology Copyright 2000 by the Educational Publishing Foundation2000, Vol. 4, No. 2, 155-175 1089-2680/00/$5.00 DO I: 10.1037111089-2680.4.2.155

The Internal Working Models Concept: What Do We Real ly Know

About the Self in Relation to Others?

P a u l a R , P i e t r o m o n a c oU n i v e r s i t y o f M a s s a c h u s e tt s a t A m h e r s t

L i s a F e l d m a n B a r r e t tB o s t o n C o l l e g e

T he in t e r na l w or k ing m ode l s c onc e p t i s t he f ounda t ion f o r unde r s t a nd ing how a t t a c h -

m e n t p r oc e s se s ope r a t e i n a du l t r e l a t i onsh ip s , ye t m a ny que s t i ons e x i s t a bou t t he

p r e c i s e na tu r e a nd s t r uc tu r e o f w or k in g m ode l s . T o c l a r i f y t he w or k ing m o de l s c onc e p t ,

t he a u tho r s e va lua t e t he e m p i r i c a l e v ide nc e r e l e va n t t o t he c on te n t , s t r uc tu re , ope r a t i on ,

a nd s t a b i l i t y o f w o r k ing m ode l s i n a du l t r e la t i onsh ip s . T he y a l so i de n t i f y 4 t he o r e t i c a l

i s sue s t ha t a r e c r i t i c a l f o r c l a r i f y ing the p r ope r t i e s o f w or k ing m od e l s . T he se i s sue s

f oc us on the c e n t r a l r o l e o f a f f e c t a nd goa l s i n w or k ing m ode l s , t he de g r e e t o w h ic h

w or k ing m ode l s a r e i nd iv idu a l d i ff e r e nc e o r r e l a t iona l va r i a b l e s , a nd the de f in i t i on o f

a t t a c hm e n t r e l a t i onsh ip s a nd f e l t s e c u r i t y i n a du l thood .

Each individual builds working models of the worldand o f himself in it, with the aid of which he perceivesevents, forecasts the future, and constructs his plans. Inthe working mod els of the w orld that anyone builds akey feature is his notion o f who his attachment figuresare , where they may be found, and how they m ay beexpected to respond. Similarly, in the w orking modelof the se lf that anyone builds a ke y feature is his notionof how acceptable or unacceptable he himself is in theeyes o f his attachment figures. (Bowlby , 1973, p, 2 03)

A t t a c h m e n t t h e o r y ( B o w l b y , 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 73 ,

1 9 7 9 , 1 9 8 0 ) h a s p r o f o u n d l y i n f l u e n c e d r e s e a r c h

a n d t h e o r i z i n g a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n r e l a -

t i o n s h i p s a c r o s s t h e l i f e s p a n . T h e p r i m a r y a s -

s u m p t i o n o f a t t a c h m e n t t h e o r y i s t ha t h u m a n s

f o r m c l o s e e m o t i o n a l b o n d s i n th e i n t e r e st o f

s u r v i v a l . T h e s e b o n d s f a c i l i t a te t h e d e v e l o p -

m e n t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f m e n t a l r e p re s e n ta -

t i o n s o f t h e s e l f a n d o t h e r s, o r " i n t e r n a l w o r k i n g

m o d e l s , " t h a t h e l p i n d i v i d u a l s p r e d i c t a n d u n -

d e r s t a n d t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t , e n g a g e i n s u r v i v a l -

p r o m o t i n g b e h a v i o r s s u c h a s p r o x i m i t y m a i n t e -

n a n c e , a n d e s t a b l i s h a p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e n s e o f

The concept of attachment trajectory was developed indiscussions with W ayne Bylsma and Joh n W all. Preparationof this article was facilitated by N ational Science Founda-tion Grant 9727896.

Correspondence concerning this article s ho uld be ad-dressed to Pau la R. Pietromonaco, Department of Psychol-ogy, Tobin H all, Box 37710, University of M assachusetts,Amherst, Massachusetts 01003-7710, or to Lisa FeldmanBarrett, Departmen t of Psychology , Bost on College, 427

McG uinn Hall, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts 01246. Elec-tronic mail may be sent to m onaco@ psych.umass.edu [email protected].

" f e l t " s e c u r i t y (c f . B r e t h e r t o n , 1 9 8 5 ; S r o u f e &

W a t e r s , 1 9 7 7 ). T h e i n t e r n a l w o r k i n g m o d e l s

c o n c e p t , a s a m e d i a t o r o f a t ta c h m e n t - r e l a t e d

e x p e r i e n c e , i s t h e c o r n e r s t o n e o f a t ta c h m e n t

t h e o r y .

B o w l b y ( 1 97 9 ) c l a i m e d t h a t m e n t a l r ep r e s e n -

t a t io n s o f t h e s e l f a n d o t h e r s , f o r m e d i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f t h e c h i l d - c a r e g i v e r r e la t io n s h i p ,

c a r r y f o r w a r d a n d i n f l u e n c e t h o u g h t , f e e l i n g ,

a n d b e h a v i o r i n a d u l t r e l a t i o n s h i p s . F u r t h e rw o r k ( H a z a n & S h a v e r , 1 9 8 7 ) e l a b o r a t e d o n

t h is i d e a , h i g h l i g h t i n g t h e p a r a l l e l s b e t w e e n t h e

c h i l d - c a r e g i v e r r e l a t i o n s h ip a n d t h e r e la t io n -

s h i p b e t w e e n r o m a n t i c p a r t n e rs . S i n c e H a z a n

a n d S h a v e r ' s ar t ic l e , a g r o w i n g n u m b e r o f s t u d -

i e s h a v e e x a m i n e d a t t a c h m e n t p a t t e r n s i n a d u l t

r e l a t io n s h i p s . M a n y o f t h e s e s tu d i e s h a v e a t -

t e m p t e d t o e x a m i n e a s p e c ts o f i n t e rn a l w o r k i n g

m o d e l s , t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d m e c h a n i s m t h r o u g h

w h i c h a t t a c h m e n t b e h a v i o r s a r e t r a n s f e r re d t o

d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p p a r t n e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e

l if e s p an . A l t h o u g h t h e w o r k i n g m o d e l s c o n c e p t

i s t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g h o w a t t a c h -

m e n t p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t e t h r o u g h o u t t h e l i f e

c o u r s e , m a n y u n a n s w e r e d q u e s t i o n s a b o u t t h e

n a t u r e a n d s t ru c t u r e o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s r e m a i n .

T h e p u r p o s e o f th i s a r t i c le is t o e v a l u a t e e x a c t l y

w h a t i s k n o w n a b o u t th e w o r k i n g m o d e l s c o n -

c e p t i n a t t a c h m e n t b e t w e e n a d u l t s a n d t o i d e n -

t i f y c r i ti c a l a r e a s t h a t r e m a i n t o b e c l a r i f ie d .

A l t h o u g h o u r f o c u s i s o n t h e w o r k i n g m o d e l s

c o n c e p t a s i t f u n c t i o n s i n a d u l t r e l a ti o n s h i p s , w e

d r a w o n t h e l i t e r a t u r e e x a m i n i n g c h i l d r e n ' sw o r k i n g m o d e l s w h e n a p p r o p r i a t e .

155

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156 PIETROMONACO AND FELDMA NBARRETI'

T h e I n t er n a l W o r k i n g M o d e l s C o n c e p t

A cen t r a l t ene t o f a t t achment theory (Bowlby ,

1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 3 ) i s t h a t p eo p l e d ev e l o p m en t a l r ep -

r e s en t a t i o n s , o r i n t e r n a l w o r k i n g m o d e l s , t h a t

co n s i s t o f ex p ec t a t i o n s ab o u t t h e s e l f , s i g n i f i -

c an t o t h e r s , an d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w een t h e

t w o . W o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e t h o u g h t t o i n c l u d e

spec i f i c content ab o u t a t t a ch m en t f i g u r e s an d

t h e s e l f th a t i s s t o r ed w i t h i n a w e l l - o r g an i zed

r ep r e s en t a t i o n a l structure ( B o w l b y , 1 9 8 0 ;

B r e t h e r t o n , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 9 0 ; C o l l i n s & R ead , 1 9 9 4 ) .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i r co n t en t is b e l i ev ed t o i n c l u d e

k n o w l ed g e ab o u t t h e d e t a i l s ( e . g . , w h a t h ap -

p e n e d , w h e r e , a n d w i t h w h o m ) o f i n t er p e r so n a l

ex p e r i en ce s a s w e l l a s t h e a f f ec t ( e . g . , h ap p i -

n e s s , f e a r , an d an g e r ) a s s o c i a t ed w i t h t h o s e ex -

p e r i en ce s ( B r e t h e r t o n , 1 9 8 5 ) . W o r k i n g m o d e l sa l s o a r e a s s u m ed t o i n v o l v e processes t ha t in -

f l u en ce w h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i n d i v i d u a l s a t t en d t o ,

h o w t h ey i n t e r p r e t ev en t s i n t h e i r w o r l d , an d

w h a t t h e y r e m e m b e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e p r o -

ce s s e s a r e h y p o t h e s i zed t o o p e r a t e p r i m a r i l y

o u t s i d e o f co n s c i o u s aw a r en es s ( B o w l b y , 1 9 8 0 ;

B r e t h e r t o n , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 9 0 ; M a i n , K ap l an , & C as -

s i d y , 1 9 8 5 ) . B ecau s e t h ey w o r k o n t h e p r i n c i p l e

o f a s s i m i l a t io n , d i r ec t i n g b o t h a t t en t i o n an d b e -

h av i o r , w o r k i n g m o d e l s t en d t o r em a i n s t ab l e

o v e r ti m e , a l t h o u g h th e y m a y c h a n g e u n d e r

s o m e co n d i t i o n s ( B o w l b y , 1 9 7 3 ) . I n t h e s ec -

t i o n s t o f o l l o w , w e e l ab o r a t e o n t h e s e a s s u m p -

t i o n s an d ev a l u a t e t h e ev i d en ce r e l ev an t to

w o r k i n g m o d e l s .

C o n t e n t o f W o r k i n g M o d e l s

Theory . B o w l b y ( 1 9 7 3 ) p r o p o s e d t h a t p e o -

p l e h o l d w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f th e s e l f a n d o t h e r s,

an d o t h e r t h eo r i st s h av e e l ab o r a t ed o n t h i s i d ea

( B a r t h o l o m e w , 1 9 9 0 ; B a r t h o l o m e w & H o r o -

w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ) . W o r k i n g m o d e l s o f s e l f a r e t h o u g h tto a r i s e as ind iv idua l s in te rac t w i th c lose o ther s

( C o o l ey , 1 9 0 2 ; M ar k u s & C r o s s , 1 9 9 0 ; M ead ,

1 9 3 4 ) . I n p a r ti cu l a r , t h ey a r e b e l i ev e d t o d e r i v e

f r o m b e l i e f s ab o u t h o w accep t ab l e t h e s e l f is i n

t h e ey es o f e a r l y a t t a ch m en t f i g u r e s , a s g au g ed

f r o m t h e r e s p o n s i v en es s o f t h o s e f i g u r e s . C h i l -

d r e n w h o h a v e a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e s w h o a r e

r ead i l y av a i l ab l e , r e s p o n s i v e , an d r e l i ab l e a r e

a s s u m ed t o d ev e l o p a r ep r e s en t a t i o n o f t h e s e l f

a s a c c e p t a b le a n d w o r t h w h i l e . T h o s e w h o h a v e

i n co n s i s t en t o r u n r e s p o n s i v e a t t a ch m en t f i g u r e s

a r e a s s u m e d t o d e v e l o p a v i e w o f s e l f a s u n a c -

cep t ab l e an d u n w o r t h y ( f o r a r ev i ew , s ee

C as s i d y , 2 0 0 0 ) . W o r k i n g m o d e l s o f o t h e r s a r e

h y p o t h e s i z e d t o i n c l u d e e x p e c t a t io n s a b o u t w h o

w i l l s e r v e a s a t t a ch m en t f i g u r e s ( i . e . , w h o m t o

t u r n t o w h e n i n n eed o f s ecu r i t y ), h o w acce s s i-

b l e t h o s e f i g u r e s a re , an d p r i n c i p a l l y ab o u t h o wt h ey w i l l r e s p o n d w h en n eed ed ( M a i n e t a l . ,

1985) .

Attachment styles. P e o p l e s h o w d i f f e r e n t

a t t a ch m en t s t y l e s th a t r e f l e c t t h e i r d i f f e r en t i n -

t e r p e r s o n a l ex p e r i en ce s . W o r k f o cu s i n g o n p a r -

e n t - c h i l d a t t a c h m e n t ( s e e A i n s w o r t h , B l e h a r ,

W a t e r s , & W a l l , 1 9 7 8 ) h a s d o cu m en t ed d i f fe r -

en t p a t t e rn s o f b eh av i o r a l r e s p o n s e s f r o m ch i l-

d r en w h o a r e s ep a r a t ed an d t h en r eu n i t ed w i t h

t h e i r m o t h e r s . T h es e b eh av i o r a l p a t t e r n s a r e

t h o u g h t t o s t e m f r o m d i f fe r e n t u n d e r l y i n g w o r k -

i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f an d o t h e r s . Y o u n g ch i l -d r en w h o w i l l i n g l y ap p r o ach t h e i r m o t h e r a f t e r

t h e s ep a r a t i o n an d a r e e a s i l y co m f o r t ed a r e a s-

s u m ed t o h o l d w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t r e f l e c t s e -

cu r i t y . T h o s e w h o r e s i s t co n t ac t w i t h t h e i r

m o t h e r s a f t e r a b r i e f sep a r a t i o n a r e a s s u m ed t o

h o l d w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t r e f l e c t an av o i d an t

f o r m o f i n s ecu r i t y . T h o s e w h o a l s o d i s p l ay an -

g e r b y p u s h i n g t h e i r m o t h e r aw ay an d a r e d i f -

f i cu l t t o co m f o r t a f t e r a b r i e f s ep a r a t i o n a r e

a s s u m ed t o h o l d w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t i n d i ca t e

a n a n x i o u s - a m b i v a l e n t f o r m o f i n s ec u r it y .I n t h e i r p i o n ee r i n g e f f o r t s, H az an an d S h av e r

( 1 9 8 7 ) i n v es t i g a t ed a t t a ch m en t p a t t e r n s i n

ad u l t s t h a t co r r e s p o n d ed co n cep t u a l l y t o t h e

d es c r i p t i o n s o f ch i l d r en ' s a t t a ch m en t b eh av i o r

p a t t e r n s . S ecu r e ad u l t s w e r e d e f i n ed a s t h o s e

w h o a p p e a r e d t o b e c o m f o r t a b l e w it h c l o s e ne s s

i n t h e i r r e la t i o n s h ip s , an d t h ey w e r e n o t p a r t ic -

u l a r l y w o r r i ed ab o u t o t h e r s r e je c t i n g t h em ; an x -

i o u s - am b i v a l en t ad u l t s ap p ea r ed t o s eek ex ces -

s i v e c l o s en es s an d w e r e co n ce r n ed t h a t t h ey

w o u l d b e r e j e c t ed ; an d av o i d an t ad u lt s ap p ea r ed

u n co m f o r t ab l e w i t h c l o s en es s an d f o u n d i t d i f -f i cu l t t o d ep en d o n o t h e r s . T h es e o r i g i n a l d e -

s c r ip t i o n s o f ad u l t a t t a ch m en t s t y l e d i d n o t d i s -

t i n g u i sh b e t w een s p ec i fi c m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f an d

m o d e l s o f o t h e r s , a l t h o u g h w o r k i n g m o d e l s

w e r e a s s u m ed t o b e t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h e d i f -

f e r en t s t y l e s . T h e q u a l i t y o f ad u l t s ' w o r k i n g

m o d e l s w as i n f e r r ed f r o m t h e i r s e l f - r ep o r t s o f

h o w t h ey p e r ce i v ed t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n g en -

e r a l. T h i s s t an d s i n co n t r a s t t o th e d e v e l o p m en -

t a l r e s ea r ch , i n w h i ch t h e q u a l i t y o f ch i l d -

r e n ' s w o r k i n g m o d e l s w a s i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e i rb eh av i o r .

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SPECIAL ISSUE : INTERN ALWO RKING MODELS 157

M o s t r e s ea r ch e r s w h o s t u d y ad u l t a t t a ch m en t

n o w r e l y o n a r e f i n e d s c h e m e t h a t e x p l i c i t l y

i d en t if i e s s ty l e s a cco r d i n g t o m o d e l s o f s e l f an d

o t h e r ( s e e B a r t h o l o m e w & H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ) .

T h i s s ch em e y i e l d s f o u r a t t a ch m en t s t y l e s t h a t

r e s u l t b y co m b i n i n g a p o s i t i v e o r n eg a t i v em o d e l o f t h e s e l f w i t h a p o s i t i v e o r n eg a t i v e

m o d e l o f o t h e r s . R es ea r ch s u g g es t s t h e f o l l o w -

i n g g e n e r a l iz a t io n s a b o u t p e o p l e w h o c o n f o r m

t o e a c h o f t h e f o u r a t t a c h m e n t p r o t o t y p e s ( s ee

B a r t h o l o m e w & H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ; G r if f in & B a r -

t h o l o m e w , 1 9 9 4 ) . P e o p l e w h o h o l d p o s i t i v e

m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f an d o t h e r s f i t t h e securep r o t o t y p e a n d r e p o r t f e e l i n g c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h

c l o s en e s s a n d i n t i m a c y . P e o p l e w h o h o l d n e g a -

t i v e m o d e l s o f b o t h t h e s e l f an d o t h e r s f i t t h e

fearful-avoidant p r o t o t y p e a n d r e p o r t b o t h a

f ea r o f an d a d e s i r e f o r c l o s en es s . P eo p l e w h oh o l d a n eg a t i v e m o d e l o f t h e s e l f an d a p o s i t i v e

m o d e l o f o t h e r s f i t t h e preoccupied p r o t o t y p e

an d a r e ch a r ac t e r i z ed b y a d e s i r e f o r a h i g h l ev e l

o f c l o s e n e s s a n d b y t h e ir f e a r o f a b a n d o n m e n t .

F i n a ll y , p e o p l e w h o r e p o r t a p o s i ti v e m o d e l o f

t h e s e l f b u t a n eg a t i v e m o d e l o f o t h e r s f i t t h e

dismissing-avoidant p r o t o t y p e a n d r e p o r t b e i n g

u n co m f o r t ab l e w i t h c l o s en es s an d o v e r l y s e l f -

r e l i an t . T h e f o u r a t t a ch m en t s t y l e s a r e t h o u g h t

t o b e p r o t o t y p es t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s m ay f i t t o a

g r ea t e r o r l e s s e r d eg r ee , d ep en d i n g o n w h e r et h e y f a ll o n e a c h w o r k i n g m o d e l d i m e n s i o n .

Evidence. I n g en e r a l , ev i d en ce f r o m s e l f -

r ep o r t s t u d i e s i s co n s i s t en t w i t h B a r t h o l o m ew

an d H o r o w i t z ' s ( 1 9 9 1 ) p r ed i c t i o n s t h a t d i ff e r en t

a t t a ch m en t s t y l e s a r e a s s o c ia t ed w i t h p o s i t i v e o r

n eg a t i v e e s t e em f o r t h e s e l f . S t u d i e s u s i n g t h e

t h r e e - c a te g o r y a t ta c h m e n t m o d e l g e n e r a l ly h a v e

s h o w n t h a t s ecu r e i n d i v id u a l s h av e h i g h e r s e l f -

e s t e e m t h a n d o a n x i o u s - a m b i v a l e n t i n d i v id u a l s

( C o l l in s & R ead , 1 9 9 0 ; F ee n ey & N o l l e r, 1 9 9 0 ;

H azan & S h av e r , 1 9 8 7 ) . A v o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s

s o m e t i m e s s h o w l o w e r s e l f - es t e e m th a n d o s e-cu r e in d i v i d u a l s ( F een ey & N o l l e r , 1 9 9 0 ; H azan

& S h av e r , 1 9 8 7 , S t u d y 2 ), b u t o t h e r ti m es t h ey

d o n o t d i f f e r f r o m s ecu r e i n d i v id u a l s ( C o l l i n s &

R ead , 1 9 9 0 ) . S t u d i e s u s i n g t h e f o u r - ca t eg o r y

m o d e l h av e c l a r i f i ed t h e s e f i n d i n g s . I n t h e s e

s t u d i e s , s ecu r e an d d i s m i s s i n g - av o i d an t i n d i -

v i d u a l s ev i d en ce h i g h e r s e l f - e s t e em t h an d o e i -

t h e r p r e o c c u p i e d o r f e a r f u l - a v o i d a n t i n d i v id u -

a l s ( B a r t h o l o m e w & H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ; B r e n n a n

& M o r r i s , 1 9 9 7 ; B y l s m a , C o zza r e l l i , & S u m er ,

1 9 9 7 ; G r i f f i n & B a r t h o l o m ew , 1 9 9 4 ; P i e t r o m o -

n aco & F e l d m an B a r r e t t, 1 9 9 7 b ) . S u p p o r t f o r

t h e B a r t h o l o m e w a n d H o r o w i t z m o d e l i s l e s s

c l ea r , h o w ev e r , w h en s e l f - e s t e em i s r ep o r t ed

o n - l i n e ( P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r r e t t ,

1 9 9 7b ) . W h e n e v a l u a ti o n s o f t h e s e l f w e r e m a d e

i m m ed i a t e l y a f t e r s p ec i f i c ev e r y d ay i n t e r ac -

t i o n s , p r eo ccu p i ed i n d i v i d u a l s r ep o r t ed l o w ers e l f - e s te em t h an d i d s ecu r e i n d i v i d u a ls , t h u s

s h o w i n g a p a t t e r n s i m i l a r t o t h e o n e f o u n d i n

s e l f - r ep o r t s t u d i e s . H o w ev e r , t h e f i n d i n g s f o r

av o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s w e r e l e s s co n s i s t en t w i t h

t h e p a t t e r n s f o u n d i n s e l f - r ep o r t s t u d ie s ; n e i t h e r

f e a r f u l - a v o i d a n t i n d iv i d u a ls n o r d i s m i s s i n g -

av o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s d i f f e r ed f r o m an y o f t h e

o t h e r g r o u p s i n t h e p r ed i c t ed f a s h i o n .

E m p i r i c a l ev i d en ce a l s o g en e r a l l y s u p p o r t s

t h e p r ed i c t i o n t h a t s ecu r e p eo p l e h o l d p o s i t i v ev i ew s o f o t h e r s , b u t t h e ev i d en ce t h a t p r eo ccu -

p i e d p e o p l e h o l d p o s i t i v e v i e w s o f o t h e r s a n dt h a t av o i d an t p eo p l e ( b o t h d i s m i s s in g an d f ea r -

f u l ) h o l d n eg a t i v e v i ew s o f o t h e r s i s i n co n s i s -

t en t. S o m e s t u d i e s r ep o r t t h e ex p ec t ed f in d i n g s .

T h e m o s t o f t e n c i t e d s t u d y ( B a r t h o l o m e w &

H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ) u s ed s o c i ab i l i ty a s an i n d i ca t o ro f v i ew s o f o t h e r s an d s h o w e d t h a t s ecu r e an d

p r eo ccu p i ed i n d i v i d u a l s h e l d m o r e p o s i t i v e

v i ew s o f o t h e r s t h an d i d fea r f u l an d d i s m i s s i n g -

avoidan t ind iv idua l s . S imi la r ly , in a s tudy in

w h i ch p a r t i c i p an t s ' j u d g m en t s ab o u t s p ec i f i c

c l o s e o t h e r s w e r e ex p l i c i t l y co m p a r ed w i t h t h e i rj u d g m e n t s o f t h e m s e l v e s , p r e o c c u p i e d i n d iv i d -

u a l s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o b e l i ev e t h a t o t h e r s

v i e w e d t h e m m o r e p o s i t i v e l y t h a n t h e y v i e w e d

t h em s e l v e s , w h e r ea s av o i d an t s w e r e m o r e li k e l y

t o b e l i ev e t h a t o t h e r s v i ew ed t h em l e s s p o s i -

t i v e l y th an t h ey v i ew ed t h em s e l v e s ( M i k u l i n ce r ,

1995 , S tudy 6) .

In con t r as t , some s tud ies r epor t f ind ings tha t

a r e co n t r a r y t o t h e t h eo r e t i c a l l y ex p ec t ed p a t -

t e r n . T w o s t u d i e s t ap p i n g g en e r a l v i ew s o f o th -

e r s ( C o l l i n s & R ead , 1 9 9 0 ; H azan & S h av e r ,

1 9 8 7 ) s h o w e d t h a t p r e o c c u p i e d a n d a v o i d a n tp eo p l e h o l d s i m i l a r l y n eg a t i v e v i ew s o f o t h e r s ,

i n co n t r a s t w i t h t h e p r ed i c t i o n t h a t t h e s e t w o

g r o u p s s h o u l d d i f f e r in t h e i r v i ew s o f o t h e r s . I n

ad d i t i o n , an ex p e r i en ce - s am p l i n g s t u d y ( P i -

e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r r e tt , 1 9 9 7 b ) d id n o t

s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t s ecu r e an d p r eo ccu -

p i ed i n d i v i d u a l s g en e r a l l y h o l d m o r e p o s i t i v e

v i ew s o f o t h e r s t h an f ea r f u l - av o i d an t o r d i s -

m i s s i n g - av o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s . W h en i n d i v i d u -

a l s ra t ed the i r v iews o f spec i f i c in te rac t ion par t -

n e r s i m m ed i a t e l y a f t e r s p ec i f i c i n t e r ac t i o n s ,

p e o p l e f r o m t h e f o u r a t t a c h m e n t g r o u p s d i d n o t

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158 PIETROMON ACO AND FELDM AN BARRETT

d i f f e r i n t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f o t h e r s ( P i e t r o m o -

n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r r e t t , 1 9 9 7 b ) . P r e o c c u p i e d

p e o p l e , h o w e v e r , s h o w e d m o r e p o s i t i v e v i e w s

o f t h e i r p a r t n e r s d u r i n g h i g h c o n f l i c t i n t e r a c -

t i o n s t h a n d i d e i t h e r s e c u r e o r d i s m i s s i n g -

a v o i d a n t i n d i v id u a l s . T h u s , f i n d i n g s f r o m t h ef e w s t u d i e s e x a m i n i n g v i e w s o f o t h e r s d o n o t

c o n s i s t e n t l y s u p p o r t t h e p r e d i c t io n s f o r in s e c u r e

i n d i v i d u a l s ; r a t h e r , t h e y s u g g e s t t h a t i n s e c u r e

i n d i v i d u a l s ' v i e w s o f o t h e r s a r e n e i t h e r c o n s i s -

t e n t l y p o s i t i v e n o r c o n s i s t e n t l y n e g a t i v e .

Evaluation. T a k e n t o g e t h e r , t h e f i n d i n g s

g e n e r a l l y s u g g e s t t h a t p e o p l e w h o d i s p l a y d i f -

f e r e n t a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e s d i f f e r i n t h e o r e t i c a l l y

p r e d i c t e d w a y s i n t h e i r v i e w s o f t h e s e l f . T h e

d i f f e r e n c e s i n v i e w s o f t h e s e l f a re r o b u s t a c r o s s

s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g i n t e r v i e w s ( B a r t h o l o m e w &

H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ) a n d r e t r o s p e c t i v e s e l f - r e p o r t s( e . g . , C o l l i n s & R e a d , 1 9 9 0 ) . E v i d e n c e , h o w -

e v e r , i s l e ss c o n s i s t e n t f o r v i e w s o f o t h e r s.

V i e w s o f o th e r s a p p e a r t o v a r y d e p e n d i n g o n

w h i c h a s p e c t s a r e a s s e s s e d ( e . g . , w h e t h e r t h e

j u d g m e n t i s a t t h e g e n e r a l o r s p e c i f i c l e v e l ) .

S o m e i n d i v i d u a l s ( i .e ., t h o s e w i t h a p r e o c c u p i e d

a t t a ch m e n t s t y l e ) a p p e a r to h o l d m i x e d , i n c o n -

s i s t e n t v i e w s o f o t h e r s ( P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d -

m a n B a r r e t t , 1 9 9 7 b ) , w i t h t h e p o s i t i v i ty o r n e g -

a t i v i ty o f t h e v i e w d e p e n d i n g o n t h e p a r t ic u l a r

s i t ua t i ona l c on t e x t .C o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t a t t a c h m e n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n

w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f a n d o t h e r s a r e te m -

p e r e d b y t h r e e o b s e r v a t i o n s . F i r st , m o s t r e s e a r c h

o n v i e w s o f th e s e l f h a s m e a s u r e d w o r k i n g

m o d e l s i n t e r m s o f g l o b a l p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e

f e e l i n g s a b o u t t h e s e l f a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e s

o n l y l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e c o n t e n t o f

s e l f m o d e l s . S o c i a l - c o g n i t i v e r e s e a r c h o n t h e

s e l f ( s e e K i h l s t r o m & K l e in , 1 9 9 4 ; M a r k u s &

W u r f , 1 9 8 7 ) s u g g e s t s , h o w e v e r , t h a t ( a ) t h e s e l f

i s a d y n a m i c , m u l t i f a c e t e d s t r u c t u r e t h a t v a r ie s ,

t o s o m e e x t e n t , w i t h t h e s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t a n d( b ) t h e s e l f i n c l u d e s n o t o n l y p o s i t i v e a n d

n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g s b u t a l s o a b r o a d e r r a n g e o f

c o n t e n t s u c h a s c e n t r a l s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s o r

s e l f - s c h e m a s ( M a r k u s , 1 9 7 7 ) ; p o s s i b l e s e l v e s

( M a r k u s & N u r i u s , 1 9 8 6 ) ; i d e a l , a c t u a l , a n d

o u g h t s e l v e s ( H i g g i n s , 1 9 8 7 ); a n d t h e s e l f a s

e n a c t e d i n p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l

c o n t e x t s ( M a r k u s & K i t a y a m a , 1 9 9 1 ; M a r k u s &

K u n d a , 1 9 8 6 ; M c G u i r e & M c G u i r e , 1 9 8 8 ) .

F r o m t h is p e r s p e c t i v e , v i e w s o f t h e s e l f i n t h e

c o n t e x t o f a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s n e e d t o b ei n v e s t i g a t e d w i t h g r e a t e r s p e c i f i c i t y , i n c l u d i n g

e x a m i n i n g e l a b o r a t e d k n o w l e d g e a b o u t d i f f e r -

e n t a s p e c t s o f th e s e l f as e n a c t e d i n c l o s e r e l a -

t i onsh i ps a nd i n pa r t i c u l a r s i t ua t i ona l c on t e x t s .

L i k e w i s e , a s o c i a l - c o g n i t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e i m -

p l ie s t h a t v i e w s o f o t h e r s m a y n o t b e u n i d i m e n -

s i o n a l b u t , r a t h e r , m a y v a r y w i t h i n t e r a c t i o np a r t n e r a n d c o n t e x t . T h u s , i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f

v i e w s o f o t h e r s , l i k e t h o s e o f v i e w s o f t h e s e l f ,

m a y b e n e f i t f r o m t h e u s e o f a b r o a d e r r a n g e o f

m e a s u r e s a s w e l l a s m e a s u r e s t h a t a r e m o r e

v a l i d ( e . g . , m e a s u r e s o t h e r t h a n s o c i a b i l i t y t h a t

m o r e d i r e c t l y a s s e s s v i e w s o f o t h e r s ) .

S e c o n d , i n v e s t ig a t io n s o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f

o t h er s h a v e i n c l u d e d a b r o a d r a n g e o f m e a s u r e s

( e . g . , g e n e r a l b e l i e f s a b o u t h u m a n n a t u r e v s .

v i e w s o f s p e c i f ic p a r t n e r s ), a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t i o n

w i t h a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e is v a r i a b l e . T h i s v a r i a t i o n

ma y re f l e c t t he c ur re n t t e ns i on i n l i t e ra t u re r e -g a r d i n g w h e t h e r a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e s r e f l e c t g e n -

e ra l i n t e rpe r sona l d i spos i t i ons o r a re spe c i f i -

c a l l y m a n i f e s t i n c l o s e r e l a t io n s h i p s , a n d i t m a y

a c c o u n t f o r s o m e o f t h e i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s i n t h e

e x i s t i ng l i t e ra t u re .

T h i r d , t h e m a j o r i t y o f r e s e a r c h o n t h e c o n t e n t

o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s h a s th u s f a r b e e n c o n d u c t e d

w i t h t h e u s e o f e x p l i c it m e a s u r e s ( i. e. , s e lf -

r e p o r t ). W h e n e v a l u a t i n g a n y t a r g e t ( t h e s e l f o r

o t h e r ) , p e o p l e a r e p r o n e t o m a k i n g b i a s e d o r

s e l f -p r o t e c ti v e j u d g m e n t s ( G r e e n w a l d & B a n a ji ,1 9 9 5 ) , a n d t h u s r e s e a r c h o n w o r k i n g m o d e l s

w o u l d b e n e f i t f r o m t h e u s e o f m o r e i m p l i c i t

m e a s u r e s ( e. g. , G r e e n w a l d a n d B a n a j i ' s I m p l i c it

A s s o c i a t i o n T e s t [ I A T ] ) . M e a s u r e s t h a t d o n o t

r e l y o n c o n s c i o u s s e l f - r e p o r t a r e e s p e c i a l l y i m -

p o r t a n t f o r e x a m i n i n g w o r k i n g m o d e l s b e c a u s e

m a n y a s p e c t s a r e h y p o t h e s i z e d t o o p e r a t e w i t h -

o u t c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s a n d i n a s e l f - p r o t e c t iv e

f a s h i o n ( B o w l b y , 1 9 8 0 ) . D e s p i t e t h e w i d e -

s p r e a d u s e o f s e l f - r e p o r t m e a s u r e s , s o m e s t u d ie s

h a v e u s e d m u l t i p l e m e t h o d s , s u c h a s i n t e r v i e w

b e h a v i o r , p e e r r e p o r t s , a n d s e l f - r e p o r t s ( B a r -t h o l o m e w & H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ) , t o a s s e s s a s p e c t s

o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s . O t h e r s a r e a l so b e g i n n i n g t o

c o m p a r e e x p l i c i t l y g e n e r a t e d r e p o r t s w i t h i m -

p l i c i t r e s p o n s e s d e r i v e d f r o m t h e I A T ( e . g . ,

F e l d m a n B a r r e t t , M c C a b e , C o s t a , B e v a q u a , &

B l i s s , 1 9 9 9 ) . T h e s e s t u d i e s h a v e y i e l d e d f i n d -

i n g s t h a t a r e g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h o s e

u s i n g s o l e l y s e l f - r e p o r t m e a s u r e s ( f o r d e t a i l e d

d i s c u s s i o n s o f a d d i ti o n a l m e a s u r e m e n t is s u e s ,

s e e B a r t h o l o m e w & S h a v e r , 1 9 9 8 ; B r e n n a n ,

C l a r k , & S h a v e r , 1 9 9 8 ; F r a l e y & W a l l e r , 1 9 9 8 ;K l o h n e n & J o h n , 1 9 9 8 ) .

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SPECIAL ISSUE : INTERN ALWORKINGMODELS 159

F i n a ll y , w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f a n d o t h -

e r s h a v e b e e n a p p r o a c h e d e m p i r ic a l l y a s i f t h e y

h av e i n d ep e n d en t e f fec t s o n r e l a ti o n s h i p - r e l a t ed

t h o u g h t , f e e l i n g , an d ac t i o n , y e t t h ey a r e c l e a r l y

i n t e r d ep en d en t . I n B o w l b y ' s o r i g i n a l t h eo r y ,

w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f o t h e rs s e r v e th e p u r p o s e o fh e l p i n g i n d i v i d u a l s k n o w w h e t h e r c l o s e o t h e r s

w i l l b e av a i l ab l e an d r e s p o n s i v e , an d t h u s t h ey

ca r r y i m p l i ca t i o n s f o r t h e s e l f . F u r t h e r m o r e ,

w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f d e v e l o p i n i t ia l ly

t h r o u g h ex p e r i en ce s w i t h s p ec i f i c o t h e r s an d

h o w t h e y re s p o n d ( s ee M a r k u s & C r o s s , 1 9 9 0 ) .

T h u s , w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f a r e b e s t s ee n

as m o d e l s o f th e s e l f i n r e l a t io n t o o t h e r s . T h i s

i d ea f i t s w i t h t h eo r y an d r e s ea r ch s u g g es t i n g

t h a t t h e s e l f is i n ex t r i c ab l y co n n ec t ed t o o t h e r s

( s ee A n d e r se n , R e z n i k , & C h e n , 1 9 97 ; B a ld w i n ,

1 9 9 2 ; M ar k u s & C r o s s , 1 9 9 0 ) . F o r ex am p l e ,o t h e r s m ay b e i n co r p o r a t ed i n to r ep r e s en t a t i o n s

o f t h e s e l f v ia i n t e r ac t i o n s i n a g i v en s i tu a t i o n

( S ch l en k e r & W ei g o l d , 1 9 8 9 ) o r p a r t icu l a r re -

l a t io n s h i p ( A r o n , A r o n , T u d o r , & N e l s o n , 1 9 9 1 ;

O g i l v i e & A s h m o r e , 1 9 9 1 ) , b y p r o v i d i n g s t an -

d a r d s f o r s e l f - ev a l u a t i o n ( H i g g in s , 1 9 8 7 ) , o r b y

d es c r i b i n g t h e s e l f i n r e f e r en ce t o o t h e r s

( R o s en b e r g , 1 9 8 8 ) t h r o u g h s t a t em en t s s u ch a s

" I am a s u p p o r t i v e s p o u s e . " R es ea r ch e r s m i g h t

b e t t e r i n co r p o r a t e t h i s i d ea o f a r e l a t io n a l s e l f b y

t ak i n g i n t o acco u n t t h e s e l f a s i t u n f o l d s i npar t i cu la r s i tua t iona l con tex t s ( e .g . , s ee Markus

& K i t ay am a , 1 9 9 1 ) , r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( H i n k l ey &

A n d e r s en , 1 9 9 6 ) , o r i n t e r ac t i o n s eq u en ces ( s ee

B a l d w i n , 1 9 9 2 ; B a l d w i n , F eh r , K eed i an , S e i d e l ,

& T h o m s o n , 1 9 9 3 ) .

S t r u c t u r e o f W o r k i n g M o d e l s

Theory . S ev e r a l t h eo r i s t s h av e p r o p o s ed

t h a t w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e o r g an i zed i n a h i e r a r -

ch i ca l f a s h i o n , r an g i n g f r o m g en e r a l t o s p ec i f i c

m o d e l s ( B o w l b y , 1 9 8 0 ; B r e t h e r t o n , 1 9 8 5 , 1 9 9 0 ;Col l ins & Read , 1994; Main e t a l . , 1985) . F rom

t h is p e r s p ec t i v e , p eo p l e d o n o t h o l d a s i n g l e s e t

o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f an d o t h e r s; r a t h e r,

t h ey h o l d a f am i l y o f m o d e l s t h a t i n c lu d e , a t

h i g h e r l ev e l s , ab s t r ac t r u l e s o r a s s u m p t i o n s

ab o u t a t t a ch m en t r e l a t i o n s h i p s an d , a t l o w e r

l ev e l s , i n f o r m a t i o n ab o u t s p ec i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s

and event s w i th in r e l a t io r~sh ips . These ideas

a l s o i m p l y t h a t w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e n o t a s in g l e

en t i t y b u t a r e m u l t i f a ce t ed r ep r e s en t a t i o n s i n

w h i c h i n f o r m a t i o n a t o n e l e v e l n e e d n o t b eco n s i s t en t w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a t an o t h e r l ev e l

( B o w l b y , 1 9 8 0 ; B r e t h e r t o n , 1 9 9 0 ; M a i n , 1 9 9 1 ).

I n d i v i d u a l s c an h o l d d i f f e r en t w o r k i n g m o d e l s

f o r d i f f e r en t s i g n i f i c an t o t h e r s b ecau s e each

m o d e l c a n b e i n t e rc o n n e c t e d w i t h o t h e r m o d e l s

w i t h i n a co m p l ex h i e r a r ch i ca l n e t w o r k ( C o l l i n s

& R ead , 1 9 9 4 ) .Evidence . L i t t l e d i r ec t ev i d en ce ex i s t s t h a t

i s r e le v a n t t o t h e o r g a n i z a ti o n o f w o r k i n g m o d -

e l s. S e v e r a l s t u d ie s , h o w e v e r , b e a r i n d i r ec t l y o n

th i s i s sue and a re cons i s t en t w i th the ideas tha t

p eo p l e h o l d b o t h g en e r a l an d r e l a t i o n s h i p - s p e -

c i f ic w o r k i n g m o d e l s an d t h a t d i f f e r en t w o r k i n gm o d e l s m i g h t ex i s t a t t h e s p ec i f ic l ev e l. G en e r -

a l i z ed an d r e l a t i o n s h i p - s p ec i f i c m eas u r e s o f

w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f th e s e l f an d o t h e r s a r e p o s -

i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t ed ( e . g . , m o r e p o s i t i v e g en e r a l

m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f a r e a s s o c i a t ed w i t h m o r e

p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p - s p ec i f i c m o d e l s o f t h es e l f) , b u t t h e c o r r e l a t io n s a r e s m a l l t o m o d e r a t e

( l es s than .40) , ind ica t ing tha t the y a re no t iden-

t i c a l (C o zza r e l l i , H o ek s t r a , & B y l s m a , i n p r e s s ) .

D es p i t e t h e s e d i f f e r en t a t t a ch m en t p a t t e r n s i n

d i f f e r en t re l a t io n s h i p s , p eo p l e a r e ab l e t o r ep o r t

a g en e r a l a t t a ch m en t s t y l e ( B a l d w i n , K ee l an ,

F eh r , E n n s , & K o h - R an g a r a j o o , 1 9 9 6 ) . P eo p l e

r ep o r t m o r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t a r e co n s i s t en t

w i t h t h e i r g en e r a l i z ed ( n o n - r e l a t i o n s h i p - s p ec i f -

i c ) a t t a ch m en t s t y l e , an d t h ey m o r e ea s i l y g en -

e r a t e ex am p l e s o f r e l a ti o n s h i p s t h a t m a t ch t h e i rgenera l i zed s ty le (Baldwin e t a l . , 1996) . In ad-

d i t ion , ind iv idua l s a re ab le to l i s t mul t ip le peo-

p l e w h o m ay s e r v e a s a t t a ch m en t f i g u r e s ( e . g . ,

rom ant ic par tner s , paren t s , bes t f r i ends , and s ib -

l i n g s ; T r i n k e & B a r t h o l o m ew , 1 9 9 7 ) .

Evaluation. T h eo r e t i c a l a cco u n t s o f t h e

s t r u c t u r e o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e w e l l e l ab o -

r a t ed , b u t t h ey h av e n o t b een t e s t ed d i r ec t l y i n

t h e ad u l t a t t a ch m en t l i t e r a t u r e . T h i s a r ea m ay

h av e r e ce i v e d le s s a t t en ti o n , i n p a rt , b ecau s e o f

t h e r e l i an ce o n s e l f - r ep o r t m e t h o d s n o t ed ea r -

l ie r . Q u es t i o n s o f s t r u c t u r e w i l l p r o b ab l y r eq u i r et h e u s e o f r e s p o n s e l a t en c i e s o r o t h e r co g n i t i v e

m e t h o d s . T h u s , t h e q u e s t i o n o f s t r u c t u re i s ri p e

f o r em p i r i c a l i n v es t i g a t i o n . S p ec i f i c q u es t i o n s

t o b e ad d r e s s ed i n c l u d e t h e f o l l o w i n g : ( a ) A r e

w o r k i n g m o d e l s o r g an i zed i n a h i e r a r ch i ca l

f a s h i o n , o r m i g h t t h ey b e o r g an i zed w i t h i n a

c o m p l e x n e t w o r k o f a s s o c i a t i o n s t h a t a r e n o t

l i n k ed w i t h i n a s t r ic t h i e r a r ch y ( e . g ., A n d e r s en

& K l a t zk y , 1 9 8 7 ; K i h l s t r o m & K l e i n , 1 9 9 4 ) ?

( b ) W h e n a n d h o w i s a t t a c h m e n t b e h a v i o r

g u i d ed b y w o r k i n g m o d e l s a t th e m o s t ab s tr ac t ,

g en e r a l l ev e l v e r s u s t h o s e a t t h e m o r e s p ec i f i c

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160 PIETROMONACO AND FELDM ANBARRETT

l ev e l ? (c ) H o w a re w o rk i n g m o d e l s a t d i f f e r en t

l eve l s (or wi th in a l eve l ) i n t e rconnec ted? and(d ) D o es t h e o rg an i za t i o n a l s tru c tu re o f w o rk i n gm o d e l s v a ry ac ro s s i n d i v i d u a l s , w i t h so m e p eo -

p l e p o s se s s i n g a m o re co m p l ex s t ru c t u re t h a t

i n co rp o ra te s m u l t i p l e w o rk i n g m o d e l s an d o t h e rp eo p l e p o s se s s i n g a l e s s co m p l ex s t ru c t u re? A n -

sw er i n g su ch q u es t i o n s w i ll h e l p t o c l a r i fy o t h e ra sp ec ts o f t h e co n cep t o f a t t a ch m en t n o t ed ea r -

l i e r , i nc lud ing whether a t t achment s ty l es t yp i -

ca l ly re f l ec t genera l i n t e rpersona l d i spos i t i onso r w h e t h e r t h ey fu n c t i o n a s m o re co n t ex t - sp e -c i f ic represen ta t ions of par t i cu l a r re l a t ionsh ips .

Processes Underlying Working Models

T h eo ry . W o rk i n g m o d e l s a r e a s su m ed t oguide a t t en t ion , in t e rpre t a t ion , and m em ory in a

w a y t h a t a l l o w s i n d i v i d u a l s to g en e ra t e ex p ec -t a t i ons about fu ture i n t e rpersona l s i t ua t ionsa n d t o d e v e l o p p l a n s f o r d e a l i n g w i t h t h o s es i t u a t i o n s . O n t h e b a s i s o f t h eo ry an d ev i -

d e n c e i n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n - p r o c e s s i n g l i t e r a -

t u r e , B o w l b y ( 1 9 8 0 ) p r o p o s e d t h a t w o r k i n gm o d e l s , t h r o u g h r e p e a t e d u s e , b e g i n t o f u n c -

t i o n a u t o m a t i c a l l y , w i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s a w a r e -n es s . T h i s p ro p o s i t i o n i s co n s i s t en t w i t h r e -c e n t w o r k d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t m u c h c o g n i t i v e

a c t i v i t y o c c u r s a u t o m a t i c a l l y a n d o u t s i d e o f

co n sc i o u s aw aren es s ( s ee B a rg h , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 7 ) .C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c r o o t s o f

a t ta c h m e n t t h e o r y , B o w l b y a ls o h y p o t h e s i z e d

t h a t th i s l es s c o n s c i o u s s i d e o f w o r k i n g m o d -

e l s m a y s e r v e d e f e n s i v e , s e l f -p r o t e c t iv e f u n c -t i o n s ( B o w l b y , 1 9 8 0 ; C a s s i d y & K o b a k ,

1 9 8 8 ; C r i t ten d e n , 1 9 9 0 ; M a i n , 1 9 9 1 ) . F o r ex -

a m p l e , i n d i v i d u a l s m a y h o l d m u l t ip l e m o d e l si n w h i ch a p a r t i cu l a r a sp ec t o f r e a l i t y i s s een

i n w a y s t h a t a r e c o n t r a d i c t o r y a n d i n c o h e r e n t

( e . g . , " M y m o t h e r d e e p l y l o v e s a n d c a r e sa b o u t m e " a n d " M y m o t h e r c r i t i c i z e s a n d

r e j e c t s m e a n d d o e s n ' t c a r e a b o u t m e " ) . I nt h is c a s e , o n e m o d e l m a y o p e r a t e w i t h i n c o n -s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s , w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r m o d e l

m a y o p e r a t e p r i m a r i l y o u t s i d e o f c o n s c i o u sa w a r e n e s s , d e f e n d i n g t h e p e r s o n f r o m a t h r e a t

t o t h e s e l f (B o w l b y , 1 9 7 3 ; M a i n , 1 9 9 1 ). A l -t h o u g h s u c h d e f e n s i v e p r o c e ss e s a r e a s s u m e dt o ex i s t to so m e ex t en t i n a l l i n d i v i d u a l s , th ey

a r e t h o u g h t t o b e p a r t i c u l a r l y e v i d e n t a m o n gi n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a d i s m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t s t y l e( C a s s i d y & K o b a k , 1 9 88 ; F r a l e y , D a v i s , &

S h av e r , 1 9 9 8 ) . I n t h e i r s ea rch fo r s ecu r i t y ,d i s m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t c h i l d r e n m a y p r o t e c t

t h e m s e l v e s b y n o t r e l y i n g o n a n a t t a c h m e n tf i g u r e w h o i s u n l i k e l y t o p r o v i d e c o m f o r t

( C a s s i d y & K o b a k , 1 9 8 8 ; M a i n & W e s t o n ,1 9 8 2 ) . D i s m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t a d u l t s s i m i l a r l y

m a y s e e k s e c u r it y b y d o w n p l a y i n g th e i r n e e d

f o r c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d b y e m p h a s i z i n gt h e i r s e l f - r e l i an ce (F ra l ey e t a l . , 1 9 9 8 ) .

Evidence. A v a r i e t y o f i n d i r ec t ev i d en ce

h as b een c i t ed i n su p p o r t o f t h e n o t i o n t h a t

w o rk i n g m o d e l s g u i d e t h e p ro ces se s u n d e r l y i n ga t t a ch m en t p a t t e rn s . F o r ex am p l e , w o rk i n g

m o d e l s a r e t h e h y p o t h es i zed m e ch an i sm d i r ec t-ing people ' s pa t t e rns of explana t ions for re l a -

t i onsh ip event s (Col l i ns , 1996) , t he i r percep-

t ions of romant i c re l a t i onsh ips (Baldwin e t a l . ,1993; Carne l l ey , P i e t romonaco , & Jaf fe , 1994 ,

1996; Col l i ns & Read , 1990; Hazan & Shaver ,

1987; P i e t romonaco & Camel l ey , 1994) , t he i rpercept ions of t he se l f and o thers (Mikul incer ,1995, 1998a, 1998b), thei r cho ice or l iking of

par t i cu l a r k inds of par tners (Chappel l & Davi s ,

1998; Fraz i e r , Byer , F i scher , Wright , & De-Bord , 1996; Ki rkp a t r i ck & Dav i s , 1994; P i -

e t rom onac o & Carn e l l ey , 1994) , t he i r o rganiza-t i on of re l a t i onsh ip knowledge (F i sh t e in , P i -

e t romo naco , & Fe ldm an Barre tt , 1999) , the i rbehavior i n romant i c re l a t i onsh ips (S impson,

1990; S impson, Rholes , & Nel l i gan , 1992;

Simpson, Rholes , & Phi l l i ps , 1996) , and the i rem o t i o n a l ex p e r i en ce an d co p i n g s t y le s (F ra l ey& Sh aver , 1998; Mikul incer , F lor ian , & Wel l e r ,

1993; Mikul incer & Orbach , 1995; P i e t romo-

naco & Feldman Barre t t , 1997b; T idwel l , Re i s ,& Shaver, 1996).

M an y o f t h e se s t u d ie s , h o w ev e r , h av e r e l ied

on consc ious se l f - repor t s t ha t cann ot adequate lya s se s s t h e co g n i t i v e m ech an i sm s u n d e r l y i n g

working model s . Some notab le s tud ies (e .g . ,

Baldwin et al . , 1993; Col l ins, 1996; Fishtein etal ., 1999; Fra ley & Shav er, 1997; M ikul inc er,

1995, 1998a, 1998b), ho we ver, hav e use d im-pl i c i t measures (e .g ., reac t ion t ime, reca l l, cod-

i n g o f o p en -en d ed i n f e ren ces , an d p h y s i o l o g i ca lmeasures) t ha t p rovide a s t ronger bas i s f rom

which to i n fer cogni t i ve processes . These s tud-

i e s h av e d em o n s t r a t ed a t ta ch m e n t d i f fe r en ces i nthe acce ss ib i l it y and reca l l o f pos i t ive an d neg-a t ive conten t (Baldw in e t a l. , 1993; Mikul incer ,

1995) , i n reca l l and respo nse t ime for i n form a-t ion about t he se l f and o thers under d i f fe r -en t contex tua l condi t i ons (Mikul incer , 1998a ,

1998b) , i n open-ended explana t ions for re l a -t i onsh ip- re l evant event s (Col l i ns , 1996), and in

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t h e o r g an i za t i o n a l co m p l ex i t y o f r e l a t i o n s h i p

knowledge (F i sh te in e t a l . , 1999) . In add i t ion , a

f ew s tud ies ( e .g . , S impson e t a l . , 1992 , 1996)

h av e u s ed b eh av i o r a l m eas u r e s , w h i ch a l s o a r e

m o r e i m p l i c i t m eas u r e s t h an s e l f - r ep o r t . T h es e

s t u d i e s h av e s h o w n t h a t p eo p l e w i t h d i f f e r en ta t t a ch m en t s t y l e s d i s p l ay d i f f e r en t b eh av i o r i n

t h e i r i n t e r ac t io n s w i t h a r o m an t i c p a r t n e r u n d e r

an x i e t y - p r o v o k i n g co n d i t i o n s ( e .g . , av o i d an t i n -

d i v i d u a l s en g ag e i n l e s s p h y s i ca l co n t ac t w i t h

t h e i r p a r t n e r t h an d o s ecu r e i n d i v i d u a l s ) . T h e

d eg r ee t o w h i ch t h e s e b eh av i o r a l d i f f e r en ces

r e f l e c t u n d e r l y i n g co g n i t i v e p r o ce s s e s w i l l n eed

t o b e c l a r i f i ed , h o w ev e r , b y s t u d i e s t h a t a l s o

a s s e s s co g n i t i v e v a r i ab l e s a s m ed i a t o r s o f t h i s

e f f ec t .

S e v e r a l s tu d ie s h a v e e x a m i n e d w h e t h e r a d u l t

a t t a ch m en t i s l i n k ed t o d e f en s i v e p r o ce s s i n g .W i t h i n t h e d ev e l o p m e n t a l l i te r a t u re , r e s ea r ch e r s

h a v e e x a m i n e d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d c o h e r e n c e

o f ad u l t s ' d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h e i r ch i l d h o o d r e l a -

t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e i r p a r en t s d u r i n g t h e A d u l t

A t t ach m en t I n t e r v i ew ( M a i n e t a l. , 1 9 8 5 ) a s an

i m p l i c i t i n d i ca t o r o f p r o ce s s i n g . I n t h i s r e -

s ea r ch , t r a i n ed j u d g e s co d e r e s p o n d e n t s ' d e -

s c r ip t i o n s a l o n g a v a r i e t y o f d i m en s i o n s , s u ch a s

co h e r en ce an d t h e ab i l i t y t o p r o v i d e s p ec i f i c

m em o r i e s . T h i s w o r k h a s d em o n s t r a t ed th a t d is -

m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t i n d i v i d u a l s o f t e n m a k e g e n -e r a l i d ea l i z ed s t a t em en t s ab o u t t h e i r p a ren t s , b u t

t h e i r m o r e s p e c i f i c m e m o r i e s o f t e n f o c u s o n

n e g a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e s s u ch a s b e i n g n e g l e c t e d o r

r e j ec t ed b y a p a r en t . T h i s d i s c r ep an cy s u g g es t s

t h a t d i s m i s s i n g - av o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s m ay b e a t -

t em p t i n g t o s u p p r e s s t h e i r p a i n f u l ex p e r i en ce s ,

b u t t h e s e a tt e m p t s m a y n o t b e c o m p l e t e l y s u c -

ce s s f u l b ecau s e d i s m i s s i n g - av o i d a n t ad u l t s a ls o

h av e s h o w n i n c r ea s ed p h y s i o l o g i ca l r e s p o n s i v e -

n e s s ( s k i n co n d u c t an ce l ev e l ) a t p o i n t s i n t h e

A d u l t A t t a c h m e n t I n t e r v i e w w h e r e t h e y h a v e

d en i ed t h e n eg a t i v i t y o f th e i r ch i l d h o o d ex p e r i -en ce s ( D o z i e r & K o b ak , 1 9 9 2 ).

W i t h i n t h e l it e r a t u re o n a t t a ch m en t i n ro m an -

t i c re l a t io n s h i p s , d i s m i s s i n g - av o i d an t i n d i v i d u -

a l s, r e l a t i v e t o i n d iv i d u a l s w i t h o t h e r a t t a ch m en t

s t y l e s , ap p ea r t o m o r e ea s i l y s u p p r e s s t h e i r

t h o u g h t s ab o u t an a t t a ch m en t t h r ea t ( F r a l ey &

Shaver , 1997) . In con t r as t to the f ind ings for

ad u l t a t t a ch m en t t o a p a r en t ( e . g . , D o z i e r &

K o b a k , 1 9 9 2 ) , h o w ev e r , th i s s u p p r e s s io n w as

a s s o c i a t ed w i t h d ec r ea s e d p h y s i o l o g i ca l a r o u s a l

( s k i n co n d u c t an ce l ev e l ) , s u g g es t i n g t h a t t h e s ei n d i v i d u a l s m ay h av e s u cce s s f u l l y d eac t i v a t ed

t h e a t t a ch m en t s y s tem ( F r a l ey & S h av e r , 1 9 9 7 ).O t h e r w o r k ( P i e t ro m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r r e tt ,

1 9 9 9 b ) u s in g an i m p l i c i t m e as u r e o f d e f en s i v e -

n e s s a l s o h a s s h o w n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w h o

w e r e h i g h e r i n d i s m i s s in g - a v o i d a n c e e v i d e n c e d

g r ea t e r d e f en s i v e v e r b a l b eh av i o r i n o p en -en d ed , w r i t t en n a r r a t i v e s ab o u t a s p ec i f i c co n -

f l i c t i n t h e i r r o m an t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p , w h e r ea s

t h o s e h i g h e r i n p r e o c c u p a t i o n e v i d e n c e d l e s s

d e f en s i v e v e r b a l b eh av i o r . I n ad d i ti o n , n eg a t i v e

s e l f - re f e r en t w o r d s i n t e r f e r ed le s s w i t h a v o i d an t

i n d i v i d u a l s ' r e s p o n s e s o n t h e S t r o o p co l o r - n am -

i n g t a sk t h an f o r s ecu r e o r p r eo ccu p i ed i n d i v id -

ua l s (Mikul incer , 1995 , S tu dy 2) , sugge s t ing

t h a t n eg a t i v e s e l f - r e f e r en t co n t en t m ay b e l e s s

acce s s i b l e i n m em o r y f o r av o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s .

Evaluation. P e o p l e w h o e v i d e n c e d i f f e r e n t

a t t a ch m en t s t y l e s d i f f e r i n t h e i r p e r cep t i o n s an di n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f t h em s e l v e s , o t h e r s , an d t h e i r

r e l a t i o n s h i p s ; i n t h e i r r ep o r t ed ex p e r i en ce o f

em o t i o n ; an d i n th e ea s e w i t h w h i ch t h ey acce s s

an d r eca l l i n f o r m a t i o n ab o u t t h em s e l v e s . E s p e -

c i a l l y i m p o r t an t a r e s t u d i e s t h a t h av e r e l i ed o n

m o r e i m p l i c it m e t h o d s a n d h a v e g e n e r a l ly s u p -

p o r t ed t h e i d ea t h a t a t t a ch m en t s t y l e i s a s s o c i -

a t ed w i t h d i f f e r en t p a t t e r n s o f co n s t ru a l , a s w e l l

a s a cce s s i b i l i t y an d m em o r y , f o r s o m e k i n d s o f

in format ion ( e .g . , Ba ldwin e t a l . , 1993; Col l ins ,

1996; F i sh te in e t a l . , 1999; Fra ley & Shaver ,1997; Mikul incer , 1995 , 1998a , 1998b; P i -

e t r o m o n a co & F e l d m an B a r r e t t, 1 9 9 9 b ) . T h e s e

s t u d i e s h av e t h e m e t h o d o l o g i ca l ad v an t ag e

o f r e ly i n g o n o u t co m e m eas u r e s ( e .g . , r e ac -

t i o n t i m e , b eh av i o r , p h y s i o l o g i ca l a r o u s a l , an d

co d ed p a t t e r n s o f ex p l an a t i o n o r d e s c r i p t i o n )

tha t a r e l es s sub je c t to s e l f - r epo r t b iases . In

ad d i t io n , ev en t - co n t i n g en t d i a ry s t u d ie s ( P i -

e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r r et t, 1 9 9 7b ; T i d w e l l

e t a l. , 1996) in which ind iv idu a l s r epor t on the i r

i n t e r ac t i o n s i m m ed i a t e l y a f t e r t h ey o ccu r a l s o

a r e t h o u g h t to m i n i m i z e m e m o r y b i a s es i n s e lf -r ep o r t s . S t u d i e s t h a t h av e u s ed r e t r o s p ec t i v e

s e l f - r ep o r t s a s o u t co m e m eas u r e s a r e m o r e

p r o b l em a t i c b ecau s e p eo p l e o f t en a re n o t ab l e t o

p r o v i d e accu r a t e r ep o r t s o f t h e i r co g n i t i v e p r o -

ces ses ( s ee N isbe t t & Wi l son , 1977) .

Q u e s t i o n s r e m a i n a b o u t w h y t h e p r o c e s s i n g

d i f fe r e n c e s f o u n d s o f a r m i g h t o c c u r . F o r e x a m -

p l e , t h e ex t en t t o w h i ch p r o ce s s i n g d i f f e r en ces

a r e co n t r o l l ed v e r s u s au t o m a t i c c an n o t b e d e -

t e r m i n ed i n m o s t s t u d i e s b ecau s e p a r t i c i p an t s

a r e co n s c i o u s l y aw a r e o f t h e s t i m u l i an d t h e i r

r e s p o n s e s ( e . g ., B a r g h & T o t a , 1 9 8 8 ; W i l li am s ,

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162 PIETROMONACO AND FELDMAN BARRETT

M a t h e w s , & M a c L e o d , 1 9 9 6 ) . O n e w a y t o a d -

d r e s s t h i s p r o b l em w o u l d b e t o p r e s en t s t i m u l i

s u b l i m i n a l l y , t h e r eb y r ed u c i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

t h a t c o n s c i o u s a w a r e n e s s c o u l d a c c o u n t f o r t h e

e f f ec t s ( s ee W i l l i am s e t a l . , 1 9 9 6 ) . A n o t h e r

q u e s t io n c o n c e r n s t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h s o m e o ft h e p r o ce s s i n g d i f f e r en ces , s u ch a s t h o s e f o u n d

f o r m e m o r y ( e .g . , M i k u l i n ce r , 1 9 9 5 ) , r e f l e c t d i f -

f e r en ce s in m o o d ( e . g . , d y s p h o r i a ) ra t h e r t h an i n

co g n i t i v e r ep r e s en t a t i o n s o f t h e s e l f an d o t h e r s .

F o r ex am p l e , i n o n e s t u d y ( M i k u l i n ce r , 1 9 9 5 ,

S t u d y 1 ), p r e o c c u p i e d p e o p l e s h o w e d l e ss p o s -

i t i v it y i n t h e i r r e ca l l o f s e l f - r e f e r en t w o r d s , a

f i n d i n g t h a t co u l d b e ex p l a i n ed i n t e r m s o f t h e

co n t en t an d s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r m en t a l r ep r e s en -

t a t i o n s o r i n t e r m s o f u n d e r l y i n g d i f f e r en ces

i n m o o d . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e co m p u t a t i o n s

u n d e r l y i n g t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s se s r e m a i nu n c l ea r .

N o s t u d i e s t o d a t e h av e ex am i n ed t h e au t o -

m a t i c a c t i v a t io n o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s ( s ee B a r g h ,

1 9 9 7 ) , d e s p i t e t h e t h eo r e t i c a l im p o r t an ce o f t h is

co n cep t . T h e f ew s t u d i e s ad d r e s s i n g t h e o p e r a -

t i o n o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s o u t s i d e o f c o n s c i o u s

a w a r e n e s s h a v e f o c u s e d o n t h e r o l e o f d e f e n -

s i v en es s . T h i s w o r k s u g g es t s t h a t d i s m i s s i n g -

av o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o s h o w

d e f en s i v e p r o ce s s i n g , b u t m an y q u es t i o n s r e -

m a i n a b o u t w h e n , w h y , a n d h o w t h e s e d e f e n s iv ep r o ces s e s o ccu r . I n ad d i t i o n , t h e t w o s t u d i e s

u s i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l m e a s u r e s ( D o z i e r & K o b a k ,

1 9 9 2 ; F r a l ey & S h av e r , 1 9 9 7 ) y i e l d ed o p p o s i n g

p a t t e r n s , f o r r e a s o n s t h a t w i l l n eed t o b e c l ad -

f l ed b y f u t u r e r e s ea r ch . F i n a l l y , f u r t h e r i n v es t i -

g a t i o n s a r e n eed ed t o ex p l o r e o t h e r p r o ce s s i n g

co m p o n en t s ( e . g . , a t t en t i o n a l m ech an i s m s ) t h a t

h av e y e t t o b e i n v es t i g a t ed .

Stabi l i ty and Continui ty

T h e o r y . W o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e u s u a l ly c o n -s idered to be f a i r ly s t ab le w i th in a r e l a t ionsh ip

o v e r t i m e ( B o w l b y , 1 9 7 3 ; s ee a ls o C as s i d y ,

2 0 0 0 , an d F r a l ey & S h av e r , 2 0 0 0 ) . T h i s s t ab i li t y

o ccu r s , i n p a r t , b ecau s e t h e q u a l i t y o f i n t e r ac -

t i o n s b e t w een t w o i n d i v i d u a l s r em a i n s s t ab l e

w i t h i n t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t a l s o b ecau s e w o r k -

i n g m o d e l s f u n c t i o n t o d i r ec t a t ten t i o n t o r ep r e -

s en t a t i o n - co n s i s t en t i n f o r m a t i o n an d t o p r o d u ce

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f i n t e r p e r s o n a l ev en t s t h a t a r e

co n s i s t en t w i t h t h o s e r ep r e s en t a t i o n s ( A i n s -

w o r t h , 1 9 8 9 ) . D es p i t e t h e i r s t ab i l i t y , w o r k i n g

m o d e l s a l so a r e v i e w e d a s d y n a m i c r e p r e s e n ta -

t i o n s t h a t c an b e u p d a t ed , e l ab o r a t ed , o r r e -

p l aced a s l i f e c i r cu m s t an ces ch an g e ( B o w l b y ,

1 9 7 3 ; H azan & S h av e r , 1 9 8 7 ) . S u ch ch an g es ,

w h e n t h e y o c c u r , h a p p e n g r a d u a l l y a n d w i t h

s o m e d i f fi cu l ty .

A l t h o u g h w o r k i n g m o d e l s m a y s h o w s o m eco n t i n u i t y i n co n t en t o v e r t im e , t h e i r s t r u c tu r e i s

l i k e l y t o ev o l v e s u b s t an t i a l l y f r o m i n f an cy t o

ch i l d h o o d an d ad u l t h o o d . T h e i n i t i a l m o d e l s

f o r m ed i n i n f an cy an d ea r l y ch i l d h o o d a r e l ik e l y

t o b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x a n d s o p h i s t i c a t e d a s

ch i l d r en d ev e l o p m o r e ab s t r ac t co g n i t i v e ab i l i -

t i e s ( B o w l b y , 1 9 6 9 ) . Y o u n g ch i l d r en ' s w o r k i n g

m o d e l s a r e l i k e l y t o i n c l u d e s i m p l e i n f o r m a t i o n

ab o u t c a r eg i v e r s ' av a i l ab i l i t y an d r e s p o n s i v e -

n e s s , w h e r ea s t h o s e o f o l d e r ch i l d r en an d ad u l t s

a r e ap t t o i n c l u d e m o r e d e t a il ed , e l ab o r a t ed i n-

f o r m a t i o n ; t o i n c o r p o r a t e m o r e a d v a n c e d c o g -n i t i v e p r o ce s s e s s u ch a s i m ag i n i n g t h e p a r t n e r ' s

r e s p o n s e s ; an d t o b e o r g an i zed w i t h i n a co m -

p l ex n e t w o r k o f h i e r a rch i e s ( B r e t h e r t o n , 1 9 9 0 ) .

Evidence. W o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e t h o u g h t t o

h a v e s o m e c o n t i n u it y f r o m c h i l d h o o d t o a d u l t -

h o o d b ecau s e o f t h e i r p r o p en s i t y f o r s t ab i l i t y

o v e r t im e ( B o w l b y , 1 9 7 9 ; H a z a n & S h a v e r ,

1987; Shaver , Col l ins , & Clark , 1996) . Evi -

d e n c e b a s e d o n i n d iv i d u a ls ' m e m o r i e s o f th e i r

ch i l d h o o d ex p e r i en ce s s u p p o r t s t h e n o t i o n t h a t

s o m e c o n t i n u it y d o e s i n d e e d e x i s t ( C a m e l l e y e ta l., 1 9 9 4 ; H a zan & S h av e r , 1 9 8 7 ). F o r ex am p l e ,

Haz an and Shav er (1987) found tha t s ecure adu lt s

r ep o r t ed w a r m er r e l a t io n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r p a r en t s

t h an d i d an x i o u s - am b i v a l en t o r av o i d an t ad u lt s ;

av o i d an t ad u l t s r ep o r t ed co l d e r an d m o r e r e j e c t -

i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h t h e i r m o t h e r s t h an d i d

a n x i o u s - a m b i v a l e n t a d u l t s ; a n d a n x i o u s - a m -

b i v a l en t ad u l t s r ep o r t ed t h a t t h e i r p a r en ts w e r e

m o r e u n f a i r an d i n t r u si v e . I n ad d i t io n , o n e l o n -

g i t u d i n a l s t u d y ( K l o h n en & B e r a , 1 9 9 8 ) h a s

d o c u m e n t e d t h a t w o m e n ' s r e p o r t s o f a t t a c h -

ment - r e la t ed charac te r i s t i cs ( e .g . , i n t e rper sona lc l o s en es s , s o c i a l co n f i d en ce , an d em o t i o n a l d i s -

t an ce ) s h o w co n t i n u i t y w h en a s s e s s ed a t t h e

ag es o f 2 7 , 4 3 , an d 5 2 y ea r s .

A l t h o u g h s o m e ev i d e n ce ex i s ts f o r t h e s tab i l-

i t y o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s , i t i s a l s o t h e ca s e t h a t

w o r k i n g m o d e l s c an b e m o d i f i ed a s l i f e c i r cu m -

s t an ces ch an g e . S t u d i e s o f a t ta ch m en t b e t w een

m o t h e r s a n d c h i ld r e n ( T h o m p s o n , L a m b , & E s -

t e s , 1 9 8 3 ; V au g h n , E g e l an d , S r o u f e , & W a t e r s ,

1 9 7 9 ) s u g g es t t h a t m a j o r l i f e ch an g es a l t e r

w o r k i n g m o d e l s , b u t l i t t l e em p i r i c a l ev i d en ce

ex i s t s ab o u t h o w l i f e ev en t s m i g h t l e ad t o

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SPECIAL ISSUE: INTERNALWORKINGMODELS 163

ch an g e o r s t ab i l i t y i n w o r k i n g m o d e l s i n ad u l t -

h o o d ( R o t h b a r d & S h av e r , 1 9 9 4 ) . N o s t u d i e s

h a v e e x a m i n e d c h a n g e s t h a t m a y o c c u r o v e r

t i m e i n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s .

Evaluation. S i m i l a r t o t h e r e s ea r ch r ep o r t ed

f o r o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e w o r k i n g m o d e l s c o n -cep t , m o s t o f th e r e s ea r ch s u g g es t i n g t h a t w o r k -

i n g m o d e l s a r e s t ab l e o v e r t i m e h a s r e l i ed o n

s e l f - r ep o r t , i n t h i s c a s e r e s p o n d en t s ' m em o r i e s

o f p r ev i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p - r e l ev an t d e t a il s . A m p l e

e v i d e n c e f r o m o t h e r a r e a s o f p s y c h o l o g y s u g -

g es t s , h o w ev e r , t h a t p eo p l e m ay n o t a ccu r a t e l y

r eca l l t h e i r p a s t ex p e r i en ce s . C u r r en t m em o r i e s

m a y d e r i v e p ri m a r i l y fr o m w o r k i n g m o d e l r ep -

r e s en t a t i o n s i n d ep en d en t o f r e l a t i o n s h i p - r e l e -

v a n t e v e n t s , o r t h e y m a y b e b i a s e d b y c u r r e n t

r e l a t io n s h i p ex p e r i en ce s o r g o a l s ( f o r a d is cu s -s i o n o f b i a s i n r e t r o s p ec t i v e j u d g m en t s , s ee

Ross , 1989; Schac ter , 1996 ) . Thu s , the degree to

w h i c h c o n t i n u it y e x i st s f r o m c h i l d h o o d t h r o u g h

a d u l t h o o d r e m a i n s a n o p e n q u e s t i o n . T h e o n e

l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y ( K l o h n en & B e r a , 1 9 9 8 ) o f

ad u l t s s u g g es t s t h a t a t t a ch m en t - r e l a t ed ch a r ac -

t e r is t ic s m a y s h o w co n t i n u i t y f r o m ea r l y t o m i d -

d l e ad u l t h o o d .

C u r r e n t S t a tu s o f th e W o r k i n g

M o d e l s C o n c e p t

I t s h o u l d b e ev i d en t t h a t t h e w o r k i n g m o d e l s

co n cep t i s th eo r e t i c a l l y r i ch an d h a s s e r v ed a s

t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a l a r g e b o d y o f r e s ea r ch i n

b o t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l a n d s o c ia l p s y c h o l o g y . Y e t,

d e t a i l ed d e s c r i p t i o n s o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s an d

t h e i r ch a r ac t e r is t ic s t en d t o b e g en e r a l o r i m p r e -

c i s e , an d m an y o f t h e i r co r e f e a t u re s h av e y e t t o

b e e m p i r ic a l l y d o c u m e n t e d . A s o u n d t h e o r y o f

ad u l t a t ta ch m en t r eq u i r e s t h a t th e w o r k i n g m o d -

e l s co n cep t b e s p ec i f i ed m o r e c l ea r l y an d em -

pi r i ca l ly va l ida ted .W e h av e i d en t i fi ed f o u r c r it i c a l q u es t i o n s t h a t

a r e r e l ev an t f o r f u r t h e r d e l i n ea t i n g t h e p r o p e r -

t i es o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s i n ad u l ts : ( a ) W h a t i s t h e

r o l e o f a f f ec t in w o r k i n g m o d e l s ? ( Is a f f ec t an

o u t c o m e o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s o r a n o r g a n i z i n g

f o r ce? ) ( b ) A r e w o r k i n g m o d e l s g en e r a l i z a t i o n s

ac r o s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( an i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r en ce

var iab le ) , o r a r e they spec i f i c to par t i cu la r r e l a -

t i o n s h i p s ( a r e l a ti o n a l v a r i ab l e ) ? ( c ) W h a t i s t h e

r o l e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p co n t ex t i n t h e ac t i v a t i o n

o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s ? a n d ( d ) W h a t i s th e r o l e o f

a t t a c h m e n t g o a ls i n h o w w o r k i n g m o d e l s f u n c -t i o n ? E ach o f t h e s e q u es t i o n s t o u ch es o n i s su e s

t h a t a r e i m p o r t an t f o r f u r t h e r c la r i f y i n g t h e u n -

d e r l y i n g co n t en t , s tr u c t u re , an d p r o ce s s co m p o -

n e n t s o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s.

T h e Ro l e o f A f fec t

B o w l b y c a m e f r o m t h e o b j e c t re l a ti o n s t ra d i-

t ion , and , l ike o ther ob jec t r e l a t ion theor i s t s , he

v i ew ed w o r k i n g m o d e l s an d t h e i r a s s o c i a t ed

g o a l s a s i n h e r en t l y t i ed t o a f f ec t . M u ch o f t h e

em p i r ic a l w o r k i n t h e ad u l t l it e r a tu r e h a s a s k ed

t h e fo l l o w i n g q u es ti o n : H o w d o w o r k i n g m o d -

e ls i n f l u e n c e e m o t i o n a l re s p o n s e s ? T h e e m p h a -

s i s h a s b een o n h o w co g n i t i v e r ep r e s en t a t i o n s

t r i g g e r o r i n f l u en ce a f f ec t . D i f f e r en ces c l e a r l y

ex i s t in t h e em o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s o f p eo p l e w i t h

d i f f e r en t a t t a ch m en t s t y l e s . E v i d en ce s u g g es t st h a t p eo p l e w h o r ep o r t d i f f e r en t a t t a ch m en t

s t y le s , an d w h o p r e s u m ab l y d i f f e r i n t h e i r u n -

d e r l y i n g w o r k i n g m o d e l s , d i f f e r i n t h e i r

em o t i o n a l r e ac t i v i t y an d i n w h a t t h ey d o i n r e -

s p o n s e t o th o s e em o t i o n s ( e . g. , B a r t h o l o m ew &

H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ; C a r n e l l ey e t a l ., 1 9 9 4 ; H a zan

& S h a v e r , 1 9 87 ; P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r -

r e t t , 1997b; S impson e t a l . , 1992) . For example ,

p e o p l e w h o m o r e c l o s e l y f i t t h e p r e o c c u p i e d

p r o t o t y p e r ep o r t i n t en s e em o t i o n s ( C o l l i n s &

R ead , 1 9 9 0 ; P i e t r o m o n aco & C a r n e l l ey , 1 9 9 4 ;

P i e t r o m o n ac o & F e l d m an B a r r e t t, 1 9 9 7 b ) , f r e -q u e n t e m o t i o n a l u p s a n d d o w n s ( H a z a n &

S h av e r , 1 9 8 7 ) , h i g h em o t i o n a l ex p r e s s i v en es s

( B a r t h o l o m ew & H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ) , an d h i g h

an x i e t y an d i m p u l s i v en es s ( S h av e r & B r en n an ,

1 9 9 2 ). I n co n t r a s t, p eo p l e w h o m o r e c l o s e l y fi t

t h e d i s m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t p r o t o t y p e r e p o r t d a m p -

e n e d e m o t i o n a l i t y ( P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n

Bar re t t , 1997b) , in te rv iewers r a t e them as l es s

em o t i o n a l l y ex p r e s s i v e t h an o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s

( B a r t h o l o m ew & H o r o w i t z , 1 9 9 1 , S t u d y 1 ), an d

t h ey a r e m o r e ab l e t o s u p p r e s s t h e i r f e e l i n g s( F r a l ey & S h av e r , 1 9 9 7 ).

T h e v i e w t h a t w o r k i n g m o d e l s p r o d u c e e m o -

t i o n r e fl e c t s t h e r o o t s o f m a n y ad u l t a t t a ch m e n t

r e s ea r ch e r s i n t h e s o c i a l - co g n i t i v e t r ad i t i o n .

D e f i n it io n s o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t e n a p p e a r

s i m i l a r to d e f i n i t io n s o f s ch em as , b u t t h e w o r k -

i n g m o d e l s c o n c e p t r e f l e c t s m o r e m o t i v a t e d ,

d y n am i c , a f f ec t i v e l y ch a r g ed p r o ce s s e s . F r o m

an o b j ec t r e l a t i o n s s t an d p o i n t , w e p r o p o s e t h a t

r e l a t i o n s h i p co g n i t i o n s a r e i n ex t r i c ab l y t i ed t o

o n e an o t h e r b y t h e i r em o t i o n a l co n t en t . I n t h i s

v i e w , e m o t i o n s a r e n o t m e r e l y a n o u t c o m e o fw o r k i n g m o d e l s b u t a r e f u n d a m e n t a l t o t h e w a y

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164 PIETROMON ACO AND FELDM AN BARRETT

Reliance on

Others

Figure 1.

Willin8

Unwilling

Em otional Reactivity

Low I High I

. . . . . . . . . . i - - r _ e o c _ u p _ e d . . _ }

Dismissive i Fearful [

Emo tional reactivity and reliance on others for regulation.

i n w h i c h p e o p l e o r g a n i z e k n o w l e d g e a b o u t t h ei r

r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

I n o u r v i e w , w o r k i n g m o d e l s m a y b e b e s t

c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t e r m s o f u n d e r l y i n g a f f e c t i v e

p r o c e s s e s . W e ( P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r -

r e t t , 1 9 9 9 a ) h a v e p r o p o s e d t h a t t w o s i m i l a r a f -

f e c t - r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s a r e i m p l i c a t e d i n t h e o p -

e r a t i o n o f t h e a t t a c h m e n t s y s t e m f o r a d u l ts ( s e eF i gure 1 ) : ( a ) e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i v i t y , d e f i n e d a s

t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h t h e n e e d f o r f e l t s e -

c ur i t y i s a c t i va t e d , a nd (b ) e m o t i o n a l r e g u l a t i o n

s t r a t e g i e s , d e f i n e d a s t h e p a t t e r n s o f re l a t i o n s h i p

b e h a v i o r t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s e n a c t i n a n a t t e m p t t o

ma i n t a i n o r r e s t o re f e l t s e c ur i t y , t ha t i s , t he

f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s u s e o t h e r s i n

t h e s e r v i c e o f a f f e c t r e g u l a t i o n ( f o r a c o m p l e -

m e n t a r y m o d e l , s e e F r a l e y a n d S h a v e r , 2 0 0 0 ) .

T h e s e t w o a f f e c t i v e p r o c e s s e s c a p t u r e t h e a f fe c -

t i v e a s p e c t s o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t h a v e b e e np o s t u l a te d b y B o w l b y a n d o t h e r o b j e c t r e la t io n s

t h e o r i s t s a n d a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h d e v e l o p m e n t a l

w o r k s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e i s b r o a d l y

c o n n e c t e d t o t e m p e r a m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s m a n i -

f e s t e d a s e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i v i t y a n d t o t h e s t r a t e -

g i e s ( e . g . , a p p r o a c h o r a v o i d a n c e b e h a v i o r s )

t h a t p e o p l e u s e t o m o d u l a t e e m o t i o n a l e x p e r i -

e n c e s ( s e e B r i d g e s & G r o l n i c k , 1 9 9 5 ; E i s e n b e r g

& F a b e s , 1 9 9 2 ; R o t h b a r t & D e r r y b e r r y , 1 9 8 1 ) . 1

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e i d e a t h a t a d u l t s w h o h o l d n e g -

a t i v e s e l f - v i e w s t e n d t o b e m o r e e m o t i o n a l l y

r e a c t i v e h a s r e c e i v e d s o m e i n d i r e c t s u p p o r t( G r o s s , S u t t o n , & K e t e l a a r , 1 9 9 8 ) ; p e o p l e w h o

s h o w g r e a t e r a f f e c t i v e r e a c t i v i t y a r e m o r e l i k e l y

t o e v i d e n c e n e u r o t i c i s m , w h i c h h a s b e e n a s s o -

c i a t e d w i t h l o w e r s e l f - e s t e e m . A l t h o u g h t h i s

p e r s p e c t i v e w i l l n e e d t o b e t e s t e d d i r e c t l y , i t

m a y b e a d v a n t a g e o u s b e c a u s e i t f o c u s e s r e -

s e a r c h e r s o n t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h w o r k i n g

m o d e l s d i r e c t a t t a c h m e n t - r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r s . I n

c o n t r a s t t o r e l a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e s ( e . g .,

M i k u l i n c e r & F l o r i a n , 1 9 9 8 ; S h a v e r e t a l. ,

1 9 9 6 ) i n w h i c h w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e s e e n a s

i n f l u e n c i n g e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n , o u r v i e w r e c o g -

n i z e s t h e s e a f f e c t - r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s a s i n t e g r a l

t o t h e p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h o w w o r k i n g

m o d e l s f u n c t io n .

R e c e n t w o r k ( N i e d e n t h a l , H a l b e r s t a d t , &

I n n e s - K e r , 1 9 9 9 ) o f f e r s s o m e i n t e r e s t i n g m e t h -

o d s f o r e x a m i n i n g h o w e m o t i o n i n f l u e n c e s t h e

w a y i n w h i c h p e o p l e o r g a n i z e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s .

S t u d i e s b y N i e d e n t h a l a n d h e r c o l l e a g u e s ( e . g . ,

Ha lbers tad t & Nieden tha l , 1997; Nieden tha l ,

H a l b e r s t a d t , & S e t t e r lu n d , 1 9 9 7 ) s u g g e s t th a t

e m o t i o n s e r v e s t o p r o m o t e c o n c e p t u a l c o h e r -

e n c e , l e a d i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o c a t e g o r i z e t o g e t h e r

e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t e l i c i t s i m i l a r e m o t i o n a l r e -

s p o n s e s . A s a r e s u l t, a f f e c t m a y f u n c t i o n a s th e

" g l u e " t h a t b i n d s i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n m e n t a l

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . N o w h e r e s h o u l d t h i s b e m o r e

t r u e t h a n f o r w o r k i n g m o d e l s . E v e n t s t h a t o c c u r

a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t d o m a i n s o f l i f e m i g h t b e c a t e -

g o r i z e d m o r e i n t e r m s o f t h e e m o t i o n a l r e -s p o n s e s t h e y e l i c i t t h a n i n t e r m s o f t h e ir s p e c i f ic

s e m a n t i c f e a t u r e s ( e . g . , w h a t w a s a c t u a l l y s a i d

o r a c c o m p l i s h e d i n a n i n t e r a c t i o n ) . F o r e x a m -

p l e, a w o m a n w h o f e lt a n g r y in r e s p o n s e t o a n

i n t e r p e r s o n a l e v e n t t h a t o c c u r r e d a t w o r k ( e . g . ,

a n e m p l o y e e ' s fa i lu r e t o a r r iv e a t m e e t i n g s o n

t i m e ) a n d t o a n o t h e r e v e n t t h a t o c c u r r e d a t h o m e

( e .g . , a d i sp u t e o v e r h a n d l i n g f a m i l y f in a n c e s )

m i g h t m o r e c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e t h e s e t w o e v e n t s ,

e v e n t h o u g h t h e i r s e m a n t i c c o n t e n t i s q u i t e d i f -

f e r e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , s h e w o u l d a s s o c i a t e t h et w o i n t e ra c t io n s t o a g r e a t e r d e g r e e t h a n i f th e

t w o i n t e r ac t i o n s h a d e l i c it e d d i f f e r e n t e m o t i o n a l

re a c t i ons ( e . g . , a nge r a nd fe a r ) .

T h e a f f ec t iv e , d y n a m i c a s p e c ts o f w o r k i n g

m o d e l s m a y b e b e s t c a p t u r e d b y m o r e i m p l i c i t

m e a s u r e s ( s e e G r e e n w a l d & B a n a j i , 1 9 9 5 ;

G r e e n w a l d , M c G h e e , & S c h w a r t z , 1 9 9 8 ) r a t h e r

Although the d egree to wh ich emotional reactivity re-flects innate biolog ical predispositions or learn ed responses

remains a point of debate, man y theorists agree that itreflects bo th internal and external influences.

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SPECIAL ISSUE: INTERNA LWORKINGMODELS 165

t h a n t r a d i t io n a l s e l f - r e p o r t m e a s u r e s f o r re a s o n s

t h a t w e h a v e a l r e a d y o u t l i n e d . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e

b e l i e f t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d b e i n f lu e n c e d b y e m o -

t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e W e s t -

e r n c u l t u r a l a s s u m p t i o n t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d a c t t o

l i m i t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e m o t i o n o n t h e i r t h o u g h t sa n d a c t i o n s ( D a m a s i o , 1 9 9 4 ; L u t z , 1 9 9 0 ) . A s

a r e s u l t , r e s p o n d e n t s m a y n o t a c c u r a t e l y d e -

p i c t t h e r o l e o f e m o t i o n i n t h e i r c o n s c i o u s

se l f - r e por t s .

I n s u m m a r y , w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e " h o t " s tr u c -

t u r e s th a t a r e d y n a m i c a n d a f f e c t i v e l y c h a r g e d .

A t t a c h m e n t r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e n o t y e t c a p i t a li z e d

o n t h is f e a tu r e o f B o w l b y ' s t h e o ry , o r m o r e

g e n e r a l l y o f o b j e c t r e l a t i o n s t h e o r y , b u t w e

t h i n k t h a t a n i m p o r t a n t n e w d i r e c t i o n w i l l b e t o

f o c u s o n t h e a f f e c t - r e l a t e d p r o c e s s e s ( i .e . , e m o -

t i o n a l r e a c t i v i t y a n d r e g u l a t i o n ) t h a t u n d e r l i ew o r k i n g m o d e l s a n d t o e x a m i n e e m o t i o n a s a n

o r g a n i z in g f o r c e i n h o w p e o p l e t h i n k a b o u t a n d

b e h a v e i n t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

Ind iv idua l D i f f e r ence Ver sus Re la t iona l

Var iab le

A p r i m a r y q u e s t i o n i n th e a t t a c h m e n t l it e r a-

t u r e c o n c e r n s w h e t h e r a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e s , a n d

t h e w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t u n d e r l i e t h e m , a r e a n

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e o r a r e l a t i o n a lv a r i a b l e ( e . g . , K o b a k , 1 9 9 4 ) . A s a n i n d i v i d u a l

d i f f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e , w o r k i n g m o d e l s w o u l d b e

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n o f a t t a c h -

m e n t - r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r s a c r o s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s

w i t h d i f f e r e n t p a r t n e r s . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s

v i e w , a d u l t a t t a c h m e n t r e s e a r c h e r s t y p i c a l l y

m e a s u r e a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e a t a g e n e r a l l e v e l ,

a s k i n g p e o p l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r g e n e r a l s t y l e

a c r o s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( e . g . , b y c h o o s i n g a p r o t o -

t y p e o r m a k i n g d i m e n s i o n a l r a t in g s t o d e s c r i b e

t h e i r g e n e r a l f e e l i n g s a b o u t r e la t i o n s h i p s ) .

U s i n g t h i s a p p r o a c h , r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e d e m -o n s t r a t e d t h a t p e o p l e w h o r e p o r t d i f f e r e n t g e n -

e r a l i z e d a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e s d i f f e r i n t h e i r b e l ie f s

a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s , o t h e r s , a n d r e l a t i o n s h i p s

( B a l d w i n e t a l. , 1 9 9 3; B a r t h o l o m e w & H o r o -

w i t z , 1 9 9 1 ; C a m e l l e y & J a n o f f - B u l m a n , 1 9 9 2 ;

C o l l i n s & R e a d , 1 9 9 0 ; H a z a n & S h a v e r , 1 9 8 7 ;

M i k u l i n c e r , 1 9 9 5 ; P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n

B a r r e t t , 1 9 9 7 b ) ; t h e ir e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e s ( C o l -

l i n s & R e a d , 1 9 9 0 ; H a z a n & S h a v e r , 1 9 8 7 ;

M i k u l i n c e r & O r b a c h , 1 9 9 5 ; P i e t r o m o n a c o &

C a r n e l le y , 1 9 94 ; P i e tr o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r -r e tt , 1 9 9 7 b ; S h a v e r & B r e n n a n , 1 9 9 2 ) ; a n d t h e i r

r e l a t io n s h i p f u n c t i o n i n g ( C a r n e l l e y e t a l. , 1 9 9 6 ;

C o l l i n s & R e a d , 1 9 9 0 ; F e e n e y , N o U e r , & C a l -

l a n , 1 9 94 ; K i r k p a t r i c k & D a v i s , 1 9 9 4 ; S i m p s o n

e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ) . D i a r y s t u d i e s t h a t h a v e e x a m i n e d

t h e s a m e p e r s o n ' s r e a c t i o n s a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t

k i n d s o f r e l a ti o n s h i p s ( e .g . , b e s t f r i e n d s a n dr o m a n t i c p a r tn e r s ) a l s o h a v e r e v e a l e d s o m e g e n -

e r a l e f f e c t s o f a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e a c r o s s d i f f e r e n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p s ( P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r r e t t ,

1997b; T i dwe l l e t a l . , 1996) . Toge t he r , t he se

f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t t h a t a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e , w h e n

m e a s u r e d a t a g e n e r a l l e v e l , o p e r a t e s t o s o m e

e x t e n t l i k e a b r o a d i n t e r p e r s o n a l s t y l e o r p e r -

s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t a f f e c t s i n d i v i d u a l s '

r e s p o n s e s t o a l l k i n d s o f r e l a ti o n s h i p s .

I f w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e m o r e o f a r el a ti o n a l

v a r i a b l e , t h e n t h e y s h o u l d b e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p e -

c i f i c a n d s h o w s o m e v a r i a b i l i t y a c r o s s d i f f e r e n ta t t a c h m e n t p a r t n e r s . I n d e e d , d e v e l o p m e n t a l r e -

s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t c h i l d r e n d o n o t a l w a y s

s h o w t h e s a m e a t t a c h m e n t p a t t e r n s w i t h t h e i r

m o t h e r s a s w i t h t h e i r f a t h e r s ( s e e F o x , K i m -

m e r l y , & S c h a f e r , 1 9 9 1 ) . A d u l t a t t a c h m e n t r e -

s e a r c h e r s t y p i c a l l y h a v e n o t m e a s u r e d a t t a c h -

m e n t s t y l e a s a r e la t i o n a l v a r i a b l e , b u t t h e r e a r e

s o m e r e c e n t e x c e p t i o n s ( B a l d w i n e t a l. , 1 9 9 6 ;

C o z z a r e l l i e t a l . , i n p r e s s ; T r i n k e & B a r -

t h o l o m e w , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e s e s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t

p e o p l e ( a ) c a n i d e n t i f y m o r e t h a n o n e p e r s o nw h o m a y s e r v e as a n a t t a c h m e n t f ig u r e a n d a r e

a b l e t o r a n k o r d e r i n a h i e r a r c h i c a l fa s h i o n t h e i r

u s e o f t h e s e p e o p l e a s a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e s

( T r i n k e & B a r t h o l o m e w , 1 9 9 7 ) ; ( b ) r e p o r t a

r a n g e o f a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e s a c r o s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s ,

e v i d e n c i n g f e e l i n g s o f s e c u r i t y i n s o m e r e l at i o n -

s h ip s b u t a n x i o u s - a m b i v a l e n c e o r a v o i d a n c e i n

o t he r s (B a l dw i n e t a l. , 1996) ; a nd (c ) a re a b l e t o

r e p o r t b o t h g e n e r a l i z e d a n d s p e c i f i c w o r k i n g

m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f a n d o t h e r s ( B a l d w i n e t a l. ,

1996; C oz z a re l l i e t a l . , i n p re s s ) .

T h u s , e v i d e n c e e x i s t s in s u p p o r t o f w o r k i n gm o d e l s a s a g e n e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e a n d a s

a r e l a ti o n s h i p - s p e c i f i c v a r ia b l e . G e n e r a l i z e d a n d

s p e c i f i c m o d e l s a r e p r o b a b l y r e l a t e d , b u t i t i s

l i k e l y t h a t, i n m a n y c a s e s , t h e y a r e n o t i d e n t ic a l

( se e C oz z a re l l i e t a l . , i n p re s s ) . I t w i l l be i m-

p o r t a n t f o r f u t u r e w o r k t o a s s e s s a t t a c h m e n t a t

b o t h g e n e r a l a n d s p e c i f ic le v e l s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e

r e l a t i v e a b i l i t y o f e a c h t y p e o f m e a s u r e t o p r e -

d i c t d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r a l o u t c o m e s . W h e n a t -

t a c h m e n t i s m e a s u r e d a t t h e m o s t g e n e r a l l e v e l ,

t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s , a n d b e h a v i o r s t h a t a r e d e -

r i v e d f r o m g e n e r a l i z e d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f o t h e r s

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166 PIETROMON ACO AND FELDM AN BARRETI"

a r e a p t t o o p e r a t e m u c h l i k e a b r o a d p e r s o n a l i t y

v a r i a b l e . T h i s r e l a t i v e l y n o n s p e c i f i c w o r k i n g

m o d e l m a y b e m o s t e v i d e n t in c o n t e x ts i n w h i c h

l i t t l e i s k n o w n a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p c o n t e x t

( e .g . , a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w r e l a t io n s h i p ) o r

w h e n i n d i v i d u a l s a r e u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t oa t t e n d t o r e l a t io n s h i p - d i s t i n g u i s h i n g d e t a il s . A s

a r e s u l t , f e w d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s

w i l l b e e v i d e n t . I n c o n t r a s t , w h e n a t t a c h m e n t i s

m e a s u r e d a t a m o r e s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p l e v e l ,

g r e a t e r v a r i a ti o n m a y o c c u r i n b e h a v i o r s a c r o s s

r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I n d e e d , i n i t i a l e v i d e n c e ( C o z z a -

re l l i e t a l . , i n p re s s ) sugge s t s t ha t r e l a t i onsh i p-

s p e c i f i c m e a s u r e s b e t t e r p r e d i c t r e l a t i o n s h i p

o u t c o m e s t h a n m o r e g e n e r a l m e a s u r e s .

A n u m b e r o f in t e r e s ti n g t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s

a r is e f r o m t h e n o t i o n t h a t w o r k i n g m o d e l s v a r y

i n t h e i r d e g r e e o f s p e c i f i c i t y . F i r s t , w h a t d o e s

t h e c o n c e p t o f a n a tt a c h m e n t " s t y l e " m e a n w h e n

w o r k i n g m o d e l s v a r y f r o m r e l a ti o n s h ip t o r e l a -

t i o n s h i p ? P e r h a p s " s t y l e " s h o u l d r e f l e c t t h e

w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t a r e m o d a l l y a c t i v a t e d ( i . e . ,

m o s t f r e q u e n t m o d e l u s e d w i t h o t h e r s ) , o r p e r -

h a p s i t s h o u l d r e f l e c t t h e w o r k i n g m o d e l s a s s o -

c i a t e d w i t h t h e m o s t f o r m a t i v e o r m o s t a f f e c -

t i v e l y im p o r t a n t r e l a t io n s h i p ( s e e W e i s s , 1 9 8 2 ).

S o m e t h eo r i st s ( A i n s w o r t h , 1 9 8 9; H a z a n &

S h a v e r , 1 9 9 4 ) h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f

w o r k i n g m o d e l s s h o u l d b e s t r o n g e s t i n a p r i -

m a r y a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d t h a t p e o p l e

a r e l i k e l y t o h a v e a s i n g l e p r i m a r y a t t a c h m e n t

re l a t i onsh i p . In t h i s c a se , t he de f i n i t i on o f a t -

t a c h m e n t s t y l e w o u l d n e e d t o b e m o r e c o n -

s t r a i ne d t ha n i t ha s be e n i n t he l i t e ra t u re , wi t h

g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n e x a m i n i n g t h o s e r e l a t i o n -

s h i p s t h a t a r e m o s t l i k e l y t o s e r v e a t t a c h m e n t

n e e d s . G i v e n t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s p o s s e s s m u l t i p l e

w o r k i n g m o d e l s a t t h e m o r e r e l a t i o n s h i p - s p e -

c i f i c l e v e l , p e r h a p s t h e c o n c e p t o f a t t a c h m e n t

" s t y l e " s h o u l d c o m e t o i n c l u d e t h e f l e x i b i l i t yw i t h w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s s h i f t f r o m o n e s e t o f

m o d e l s t o a n o t h e r a s t h e y c h a n g e r e l a t i o n s h i p

c o n t e x t s . P e r h a p s i t m i g h t b e u s e f u l t o a b a n d o n

t h e a t t a c h m e n t " s t y l e " c o n c e p t a l l t o g e t h e r i n

f a v o r o f a t t a c h m e n t " t r a j e c t o r y . " A n a t t ac h m e n t

t r a j e c t o r y c a n o c c u r o v e r t h e l if e s p a n , a s w o r k -

i n g m o d e l s c h a n g e w i t h i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p

e x p e r i e n c e s . A n a t t a c h m e n t t r a j e c t o r y a l s o c a n

o c c u r w i t h i n a r e l a t i o n s h i p o v e r t i m e , a s i n d i-

v i d u a l s m o v e f r o m u s i n g t h e i r m o s t g e n e r a l

w o r k i n g m o d e l o f o t h e r s to f a s h io n i n g a m o d e lof a spe c i f i c o t he r .

S e c o n d , h o w d o p e o p l e a g g r e g a t e a c r o s s a l l

o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p e x p e r i e n c e s t o b e a b l e t o

r e s p o n d t o g e n e r a l q u e s t i o n s a b o u t a t t a c h m e n t

s t y l e ? D o t h e y u s e t h e s t y l e t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s

t h e i r m o s t f r e q u e n t t y p e o f a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n -

s h i p , th e i r m o s t i n t e n s e a t t a c h m e n t r e l a ti o n s h i p ,o r t h e i r m o s t r e c e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p ? O r d o t h e y

s u m m a r i z e a c r o s s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o e s t i m a t e h o w

t h e y f e e l o n a v e r a g e ? I t is u n c l e a r t o w h a t e x t e n t

i n d iv i d u a ls r e s p o n d i n a n y o f t h e se w a y s , o r

w h e t h e r d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s r e l y o n d i f f e r e n t

s t r a t e g i e s t o e s t i m a t e t h e i r g e n e r a l a t t a c h m e n t

s t y le . F u r t h e r m o r e , n o t a l l r e l a t io n s h i p c o n t e x t s

w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y e v o k e a t t a c h m e n t p r o c e s s e s t o

t h e s a m e e x t e n t, e v e n f o r r e l a ti o n s h i p s t h a t

c l e a r l y s e r v e a t t a c h m e n t f u n c t io n s ( s e e S i m p s o n

& R h o l e s , 1 9 9 4 ) . H o w a r e s u c h b a s e r a t e s f a c -

t o r e d i n t o a g g r e g a t e e s t i m a t e s ?T h i r d , i s th e r e a s i n g l e w o r k i n g m o d e l o f t h e

s e l f o r m u l ti p l e w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f?

B e c a u s e w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f th e s e l f i n c lu d e

h o w a c c e p t a b l e a n d w o r t h w h i l e o n e i s i n t h e

e y e s o f a n a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e , i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t

t h e r e a r e m u l t ip l e m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f, e a c h a s -

s o c i a t e d w i t h a d i f f e r e n t a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n -

s h i p . T h i s v i e w f i t s c l o s e l y w i t h s o c i a l - c o g n i -

t i v e c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e l f ( M a r k u s & C r o s s ,

1 9 9 0 ; M a r k u s & W u r f , 1 9 8 7 ) t h a t d e p i c t s e l f -

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a s m u l t i f a c e t e d a n d v a r y i n gwi t h t he s i t ua t i ona l o r r e l a t i ona l c on t e x t . I f r e -

l a t i o n a l c o n t e x t i s i m p o r t a n t , a s t h i s v i e w s u g -

g e s ts , th e n i t m a y b e m o r e u s e f u l to v i e w w o r k -

i n g m o d e l s o f a t t a c h m e n t a s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f

t he se l f i n r e l a t ion t o o t he r s (An de rse n e t a l. ,

1 9 9 7 ; H i n k l e y & A n d e r s e n , 1 9 9 6 ) , w h e r e i n t h e

o t h e r m i g h t b e a g e n e r a li z e d o t h e r o r a s p e c i f c

r e l a t i o n s h i p p a r m e r . F u r t h e r m o r e , f o r a g i v e n

r e la t io n s h i p , p e o p l e m a y h a v e m u l t ip l e w o r k i n g

m o d e l s f o r t h e s e l f i n r e l a ti o n t o t h a t p a r t i c u l a r

p a r t n e r ( O g i l v i e & A s h m o r e , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h u s ,

w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f t h e s e l f i n r e la t i o n to a n yp a r t i c u l a r a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e m a y v a r y w i t h t h e

s i t ua t i ona l c on t e x t .

F i n a l l y , a r e t h e p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t u n d e r l i e a t t a c h m e n t p a t -

t e rns s t a b l e i nd i v i dua l d i f f e re nc e s , o r a re t he y

r e l a t i o n s h i p s p e c i f i c ? T a k e , f o r e x a m p l e , o u r

s u g g e s t i o n t h a t w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h d i f f e r e n c e s i n e m o t i o n a l r e a c t i v i t y a n d r e -

l i a n c e o n o t h e r s f o r e m o t i o n r e g u l a t i o n p u r -

p o s e s . E m o t i o n a l r e a c t i v i t y , d e f i n e d a s t h e f r e -

q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h a n i n d i v i d u a l i s t h r e a t e n e da n d s e c u r i t y n e e d s a r i s e , m a y b e m o r e o f a n

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SPECIAL ISSUE: INTERN ALWORKINGMODELS 167

i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e v a r i a b l e . P e o p l e w h o a r e

m o r e p r e o c c u p i e d o r f e a r f u l - a v o i d a n t a r e l ik e l y

t o b e m o r e r e a c t i v e a n d t o f e e l th r e a te n e d m o r e

f r e q u e n t l y , w h e r e a s t h o s e w h o a r e s e c u r e w i l l

b e l e s s r e a c t i v e a n d l e s s f r e q u e n t l y t h r e a t e n e d .

A s a r e s u l t , p r e o c c u p i e d a n d f e a r f u l - a v o i d a n ti n d i v i d u a l s w i l l e x p e r i e n c e m o r e i n t e n s e n e g a -

t iv e a f f e c t m o r e f r e q u e n t l y a n d t h e r e fo r e h a v e a

g r e a t e r n e e d t o r e g u l a t e t h e i r a f f e c t t h a n w i l l

s e c u r e i n d i v i d u a l s . D i s m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t i n d i -

v i d u a l s , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e a p t t o u s e m o r e d e -

f e n s i v e s t r a te g i e s ( C a s s i d y & K o b a k , 1 9 8 8 ; F r a -

l e y e t a l . , 1998) , a re no t l i ke l y t o c onsc i ous l y

e x p e r i e n c e t h r e a t a n d t h e r e f o r e w i l l b e l e s s

l i k e l y t o s e e k s e c u r i t y f r o m o t h e r s . H o w i n d i -

v i d u a l s g o a b o u t r e g u l a t i n g t h e i r a f f e c t - - o r ,

m o r e s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e y r e l y

o n c l o s e o t h e r s f o r r e g u l a t o r y s u p p o r t - - m a yv a r y f r o m r e l a t i o n s h i p t o r e la t i o n s h ip . T h u s , t h e

a t ta c h m e n t p a tt e rn s o b s e r v e d m a y s t e m f r o m b o t h

s t a b l e a nd c on t e x t -de pe nd e nt c ha ra c t e r is t ic s .

I n s u m m a r y , a s s e s s i n g a t ta c h m e n t a t t h e g e n -

e r a l l e v e l w i l l p r o v i d e o n l y a l i m i t e d v i e w o f t h e

w o r k i n g m o d e l s t h a t u n d e r l i e a t t a c h m e n t b e -

h a v i o r s. A t t a c h m e n t m e a s u r e d a t a m o r e g e n e r a l

l e v e l i s l i k e l y t o r e f l e c t a m o r e d i s p o s i t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t w i l l p r e d i c t r e s p o n s e s a c r o s s

d i f f e r e n t k i n d s o f r e l a ti o n s h i p s , a n d i t m a y b e

c l o s e l y c o n n e c t e d t o c h a r a c t e r is t i c s s u c h a s t e m -p e r a m e n t o r f r e q u e n c y o f t h r e a t a ct iv a t io n . R e -

l a t i o n s h i p - s p e c i f i c v a r i a t i o n m a y a l s o e x i s t , b u t

t o a s s e s s i t p r o p e r l y , a t t a c h m e n t p h e n o m e n a

m u s t b e m e a s u r e d a t th e l e v e l o f th e s p e c i f i c

r e l a t io n s h i p i n a w a y t h a t ta k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h a t p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p .

W e a l s o n e e d t o c o n s i d e r th a t, w h e n a t t a c h m e n t

i s m e a s u r e d a t o n e p o i n t i n t i m e , t h e f i n d i n g s

m a y n o t g e n e r a li z e a c r o s s t im e o r c o n t e x t f o r a

g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l .

The Ro le o f the Rela t ionsh ip Con tex t

I n t e r n a l w o r k i n g m o d e l s m a y b e m o s t l i k e l y

t o b e a c t i v a t e d w i t h in t h e c o n t e x t o f a t ta c h m e n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p s , b u t w h a t i s a n a t t a c h m e n t r e l a -

t io n s h i p i n a d u l th o o d ? W i t h in t h e d e v e l o p m e n -

t a l l i t e ra t u re (e . g . , Ai nswor t h , 1989; S roufe &

W a t e r s , 1 9 7 7 ) , a n a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p is

d e f i n e d a s a c l o s e e m o t i o n a l b o n d b e t w e e n a

c h i l d a n d h i s o r h e r p r i m a r y c a r e g i v e r t h a t

s e r v e s th e i m p o r t a n t f u n c t io n o f p r o v i d i n g t h e

c h i l d w i t h p h y s i c a l a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l s e c u r i t y .A d u l t a t t a c h m e n t r e s e a r c h e r s ( i n c l u d i n g o u r -

s e l v e s ) h a v e b e e n l e s s c l e a r a b o u t e s t a b l i s h i n g

t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f w h a t i s a n d w h a t i s n o t a n

a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p i n a d u l t h o o d , y e t t h i s

d i s t in c t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t f o r a s s e s s i n g t h e i m p l i -

c a t i o n s o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s f o r r e l a t i o n s h i p

p r o c e s s e s .R e s e a r c h f o l l o w i n g H a z a n a n d S h a v e r ' s

( 1 9 8 7 ) a r t i c l e h a s e x a m i n e d " a d u l t a t t a c h m e n t "

i n a v a r i e t y o f r e la t i o n s h i p s : t h o s e w i t h r o m a n t i c

pa r t ne r s ( e . g . , C a rne l l e y e t a l . , 1994) , pa re n t s

( e .g . , C o l l i n s & R e a d , 1 9 9 0 ) , s a m e - s e x a n d o p -

pos i t e - se x f r i e nds (e . g . , T i dwe l l e t a l . , 1996) ,

s t r a n g e r s ( e . g . , M i k u l i n c e r & N a c h s h o n , 1 9 9 1 ) ,

c o w o r k e r s ( H a z a n & S h a v e r , 1 9 9 0) , a n d e v e n

G o d ( K i r k p a t r i c k & S h a v e r , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h u s , re -

s e a r ch e r s h a v e f o c u s e d o n a v a r i e t y o f r e la t io n -

s h i p s t h a t m a y o r m a y n o t s e r v e a t t a c h m e n t -

r e l at e d n e e d s. A s w e h a v e n o t e d , s o m e r e s e a r c ho n a t t a c h m e n t h a s b e e n c o n d u c t e d w i t h o u t r e f -

e r e n c e t o a s p e c i f i c r e l a t i o n s h i p p a r t n e r . T h i s

l a c k o f s p e c i f i c i t y m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e

w e h a v e n o t y e t e x a m i n e d w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a n

a t t a c h m e n t r e la t i o n s h i p i n a d u l t h o o d ( s e e F r a l e y

a n d S h a v e r , 2 0 0 0 ) .

Felt securi ty. A i n s w o r t h ( 1 9 8 9 ) s u g g e s t e d

t h a t t h e i d e n t i f y i n g f e a t u r e o f a n a t t a c h m e n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t h a t i t s e r v e s t h e f u n c t i o n o f

p r o v i d i n g f e l t se c u r it y . T o k n o w w h a t a n a t ta c h -

m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p i s i n a d u l t h o o d , o n e n e e d s t ok n o w w h a t f e l t s e c u r i t y i s f o r a n a d u l t . O n t h e

b a s i s o f b o t h t h e p s y c h o d y n a m i c l it e ra tu r e f r o m

w h i c h a t t a c h m e n t t h e o r y o r i g i n a l l y d e r i v e s a n d

l i t e r a t u r e o n t h e s e l f , w e p r o p o s e t h a t a d u l t s

e x p e r i e n c e f e l t s e c u r i t y w h e n t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t

f i g u r e c o n f i r m s t h a t ( a ) t h e y a r e l o v e d a n d l o v -

a b l e p e o p le , a n d ( b ) t h e y a r e c o m p e t e n t o r h a v e

m a s t e r y o v e r th e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . A f e e l in g o f

t h r e a t o c c u r s w h e n a p r e s s a r i s e s f o r w h i c h t h e

i n d i v i d u a l f e e l s i ll e q u i p p e d t o c o p e ( T o m a k a &

B l a s c o v i c h , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e p r e s s c a n b e g e n e r a t e d

e i t h e r e x t e r n a l l y , f r o m t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , o r i n -t e r n a ll y , f r o m n e g a t i v e a f f e c t. W h e n i n d i v i d u a l s

e x p e r i e n c e a s e l f - r e l e v a n t t h r e a t, t h e y m a y n e e d

t o e n g a g e i n b e h a v i o r s t h a t w i ll h e l p t o r e e s t a b -

l is h o r p r o m o t e f e e l i n g s o f se c u r i ty . T h u s , i n d i -

v i d u a l s e x p e r i e n c e t h r e a t ( a n d t h e r e f o r e a n e e d

f o r s e c u r i t y ) w h e n t h e i r s e l f - e s t e e m is i n q u e s -

t io n , e i t h e r b e c a u s e o f n e g a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n o r

w h e n t h e y f e e l u n a b l e t o d e a l w i t h a p e r c e i v e d

d a n g e r o n t h e i r o w n . F r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e ,

t h e n , a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e t h o s e t h a t

h a v e t h e p o t e n t i a l t o p r o v i d e f e l t s e c u r i ty i n t h e

f a c e o f th r e a t a n d i n w h i c h w o r k i n g m o d e l s o f

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168 PIETROMONACO AND FELDMAN BARR ETI'

t h e s e l f a re m o d i f i ed o r r e i n f o r c e d i n s o m e

s i g n i f i c a n t w a y b y t h e a c t i o n s o f a n o t h e r .

A l t h o u g h a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s m a y p r o -

v i d e a s o u r c e o f f e l t s e c u r it y t h r o u g h o u t t h e l i fe

c o u r s e , f e l t s e c u r i t y m a y n o t b e e s t a b l i s h e d a n d

m a i n t a i n e d v i a p r e c i s e l y t h e s a m e b e h a v i o r s i na d u l t h o o d a s i t i s i n c h i l d h o o d . A t t a c h m e n t r e -

l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t w o a d u l t s d i f f e r i n s e v e r a l

r e s p e c ts f r o m t h o s e b e t w e e n a p a r e n t a n d c h i ld

( A i n s w o r t h , 1 9 8 9 ; H a z a n & S h a v e r , 1 9 9 4;

S h a v e r , H a z a n , & B r a d s h a w , 1 9 8 8 ) . A d u l t s i n

r o m a n t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e m o t i v a t e d n o t o n l y

b y t h e a t t a c h m e n t s y s t e m b u t a l so b y t h e c a re -

g i v i n g a n d r e p r o d u c t i v e s y s t e m s . T h e c a r e g i v -

i n g s y s t e m p r o d u c e s b e h a v i o r s d e s ig n e d t o c a l m

o r h e l p a n o t h e r a n d t y p i c a l l y i s a c t i v a t e d w h e n

i n d i v i d u a l s s e e t h a t t h e i r r o m a n t i c p a r t n e r i s

d i s t re s s e d . T h e r e p r o d u c t i v e s y s t e m i s a s s o c i -a t ed w i t h s e x u a l b e h a v i o r s, w h i c h m a y b e a c ti -

v a t e d b y c u e s s u c h a s p h y s i c a l o r s o c i a l a t t r a c -

t i ve ne ss . In a du l t s , i t i s l i ke l y t ha t t he t h re e

s y s t e m s ( a t t a c h m e n t , c a r e g i v i n g , a n d s e x u a l i t y )

w o r k t o g e t h e r t o p r o d u c e f e l t s e c u r i t y b e c a u s e

i n d i v i d u a l s m a y f e e l w o r t h w h i l e a n d e f f e c t i v e

i n th e c o n t e x t o f s e x u a l i n t i m a c y o r w h e n p r o -

v i d i n g c a r e t o t h e i r p a r t n e r . T h u s , t h e a s p e c t s

t h a t d e f i n e a n a t t a c h m e n t s y s t e m i n c h i l d r e n

m a y n o t h a v e a c o m p l e t e p a r a l l e l i n a d u l t h o o d .

A s w i t h a l l l i f e s p a n d e v e l o p m e n t a l q u e s t i o n s ,t h e c h a l l e n g e f o r r e s e a r c h e r s i s t o d e t e r m i n e

w h i c h b e h a v i o r s a r e f u n c t i o n a l l y e q u i v a l e n t a t

d i f fe re n t po i n t s i n t he l i f e c yc l e .

A n c h o r i n g a t t a c h m e n t t o t h e c o n c e p t o f f e l t

s e c u r i t y i n a d u l t s m a y h a v e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r

h o w t h e c o n c e p t o f a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e a n d t h e

u n d e r l y i n g w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e u n d e r s t o o d . I t

m a y b e t h a t g l o b a l a t t a c h m e n t s t y l e i s , i n p a r t ,

d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h w h i c h i n d i -

v i d u a l s t r e a t p a r t n e r s a s a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e s a s a

w a y o f r e g u l a ti n g t h e i r e m o t i o n s . A l t h o u g h

s o m e c o n t e x t s m i g h t r e q u i r e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l st e m p o r a r i l y r e l y o n a n i n t e r a c t i o n p a r t n e r f o r

f e l t s e c u r i t y w h e n n o r m a l l y t h e y w o u l d n o t ,

a t t a c h m e n t c a n b e v i e w e d a s v a r i a t i o n i n t h e

t e n d e n c y o f i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e l y o n o t h e r s f o r f e lt

s e c u r i t y . S e c u r e l y a t t a c h e d a d u l t s , w h o g e n e r -

a l ly f e e l c o m p e t e n t a n d w o r t h y , m a y s e e k o u t a n

a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e o n l y w h e n t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a

spe c i f i c , e x t e rn a l t h re a t t o the se l f . B e c a u se t he y

i n f r e q u e n t l y f e e l t h r e a t e n e d , t h e y w i l l e n g a g e

i n a t t a c h m e n t - r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r s ( e . g . , s u p p o r t

s e e k i n g ) o n l y w h e n n e c e s s a r y . I n c o n t r a s t , p e o -

p l e w h o h a v e l e s s c e r t a i n a n d l e s s p o s i t i v e

v i e w s o f t h e m s e l v e s ( e . g ., p r e o c c u p i e d p e o p l e )

m a y s e e m a n y s i t u a t i o n s a s p o t e n t i a l l y t h r e a t -

e n i n g t o t h e i r s e n s e o f s e l f . A s a re s u l t, t h e y m a y

a t te m p t to t r ea t m a n y o t h er p e o p l e - - e v e n i na p -

p r o p r i a te o n e s , s u c h a s s t r a n g e r s - - a s i f t h ey

w e r e a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e s i n a n e f f o r t to a c h i e v ef e l t s e c u r it y . F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y m a y e n g a g e f r e -

q u e n t l y i n a t t a c h m e n t - r e l a te d b e h a v i o r s , a n d o f -

t e n t h e s e b e h a v i o r s w i l l a p p e a r t o b e i n c o n s i s -

t e n t w i t h t h e c u r r e n t c o n t e x t . D i s m i s s i n g -

a v o i d a n t i n d i v i d u a l s , w h o p r e f e r n o t t o d e p e n d

o n o t h e r s , a r e l es s l i k e l y t o u s e o t h e r s a s a w a y

o f r e g u l a t i n g f e l t s e c u r i t y , e v e n w h e n t h e y

o u g h t t o d o s o . T h i s u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o r e l y o n

o t h e r s , c o m b i n e d w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t t h e y m a y

b e t h r e a t e n e d i n f r e q u e n t l y , m a y a c c o u n t f o r

w h y d i s m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t i n d i v id u a l s r a r e ly e n -

g a g e i n a t t a c h m e n t - r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r s . R e c e n te v i d e n c e ( F r a l e y & D a v i s , 1 9 9 7 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t

d i s m i s s i n g - a v o i d a n t a d u l t s a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o

e s t a b l i s h a n a t t a c h m e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a r o -

m a n t i c p a r t n e r a n d m a y e v e n t r y to h a n d l e t h e ir

a t t a c h m e n t n e e d s o n t h e i r o w n . T h u s , t h e i r n e g -

a t i v e v i e w s o f o t h e r s m a y l e a d t h e m t o t r y t o

s e r v e a s th e i r o w n a t t a c h m e n t f i g u r e i n a n e f f o r t

t o a c h i e v e f e l t s e c u r i ty .

F o r r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t s e r v e a t t a c h m e n t f u n c -

t i o n s , o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a l c o n t e x t

w i l l d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s a c t u a l l y d i s-p l a y a t t a c h m e n t - r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r s . F o r e x a m -

p l e , i n t h e f a c e o f d i s t r e s s i n g e v e n t s , s u c h a s

s e p a r at io n f r o m a n a t t a c h m e n t f i g u re o r a p h y s -

i c a l t h r e at , c h i l d r e n a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o e n g a g e i n

a t t a ch m e n t b e h a v i o r s s u c h a s p r o x i m i t y s e e k i n g

( B o w l b y , 1 9 8 0 ) . S i m i l a r l y , s e p a r a t i o n ( F r a l e y

& Sha ve r , 1998) , d i s t r e s s (Mi kul i nc e r , 1998a ,

1998b; S i mpson e t a l . , 1992 , 1996) , o r i n t e rpe r -

s o n a l c o n f l i c t ( P i e t r o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r -

r e t t , 1 9 9 7 b ) i n a d u l t h o o d m a y t r i g g e r t h e o p e r -

a t i o n o f a t t a c h m e n t p r o c e s s e s .

Summary. D e f i n i n g t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h ap a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p s e r v e s a t t a c h m e n t f u n c -

t i o n s w i l l b e i m p o r t a n t f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g w h e n

a n d h o w w o r k i n g m o d e l s g u i d e r e l a t i o n s h i p

p r o c e s s e s . W o r k i n g m o d e l s s h o u l d b e m o s t

l i k e l y to b e a c t i v a t e d w h e n i n d i v i d u a l s p e r c e i v e

a t h r e a t to t h e i r s e n s e o f s e l f a n d t u r n t o a n o t h e r

t o r e e s t a b l i s h f e e l i n g s o f s e c u r i t y . S o m e i n d i -

v i d u a l s , s u c h a s t h o s e w h o a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o

e x p e r i e n c e t h r e a t f r e q u e n t l y , m a y u s e a l a r g e r

n u m b e r o f r e l a t i o n s h i p p a r t n e r s t o m e e t t h e i r

n e e d f o r f e l t se c u r i ty , w h e r e a s o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s

m a y t r e a t o n l y a f e w p e o p l e a s a t t a c h m e n t f ig -

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SPECIAL ISSUE: INTERNALWORK ING MODELS 169

Intimacy I H i g hL ow

Independence

High Low

. . . . . S ~ u r e . . . . . . . . . P ~ _ ~ u p _ i ~ _ _ .

Dismissive Fearful

Figure 2. Ch ronic ubgoals associated with attachment styles.

u r e s . T h u s , r a t h e r t h an a s s u m e t h a t p a r t i cu l a r

k i n d s o f r e l a t io n s h i p s ( e .g . , r o m an t i c r e l a t i o n -

s h i p s) a r e a t t a ch m en t r e l a t io n s h i p s , r e s ea r ch e r s

w i l l n eed t o a s s e ss t h e d eg r ee t o w h i ch d i f f e r en ti n d i v i d u a l s u s e p a r t i cu l a r r e l a t i o n s h i p p a r t n e r s

i n t h e s e r v i ce o f a t t a ch m en t n eed s . I n ad d i t i o n ,

i t w i l l b e i m p o r t an t t o s p ec i f y f u r t h e r o t h e r

a s p ec t s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n t h a t a r e m o s t l i k e l y t oac t i v a t e w o r k i n g m o d e l s w i t h i n a g i v en r e l a -

t i o n s h ip . A l t h o u g h b r o ad c l a s s e s o f t h r ea t en i n g

s i tua t ions can be iden t i f i ed , i t i s l ike ly tha t the

v a r i e t y o f p o t en t i a l t h r ea t s t o t h e s e l f , an d t h e

d eg r ee t o w h i ch i n d i v i d u a l s u s e p a r t i cu l a r r e l a -

t i o n s h i p p a r t n e r s t o h an d l e t h o s e t h r ea t s , w i l l

v a r y i d i o g r ap h i ca l l y .

G o a l s

J u s t a s a t t a ch m en t - r e l a t ed w o r k i n g m o d e l sm ay b e o r g an i zed i n a h i e r a r ch i ca l f a s h i o n , s o

t o o m a y a t ta c h m e n t - r e la t e d g o a l s b e o r g a n i z e d

h i e r a r ch i ca l l y . A s t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f an a t t a ch -

m en t r e l a t i o n s h i p i m p l i e s , w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e

o r g an i zed a r o u n d a s i n g l e , o v e r a r ch i n g g o a l t o

ach i ev e f e l t s e cu r i t y . H o w p eo p l e g o ab o u t t r y -

i n g t o a ch i ev e t h is g o a l m ay d ep en d , i n p a r t, o n

t h e i r su b g o a l s . S o m e o f t h e s u b g o a l s t h a t h av e

b ee n d i s cu s s ed i n t h e l i te r a t u r e i n c l u d e m i d l ev e l

g o a l s u s ed t o d i r ec t b eh av i o r i n t h e s e r v i ce o f

t h e b r o ad e r g o a l o f o b t a i n i n g f e l t s e cu r i t y .

T h es e s u b g o a l s i n c l u d e , f o r ex am p l e , s eek i n gi n t i m acy o r c l o s en es s , a d e s i r e to m a i n t a in o n e ' s

i n d ep en d en ce , an d p r o t ec t i o n o f t h e s e l f . F ew

s t u d i e s h a v e d i r e c t l y e x a m i n e d a t t a c h m e n t

g o a l s , a l th o u g h s o m e t h eo r i s ts ( C o l li n s & R ead ,

1 9 9 4 ; S h av e r e t a l. , 1 9 9 6 ) h av e d i s cu s s ed t h e i r

s i g n i f i c an ce i n w o r k i n g m o d e l s .

F r o m o u r p e r s p e c t i v e ( P i e t r o m o n a c o &

F e l d m an B a r r e t t , 1 9 9 7 a ) , ch r o n i c s u b g o a l s o f

a c h i e v i n g i n t i m a c y a n d m a i n t a i n i n g i n d e p e n -

d e n c e f r o m o t h e r s w o r k i n t h e s e r v i c e o f m a i n -

t a i n i n g f e l t s e cu r i t y an d f i t w i t h i n t h e f o u r -

c a t e g o r y p r o t o t y p e m o d e l o f a t t a c h m e n t ( s e e

F i g u r e 2 ) . I n s eek i n g a s en s e o f f e l t s e cu r i ty ,

s e c u r e p e o p l e a c h i e v e a b a l a n c e b e t w e e n e s ta b -

l i s h i n g i n t i m acy an d m a i n t a i n i n g i n d ep en d en ce

an d p r o b ab l y d o s o w i t h a g o o d d ea l o f f l ex i -

b i l i t y i n t e r m s o f w h e n t h e y a p p l y e a c h g o a l .

P e o p l e w h o a r e p r e o c c u p i e d w i t h a t t a c h m e n t

ap p ea r t o h o l d an o v e r r i d i n g ch r o n i c g o a l t o

ach i ev e i n t i m acy a s a w ay o f a t t a i n i n g f e l t s e -cu r i t y , an d p a r t o f t h a t g o a l i n v o l v e s o b t a i n i n g

r e s p o n s i v en es s f r o m o t h e r s . I n co n t r a s t , p eo p l e

w h o a r e d i sm i s s in g o f a t t a c h m e n t s e e m t o h o l d

an o v e r r i d i n g ch r o n i c g o a l t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r

i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m o t h e r s a s a w a y o f a c h i e v i n g

f e l t s ecu r i t y , w h i ch m ay b e f u r t h e r l i n k ed t o a

g o a l t o p r o t ec t t h e s e l f ( F r a l ey , D av i s , &

S h av e r , 1 9 9 8 ) . A n d , f i n a l ly , p eo p l e w h o a r e

f ea r f u l o f a t t a ch m en t s eem t o h o l d co n f l i c t i n g

c h r o n i c g o a l s t o b o t h a c h i e v e i n t i m a c y a n d

m a i n t a i n i n d ep en d en ce f r o m o t h e r s i n t h e i r a t -t em p t s t o a ch i ev e f e l t s e cu r i t y , b u t w i t h l e s s

f l ex ib i l i ty than secure ind iv idu a l s ; f ear fu l ind i -

v i d u a l s m ay h av e b o t h g o a l s a c t i v a t ed a t t h e

s a m e t i m e , l e a d i n g t o a p p r o a c h - a v o i d a n c e

conf l i c t s .

T h es e d i f f e r en t s u b g o a l s a l s o m ay l e ad t o

q u i t e d i f f e r en t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s an d r eac t i o n s t o

i n t e r p e r s o n a l ev en t s . T w o s t u d i e s ( F i s h t e i n e t

a l. , 1 9 9 9 ; P i e t r o m o n a co & F e l d m an B a r r e t t,

1 9 9 7 b ) u s in g d i f f e r en t m e t h o d s an d m eas u r e s

h a v e s h o w n t h a t p re o c c u p i e d p e o p l e , w h o d e -

s i re a h i g h l ev e l o f i n t i m ac y an d r e s p o n s i v en es sf r o m o t h e r s , v i ew h i g h co n f l i c t i n t e r ac t i o n s o r

h i g h co n f l i c t r e l a t io n s h i p s m u ch m o r e f av o r ab l y

t h a n p e o p l e w i t h o t h e r a t t a c h m e n t s t y le s w h o d o

n o t h o l d t h i s s u b g o a l t o t h e s am e ex t en t . I n a

d i a ry s t u d y ( P i e tr o m o n a c o & F e l d m a n B a r r e tt ,

1 9 9 7 b ) , w e f o u n d t h a t p r eo ccu p i ed p eo p l e , i n

c o m p a r i s o n w i t h p e o p l e h o l d i n g o t h e r a t t a c h -

m en t s t y l e s , r ep o r t ed g r ea t e r i n t i m acy , m o r e

p o s i ti v e e m o t i o n s , a n d m o r e p o s i t i v e v ie w s o f

the i r par tner s as the i r in te rac t ions increased in

conf l i c t . In a l abora tory s tudy (F i sh te in e t a l . ,

1 9 9 9 ), w e f o u n d t h a t p r e o c c u p i e d p e o p l e w h o

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170 PIETROMONACO AND FELDM AN BARRET T

w e r e i n v o l v e d i n h i g h e r c o n f l ic t ro m a n t i c r e la -

t io n s h ip s h e l d m o r e c o m p l e x v i e w s o f p o s i ti v e

a s p ec t s o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t h an d i d p eo p l e i n

o t h e r a t ta c h m e n t g r o u p s , e v e n t h o u g h a l l p e o p l e

i n h i g h e r co n f l i c t r e l a t io n s h i p s r ep o r t ed m o r e

co m p l ex n eg a t i v e v i ew s . T h i s f i n d i n g s u g g es t st h a t p r e o c c u p i e d p e o p l e a t te n d n o t o n l y t o t h e

n eg a t i v e a s p ec t s o f co n f l i c tu a l re l a t i o n s h i p s b u t

a l s o t o t h e p o s i t i v e , i n t i m acy - p r o m o t i n g a s -

p ec t s . H i g h co n f l i c t i n t e r ac ti o n s , ev en t h o u g h

t h e y m a y b e u n p l e a s a n t i n s o m e r e s p e c t s , m a y

o f f e r p r e o c c u p i e d p e o p l e t h e c h a n c e t o e l ic i t

r e s p o n s e s f r o m t h e i r p a r t n e r ( e ,g . , p e r s o n a l d i s -

c l o s u re s a n d e x p r e s s io n s o f e m o t i o n ) th a t m a y

m ak e t h em b e l i ev e t h a t t h ey a r e a ch i ev i n g i n t i -

m acy . A l o n g s i m i l a r l i n e s , r e cen t w o r k ( M i k u -

l incer , 1 998c) su gges t s tha t a s en se of t rus t i s

c l o s e l y t i ed t o a g o a l t o a ch i ev e s ecu r i t y f o rp r eo ccu p i ed i n d i v i d u a ls an d t o a g o a l t o a ch i ev e

co n t r o l f o r av o i d an t i n d i v i d u a l s . F u t u r e w o r k

a p p l y i n g s o c i a l - c o g n i t i v e m e t h o d s ( s e e B a r g h ,

1 9 9 7 ) f o r c r ea t i n g t em p o r a r y i n t e r p e r s o n a l

g o a l s ( e . g . , t o a ch i ev e i n t i m acy o r m a i n t a i n i n -

d e p e n d e n c e ) i n t h e l a b o r a t o ry w i l l b e i m p o r t a n t

f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e cau s a l r o l e o f g o a l s i n r e la -

t i o n s h i p p e r cep t i o n s an d b eh av i o r .

I n s u m m ar y , w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e l i k e l y t o

i n co r p o r a t e a v a r i e t y o f a t t a ch m en t s u b g o a l s

t h a t a r e u s ed i n t h e s e r v i ce o f f e l t s e cu r i t y .I n d i v i d u a l s m a y m e e t t h e o v e r a r c h i n g g o a l o f

ach i ev i n g f e l t s e cu r i t y in d i f f e r en t w ay s d ep en d -

i n g o n t h e i r s u b g o a l s , s u ch a s a ch i ev i n g i n t i -

m a c y . T h e s e g o a ls , e m b o d i e d i n w o r k i n g m o d -

e l s , m ay l e ad i n d i v i d u a l s t o co n s t r u e an d r e -

s p o n d t o s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s i n v e r y d i f f e r en t

w ay s . A t t ach m en t g o a l s a r e l i k e l y t o b e an

i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s , b u t t h e

ch a l l en g e f o r f u t u r e i n v es t i g a t i o n s w i l l b e t o

b e t t e r s p e c i f y w h a t t h e y a r e a n d h o w t h e y a r e

o r g a n i z e d a n d t o l o o k m o r e c a r e f u l l y a t h o w

t h ey m i g h t s h ap e r e l a t i o n s h i p p e r cep t i o n s an db eh av i o r .

i n g m o d e l s c o n c e p t h a v e g e n e r a t e d a w e a l th o f

i n f o r m a t i o n ab o u t i s s u e s c en t r a l f o r u n d e r s t an d -

i n g a t t a ch m en t i n c l o s e re l a t io n s h i p s , b u t m an y

f u n d am en t a l q u es t i o n s ab o u t t h e co n t en t , s t ru c -

t u r e , an d f u n c t i o n o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s r em a i n .

F i r s t , s t u d i e s h av e y e t t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e rw o r k i n g m o d e l s an d t h e i r co n t en t a r e b e s t ch a r -

ac t e r i z ed i n te r m s o f d i s t in c t m o d e l s o f th e s e l f

an d o t h e r s o r i n m o r e r e l a t i o n a l t e r m s t h a t r e -

f l e c t t h e s e l f in r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s . S eco n d , f ew

s t u d ie s h av e a t t em p t ed t o ex a m i n e t h e s t r u c tu r e

o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s , a l t h o u g h t h e o r iz i n g a b o u t

s t r u c t u r e ab o u n d s . T h i r d , w h e t h e r w o r k i n g

m o d e l s a c t u a l l y g u i d e p r o ce s s e s s u ch a s a t t en -

t i o n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , an d m em o r y r em a i n s an

o p en q u es t i o n . T h e s t r o n g es t ev i d en ce s o f a r

co m es f r o m s t u d i e s t h a t h av e m i n i m i zed s e l f -

r ep o r t b i a s e s b y u s i n g m o r e i m p l i c i t m eas u r e s .F o u r t h , m o r e l o n g i t u d i n a l ev i d en ce i s r eq u i r ed

t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h w o r k i n g m o d -

e l s s h o w s t ab i l i t y an d ch an g e i n ad u l t h o o d .

T h e t a s k f o r f u t u r e r e s ea r ch w i l l b e t o s p ec i f y

t h e r e l a t i o n a l an d s i t u a t i o n a l co n d i t i o n s u n d e r

w h i ch w o r k i n g m o d e l s a r e m o s t i n f l u en t i a l an d

t o d e v e l o p a m o r e p r e c i s e k n o w l e d g e b a s e a b o u t

t h e s t r u c t u r e an d o p e r a t i o n o f w o r k i n g m o d e l s .

I f u n d e r s t an d i n g o f ad u l t a t t a ch m en t p r o ce s s e s

i s t o m o v e f o r w a r d , f u t u r e r e s ea r ch e r s w i ll n eed

t o t ak e s t ep s t o ( a ) t ak e i n t o acco u n t t h e m o r ed y n a m i c , " h o t " a s pe c ts o f w o r k in g m o d e l s b y

f u r t h e r ex am i n i n g t h e r o l e o f g o a l s an d a f f ec t i n

a t t a ch m en t p r o ce s s e s ; ( b ) a s s e s s w o r k i n g m o d -

e l s a t m u l t i p l e l ev e l s , r an g i n g f r o m g en e r a l t o

r e l a t io n s h i p - s p ec i f i c m o d e l s , a s w e l l a s i d en t i f y

t h e f ea t u r e s o f t h e s i tu a t io n a l co n t ex t t h a t m ay

ac t i v a t e w o r k i n g m o d e l s ; ( c ) s p ec i f y w h e t h e r a

g i v en r e l a t i o n s h i p m ee t s t h e c r i t e r i a f o r an a t -

t a ch m en t r e l a t i o n s h i p ( i . e. , p r o v i d i n g f e l t s e cu -

r i t y an d t h e r eb y i n f l u en c i n g m o d e l s o f th e s e l f ) ;an d ( d ) d e t e r m i n e t h e m o r e p r o x i m a l g o a l s v i a

w h i ch f e l t s e cu r i t y is m a i n t a in ed .

C o n c l u s i o n R e f e r e n c e s

O v e r t h e p a st 1 2 y ea r s , a t ta ch m en t t h eo r y h a s

b e c o m e a d r i v in g f o r c e i n t h e s t u d y o f c l o se

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b ecau s e i t p r o v i d e s a co m p r eh en -

s i v e p e r s p ec t i v e f o r u n d e r s t an d i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p

p r o c e s se s . T h e w o r k i n g m o d e l s c o n c e p t is a

f o u n d a t io n a l c o m p o n e n t o f t h is t h e o r y a s a p -

p l i ed t o b o t h ch i l d r en an d ad u l t s . T h eo r y an d

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