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Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering
Scrivener Publishing100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at ScrivenerMartin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering
Edited by
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff
Copyright © 2016 by Scrivener Publishing LLC. All rights reserved.
Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts.Published simultaneously in Canada.
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Library of Congr ess Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
ISBN 978-1-119-11761-2
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
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v
Contents
Preface xi
About the Author xiii
PART A: Abbreviations and Glossary 1
PART B: Physical Properties and Safety Data 71
PART C: Macropedia of Subjects 81Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (ATSDR) 83
Air Dispersion Modeling 95
Air Pollution Control Device 109
Air Quality Index 117
Anaerobic Lagoons 131
AP-42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors 137
API Gravity 141
API Separator 143
Baghouses/Fabric Filters 149
Barrel Burning 163
Belt Filter Presses 167
Best Available Control Technology (BACT) 175
Best Management Practices 181
Bhopal Disaster 185
Blowdown and Purging (Natural Gas Industry Practices) 191
vi Contents
Calpuff 203
Carbon Adsorption 205
Carbon Capture and Sequestration 223
Ceramic Membrane Filtration Technology 235
Clean Air Act 241
Compressors 245
Control Effi ciency 279
Cooling Towers (WET) 303
Criteria Air Pollutants (CAPs) 325
Cyclone Separators 333
Deep Well Waste Injection 345
Dioxins 355
Dissolved Gas Flotation 367
Electrostatic Precipitators 375
Emergency Planning and Community Right-To-Know Act 409
Emission Factors 417
Emissions Inventory 425
Environmental Management System 439
Environmental Site Assessment 443
EPA Environmental Voluntary Programs 457
Explosive Limits 461
Faculative Ponds 467
Filter Presses 473
Flares 487
Flue Gas Desulfurization 503
Fly Ash 513
Fugitive Dust Emissions 517
Contents vii
Fugitive Emissions (Leaking Equipment) 547
Natural Gas Production Facilities (Emission Factors) 577
Gasifi cation 585
Glycol Dehydrators 599
Gravity Settlling Chambers 603
Green Chemistry Institute 611
Greenhouse Gases 613
Hazardous Air Pollutants 621
Haze 629
Heater-Treaters 637
HEPA Filtration 645
Hydraulic Fracturing 661
Ideal Gas Law 697
Impingement-Plate/Tray Tower Scrubbers 701
Indoor Air Quality 705
Indoor Air Quality Testing 711
Inertial Separators 721
Integrated Gasifi cation Combined Cycle (IGCC) 745
Ion Exchange 749
Leak Detection and Repair 757
Life Cycle Costing Analysis 781
MACT (NESHAP) Standards 801
Mass Balance Method 823
Membrane Filtration 831
National Air Toxics Assessments 841
National Ambient Air Quaility Standards (NAAQS) 845
Odor Control 855
viii Contents
Odor Th reshold 875
Oil and Gas Production Facilities (Emission Factors) 901
Petroleum Bulk Plants and Terminals (Emission Factors) 905
Phase Diagram 911
Photochemical Smog 913
Pneumatic Controllers (Natural Gas Industry) 917
Pneumatic Devices 925
Pollution Prevention Practices – Organic Chemicals Industry Sector 931
Pollution Prevention Practices – Petroleum Refi ning 947
Pressure Relief Valves and Regulators 955
Pressure Separators 969
Preventive Maintenance 975
Radionuclides 983
Radon 987
Reciprocating Engines (Natural Gas-Fired) 995
Regenerative Incinerator 1001
Remote Sensing and Monitoring 1013
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) 1023
Responsible Care Program 1031
Rotary Drum Filters 1035
Settling Ponds and Sedimentation 1043
Settling 1047
Snubbing 1073
Stack Emissions Testing 1087
Stokes’s Law 1101
Storage Tank Emissions (Oil and Condensate Tanks) 1107
Storage Tank Emissions (General) 1139
Contents ix
Th ermal Incinerator 1159
Th ermodynamic Processes 1173
Th ickeners and Clarifi ers 1179
Title V Permits 1189
Total Reduced Sulfurs 1195
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) 1201
Toxics Release Inventory 1209
Transport Properties 1241
UV Disinfection 1255
Vapor Cloud Explosions and BLEVEs 1261
Vapor Intrusion 1283
Vapor Pressure 1305
Vapor Recovery Units 1311
Venturi Scrubber 1323
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) 1331
Waste Heat to Power 1341
Well Swabbing 1351
Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization 1367
Wet Scrubbing Technology 1373
PrefaceTh is handbook has been prepared to assist environmental managers and engineers as a practical desk reference for those in need of a working knowledge of technologies and practices for pollution control and man-agement. Th e author has long felt that such a reference would be helpful for young professionals as well as seasoned engineers and managers because of the overwhelming number of diff erent technologies and practices applied in the environmental fi eld. Equally important to recognize is the sea of acronyms and abbreviations created by environmental regulators and industry to help cope with information and ever-expanding compliance obligations. To this end pains have taken to organize and provide a concise listing and defi nitions of key abbreviations and acronyms used within the U.S. and EC regulatory arenas.
Th e handbook is organized in three parts. Part A provides an extensive compilation of abbreviations and concise glossary of pollution control and engineering terminology. More than 400 terms are defi ned. Th e section is intended to provide a simple look-up guide to common but sometimes confusing terminology used in the regulatory fi eld, as well as industry jar-gon. Cross- referencing between related defi nitions and acronyms are pro-vided to assist the user.
Part B provides some general physical properties and chemical safety information. Th is part is not intended to be exhaustive; however, it does provide supplemental information that is useful to a number of the subject entries covered in the main body of the handbook.
Part C is the Macropedia of Subjects. Th e part is organized as alpha-betical subject entries for a wide range of pollution controls, technologies, pollution prevention practices and tools, computational methods for pre-paring emission estimates and emission inventories and much more. More than 100 articles have been prepared by the author, providing a concise overview of each subject, supplemented by sample calculation methods and examples where appropriate, and references. Subjects included are organized and presented in a macropedia format to assist a user in gain-ing an overview of the subject, in some instances guidance on performing certain calculations or estimates as in cases pertinent to preliminary sizing
xi
xii Preface
and selection of pollution controls or in preparing emissions inventories for reporting purposes, and recommended references materials and web sites for more in-depth information, data or computational tools. Each subject entry is intended to provide a working overview of the technol-ogy, practice, piece of equipment, regulation, or other relevant issue as it pertains to pollution control and management. Cross-referencing between related subjects is included to assist the reader to gain a basic practical level of knowledge.
Th e volume covers hundreds of subjects that cross numerous industry sectors; however, the handbook is heavily slanted to oil and gas environ-mental management, control and pollution prevention and energy effi cient practices. Multimedia pollution technologies are covered – air, water, solid waste, energy. Students, technicians, practicing engineers, environmental engineers, environmental managers, and environmental attorneys are all potential users of the handbook.
Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff , Ph.D.
About the AuthorTh e author is a chemical engineer specializing in the safe handling and management of chemicals and hazardous materials with nearly 40 years of industry, business and applied research experience. He earned his B.Sc. in chemical engineering from Clarkson College of Technology in Potsdam, New York, in 1974, his M.Sc. in chemical engineering from the same aca-demic institution in 1975, and his Ph.D. in chemical engineering from the same academic institution in 1977. Over his long career he has been a technical consultant and advisor on pollution management, worker safety, and environmental management practices to the U.S. and foreign govern-ments, private sector corporations, and international lending institutions including the World Bank Organization, the U.S. Export-Import Bank, the International Finance Corporation, and donor agencies including the U.S. Agency for International Development, the U.S. Trade & Development Agency, and the European Union. He has extensively contributed to the industrial press having authored, coauthored, or edited more than 150 engineering reference textb ooks.
xiii
PART AABBREVIATIONS AND GLOSSARY
3
ACFM Actual cubic feet per minuteACH Air changes per hour (air exchanges per hour)ACT Alternative Control Technology GuidelineAPCD Air Pollution Control DeviceAFR Air to Fuel RatioAFS AIRS Facility SubsystemAICHE American Society of Chemical EngineersAIRS Aerometric Information Retrieval SystemALAPCO Association of Local Air Pollution Control Offi cialsAMS American Meteorological SocietyANSI American National Standards InstituteAPA Air Pathway AnalysisAPI American Petroleum InstituteAPTI Air Pollution Training InstituteAQI Air Quality IndexASD Activated Sludge Diff usionASTM American Society of Testing MaterialsASQ American Society for QualityASU Air Separation UnitATS Allowance Tracking SystemATSDR Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease RegistryBACM Best Available Control MeasureBACT Best Available Control TechnologyBAMM Best Available Monitoring MethodsBART Best Available Retrofi t TechnologyBarg Bar, gauge (unit of pressure)BTEX Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene, and p-Xylene
Abbreviations
4 Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering
bhp Brake HorsepowerBLEVE Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor ExplosionBOPs Blow Out PreventersBtu British thermal unitCAA Clean Air ActCalEPA California Environmental Protection AgencyCAPs Criteria Air PollutantsCAS Chemical Abstract ServicesCASRN Chemical Abstracts Service Registry NumberCBM Coal Bed MethaneCCS Carbon Capture and Storage (or Sequestration)CD-ROM compact disc read-only memoryCE Control Effi ciencyCEM Continuous Emissions MonitoringCERCLA Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation,
and Liability ActCERR Consolidated Emissions Reporting RuleCFC Chlorofl uorocarbonCFR Code of Federal RegulationsCHIEF Clearinghouse for Inventories and Emission FactorsCHP Combined Heat and PowerCIP Cleaning-In-PlaceCMS Continuous Monitoring SystemCO Carbon MonoxideCO2 Carbon DioxideCOH Coeffi cient of HazeCOPD Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary DiseaseCTC Control Technology CenterCTG Control Techniques GuidelineDARS Data Attribute Rating SystemdB DecibelsDCF Discounted Cash FlowDECIM Defense Corporate Information ManagementDIAL Diff erential Absorption LidarDNAPL Dense non-aqueous-phase liquidDoD Department of DefenseDOE Department of EnergyDOT U.S. Department of TransportationDRE Destruction Reduction (or Removal) Effi ciencyEA Environmental assessmentEBRT Empty-bed residence time
Abbreviations 5
EC European CommissionECBM Enhanced Coal-Bed Methane RecoveryEF Emission FactorEIIP Emission Inventory Improvement ProgramEIS Environmental Impact StatementEMIS Environmental Management Information SystemEMS Environmental Management SystemEOR Enhanced Oil RecoveryEPA U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyEPC Engineering Procurement ConstructionEPCRA Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know ActETS Emissions Tracking SystemEUA EU Emission AllowancesFAME Fatty Acid Methyl EsterFIP Federal Implementation PlanFIPS Federal Information Processing SystemFOG Fat, Oil and GreaseFR Federal RegisterFS Feasibility studyGAC Granular Activated CarbonGDU Glycol Dehydration UnitsGHGs Greenhouse GasesHAP Hazardous air pollutantHCFC Hydrochlorofl uorocarbonHEPA High Effi ciency Particulate AirHQ Hazard QuotientHRSG Heat Recovery Steam GeneratorHVAC Heating, ventilation and air conditioningIARC International Agency for CancerID Identifi cationIDLH Immediately Dangerous to Life & HealthIEA International Energy AgencyIEC International Electrotechnical CommissionIGCC Integrated Gasifi cation Combined CycleIMO International Maritime OrganizationISO International Organization for StandardizationIUPAC International Union of Pure and Applied ChemistryLAER Lowest achievable emission ratelb PoundLCA Life cycle assessmentLCCA Life cycle costing analysis
6 Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering
LCR Lifetime cancer riskLDAR Leak Detection and RepairLEL Lower explosive limitLSFO Limestone Forced OxidationLNAPL Light non-aqueous-phase liquidLNG Liquefi ed Natural gasLTO Low Temperature OxidationMACT Maximum achievable control technologyMARAD U.S. Maritime AdministrationMBRs Membrane bioreactorsMERV Minimum effi ciency reporting valueMIE Minimum Ignition EnergyMSDS Material safety data sheetsMWC Municipal waste combustorsNAAQS National Ambient Air Quality StandardNAICS North American Industrial Classifi cation SystemNATICH National Air Toxics Information ClearinghouseNCP National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution
Contingency PlanNEC Not elsewhere classifi edNEDS National Emissions Database SystemNEI National Emission InventoryNEPA National Environmental Policy ActNIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and HealthNIST National Institute of Standards and TechnologyNORM Naturally Occurring Radioactive MaterialNOx Nitrogen oxidesNPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination SystemNPV Net Present ValueNTI National Toxics InventoryNPL National Priority ListNSPS New Source Performance StandardNSR New Source ReviewNTIS National Technical Information ServiceOAQPS Offi ce of Air Quality Planning and StandardsOECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentOEL Occupational Exposure LimitOMB Offi ce of Management and BudgetOSHA Occupational Safety and Health ActOSWER Offi ce of Solid Waste and Emergency ResponsePAHs Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
Abbreviations 7
PB PhenobarbitalPBBs Polybrominated biphenylsPBDDs Polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxinsPBDFs Polybrominated dibenzofuransPCBs Polychlorinated biphenylsPCBzs Polychlorinated benzenesPCBEs Polychlorinated biphenylenesPCBPs Polychlorinated biphenylenesPCBPEs Polychlorinated benzyl phenyl ethersPCDDs Polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxinsPCDFs Polychlorinated dibenzofuransPCDPEs Polychlorinated diphenyl ethersPCE Tetrachloroethylene, or equivalently tetrachloroethenePCPYs Polychlorinated pyrenesPCNs Polychlorinated naphthalenesPCPNAs Polychlorinated polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbonsPID Photoionization detectorPVC Polyvinyl chloridePEL Permissible Exposure LimitP2 Pollution PreventionPL Public LawPLC Programmable Logic ControllerPM Particulate matterPM10 Particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter less than or equal
to 10 micrometersPM2.5 Particulate matter of aerodynamic diameter less than or equal
to 2.5 micrometersPOTW Publicly owned treatment worksppb Parts per billionppm Parts per millionppmv Parts per million by volumePRP Potentially responsible partyPSD Prevention of signifi cant deteriorationQA Quality assuranceQC Quality controlRACT Reasonably available control technologyRCO Regenerative Catalytic OxidizerRCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery ActR&D Research and DevelopmentRfC Inhalation reference concentrationRHR Regional Haze Rule
8 Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering
RI Remedial investigationROD Record of DecisionROI Return on InvestmentRPT Rapid Phase TransitionRTO Regenerative Th ermal OxidizerRVP Reid Vapor PressureSARA Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization ActSCC Source Classifi cation Codescf Standard Cubic FeetSDWA Safe Drinking Water ActSFI Supplemental Fuel InjectionSIC Standard Industrial Classifi cationSIP State Implementation PlanSMD Sub-membrane depressurizationSO2 Sulfur DioxideSOCMI Synthetic Organic Chemical Manufacturing IndustrySOP Standard Operating ProcedureSSD Sub-slab depressurizationTCEQ Texas Commission of Environmental QualityTEG Triethylene GlycolTENORM Technologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive
MaterialTHMs TrihalomethanesTLV Th reshold Limit ValueTNT TrinitrotolueneTOC Total Organic CompoundsTOG Total Organic Gasestpy tons per yearTRI Toxics Release InventoryTRIS Toxic Chemical Release Inventory SystemTRS Total Reduced SulfurTSCA Toxic Substances Control ActTSDF Treatment, Storage, and Disposal FacilityTSP Total Suspended ParticulateUIC Underground Injection Control ProgramUKCS U.K. Continental ShelfUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate ChangeU.S. United StatesU.S.C. United States CodeUSCG U.S. Coast GuardUST Underground storage tank
Abbreviations 9
UTM Universal Transverse MercatorVFD Variable Frequency DriveVI Vapor intrusionVMT Vehicle Miles TraveledVOC Volatile Organic CompoundVRP Visibility Reducing ParticlesWAS Waste Activated SludgeWEO World Energy Outlook
11
Abatement – refers to the reduction or elimination of pollution.Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) – refers to the highest daily amount of a sub-
stance that may be consumed over a lifetime without adverse eff ects.Acid Deposition – a comprehensive term for the various ways acidic com-
pounds precipitate from the atmosphere and deposit onto surfaces. It can include: 1) wet deposition by means of acid rain, fog, and snow; and 2) dry deposition of acidic particles (aerosols).
Acid Rain - rain which is especially acidic (pH
12 Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering
controlled and thus is “add-on” technology, as opposed to a scheme to control pollution through altering the basic process itself.
Adsorber – an emissions control device that removes VOCs from a gas stream as a result of the gas attaching (adsorbing) onto a solid matrix such as activated carbon.
Advection – as it pertains to soil gas, refers to bulk movement in the vadose zone induced by spatial diff erences in soil gas pressure. Th e direction of advective vapor transport is always toward the direction of lower air pressure.
Adverse Health Eff ect – health eff ect from exposure to air contaminants that may range from relatively mild temporary conditions, such as eye or throat irritation, shortness of breath, or headaches to permanent and serious conditions, such as birth defects, cancer or damage to lungs, nerves, liver, heart, or other organs.
Aerobic – describes a process or activity requiring oxygen. Compare with anaerobic.
Aerosol – particles of solid or liquid matter that can remain suspended in air from a few minutes to many months depending on the particle size and weight.
Aft erburner – an air pollution abatement device that removes undesirable organic gases through incineration.
Air Basin – a land area with generally similar meteorological and geographic conditions throughout. To the extent possible, air basin boundaries are defi ned along political boundary lines and include both the source and receptor areas. As an example, the state of California is currently divided into 15 air basins.
Air Material Separator - a broad term for a device designed to separate powders from the air in which it is transported. Most commonly, this would be a cyclone or dust collector.
Air Monitoring – sampling for and measuring of pollutants present in the atmosphere.
Air Quality Increment – level to which air quality in an attainment area is allowed to degrade in siting a new or modifying an existing station-ary source under the prevention of signifi cant deterioration program. Th e size of the increment depends on the classifi cation of the area. Degradation up to the increment is allowed only to the extent that a national ambient air quality standard is not violated.
Air Quality Index (AQI) – a numerical index used for reporting sever-ity of air pollution levels to the public. It replaces the formerly used Pollutant Standards Index (PSI). Like the PSI, the AQI incorporates fi ve criteria pollutants – ozone, particulate matter, carbon monoxide,
Glossary 13
sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen dioxide – into a single index. Th e new index also incorporates the 8-hour ozone standard and the 24-hour PM2.5 standard into the index calculation. AQI levels range from 0 (Good air quality) to 500 (Hazardous air quality). Th e higher the index, the higher the level of pollutants and the greater the likelihood of health eff ects. Th e AQI incorporates an additional index category – unhealthy for sensitive groups – that ranges from 101 to 150. In addi-tion, the AQI comes with more detailed cautions.
Air Quality Manager – a qualifi ed individual employed by the local, state, or federal government to manage air quality.
Air Quality Standard (AQS) – prescribed level of a pollutant in the outside air that should not be exceeded during a specifi c time period to pro-tect public health. Established by both federal and state governments.
Airshed – a subset of air basin, the term denotes a geographical area that shares the same air because of topography, meteorology, and climate.
Alternative Fuels – fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, and liquid petroleum gas that are cleaner burning and help to meet mobile and stationary emission standards. Th ese fuels may be used in place of less clean fuels for powering motor vehicles.
Allowable Emissions – the emissions rate that represents a limit on the emissions that can occur from an emissions unit. Th is limit may be based on a federal, state, or local regulatory emission limit determined from state or local regulations and/or 40 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Parts 60, 61, and 63.
Ambient Air – air occurring at a particular time and place outside of struc-tures. Oft en used interchangeably with “outdoor air.”
Ambient Standards – limit the concentration of a given pollutant in the ambient air. Ambient standards are not emissions limitations on sources, but usually result in such limits being placed on source opera-tion as part of a control strategy to achieve or maintain an ambient standard.
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) - a nonprofi t organiza-tion that provides a forum for producers, consumers and representa-tives of government and industry to write laboratory test standards for materials, products, systems and services. ASTM publishes stan-dard test methods, specifi cations, practices, guides, classifi cations and terminology.
Ammonia (NH3) – pungent colorless gaseous compound of nitrogen and hydrogen that is very soluble in water and can easily be condensed into a liquid by cold and pressure. Ammonia reacts with NOx to form
14 Pollution Control Handbook for Oil and Gas Engineering
ammonium nitrate – a major PM2.5 component in the Western United States.
Anaerobic – describes a process or activity requiring the absence of oxygen. Compare with aerobic.
AP-42, Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors – published since 1972 as the primary compilation of U.S. EPA’s emission factor infor-mation. It contains emission factors and process information for more than 200 air pollution source categories. A source category is a specifi c industry sector or group of similar emitting sources. Th e emission fac-tors have been developed and compiled from source test data, material balance studies, and engineering estimates. Th e Fift h Edition of AP-42 was published in January 1995. Since then EPA has published supple-ments and updates to the 15 chapters available in Volume I, Stationary Point and Area Sources. Th e latest emissions factors are available at EPA’s website http://www.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/index.html.
Area Sources – these are smaller sources that do not qualify as point sources under the relevant emissions cutoff s. Area sources encompass more widespread sources that may be abundant, but that, individually, release small amounts of a given pollutant. Th ese are sources for which emissions are estimated as a group rather than individually. Examples typically include dry cleaners, residential wood heating, auto body painting, and consumer solvent use. Area sources generally are not required to submit individual emissions estimates.
Area-Wide Sources – sources of pollution where the emissions are spread over a wide area, such as consumer products, fi replaces, road dust and farming operations. Area-wide sources do not include mobile sources or stationary sources.
Aromatic – type of hydrocarbon, such as benzene or toluene. Some aro-matics are toxic.
Asbestos – mineral fi ber that can pollute air or water and cause cancer or asbestosis when inhaled. Th e U.S. EPA has banned or severely restricted its use in manufacturing and construction and has imposed limits on the amount of asbestos in serpentine rock that is used for surfacing applications.
Asthma – chronic infl ammatory disorder of the lungs characterized by wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and cough.
Atmospheric Discharge – refers to the release of vapors and gases from pressure-relieving and depressuring devices to the atmosphere.
Attainment Area – A geographical area identifi ed to have air quality as good as, or better than, the national ambient air quality standards
