Populist Religion

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Responses to Rapid Social Change: Populist Religion in the PhilippinesAuthor(s): Christl Kessler and Jrgen RlandReviewed work(s):Source: Pacific Affairs, Vol. 79, No. 1 (Spring, 2006), pp. 73-96Published by: Pacific Affairs, University of British ColumbiaStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40019304 .

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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1- Spring006Jenkinsasdescribedhese rowinghurchessreligiouslyonservativeand Freston asshed ightn thediverse aysnwhichhey ave mergedas a politicalorcenmanyountriesf theglobal outh.5nAsia, outhKorea ndChinahave ained cademic ttentions countriesfEvangelicalandPentecostalhurch rowth.6Thefollowingrticlexamineshe ituationnthe hilippines,side romEast imor he nly redominantlyhristianountrynthe egion. lthoughPentecostal nd Evangelicalhurches ave flourishedere as well, heCatholic harismaticroups the Pentecostalatholics"7show hemoststrikingrowth.he two iggest atholic harismaticay rganizations,lShaddai ndCouplesforChrist,ogetherlaim hreemillion egisteredmembers; othmaintain verseas haptersll over heglobeand theirmissionsosterhegrowthfAsianChristianity.nthe rticle eargue hattheenormousuccess fthesegroupssdue to their opulistharacter.8The discussion raws n a study freligioushange n thePhilippinesconducted ythe authorsn 2003.Westartwith brief utline fthemethodologyndterminologysed n the tudy.he main ectionsresentquantitativeurveyataon the copeoftheCharismatic ovementn thePhilippinesnd,using ualitativeata, laborate n the ransferfpopuliststylesnd topics o thereligiousphere. inally,hearticle iscusseshe

potentialpoliticalramificationsf the Charismatic enewal n thePhilippines.ResearchMethodologyOur analysis ests n more thansevenmonths f fieldworkn thePhilippinesn 2003. t draws n a national urveyn religious hange

5 Jenkins,heNext hristendom;aulFreston,vangelicalsndPoliticsnAsia,Africa,ndLatinAmericaCambridge: ambridge niversityress, 001).6 Boo-Woongoo,Korean entecostalism.tsHistoryndTheologyFrankfurtm Main:Peter ang,1988);Murray . Rubinstein,Holy pirit aiwan: entecostalnd Charismatichristianityn theRepublic fChina,"nDanielH.Bays,d.,Christianityn China. romheighteenthenturyo he resent(Stanford,A: Stanford niversity,996);TuWeiming,TheQuestforMeaning:Religionn thePeople'sRepublic fChina,"nPeter . Berger,d.,The esecularizationf heWorld.esurgenteligionandWorldoliticsGrandRapids,MI: Eerdman's, 999),pp. 91-94;GraemeLang, "ReligionsndRegimesnChina,"nMadeleineCousineau, d.,Religionn a Changing orld.omparativetudiesnSociologyWestport,T,London: Praeger, 998); WalterHollenweger, harismatisch-pfingstlichesChristentumGottingen: andenhoek Ruprecht,997),p.Ulff; Li YueHong,"The Decline ofConfucianismnd theProclamationf heGospel nChina,"nWonsukMa and Robert .Menzies,eds.,Pentecostalismn Context.ssaysn Honor fWilliamW MenziesSheffield:heffield cademicPress, 997);AlanAnderson,entecostalismCambrige: ambridge niversityress, 004),pp. 132-139;Philip uen-Sang eung, Conversion,ommitment,nd culture: hristianxperiencenChina,1849-1999,"nDonaldLewis, d., Christianitye-Born:heGlobal xpansion f vangelicalismn theTwentiethenturyGrandRapids,MI:Eerdman's,004).I Meredith . McGuire, entecostalatholics.ower,harismand Ordern a Religious ovement(Philadelphia: empleUniversityress, 982)8 The concept fpolitical opulism as been appliedto thestudy freligious henomenabefore.NathanHatch,for xample, rovidesn analysisf the SecondAwakeningn the United74


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesconductedythe nstitutefPhilippine ultureIPC) oftheAteneodeManilaUniversityetween ugustndNovember003.Thequestionnairewasdeveloped y heArnold-Bergstraesser-InstitutenFreiburg, ermany,9andadapted oPhilippineircumstancesncooperation ith he PC. Itconsistsf125 uestionsoveringeligiousractice,eligiouseliefs,eligiousattitudes,eligiousolerance,heroleofreligionnpoliticsndsocietytlarge swell s moregeneral ociopoliticalndsocioeconomicttitudes.Thequestionnaireaspresentedothree roupsfrespondents.he mainsample f1,200 espondentsas elected y nationwide ulti-stagean-domsamplingesign.Additionalamples f200non-Catholichristiansand200Catholic harismaticsere hosen sing he nowballechnique,startingith espondentsrom hemain ample.Multi-stageample esign f hemain amplencluded our rovincesfthe ourmajor egionsf hePhilippinesNational apitalRegion, uzon,VisayasndMindanao).However,uetosecurityeasons,omerandomlyselected ites adto bereplaced. he dataofthismain amplesweightedfor ge, exandurban/ural istributionn the ub-regionalevel nd fornationwideopulationistributionetweenhemajor egionsccordingothenational ensus ata rom000. ifty-nineercentfrespondentsnthemain ampleiven ruralreas nd41percentnurban reas.MetroManilaresidentsccount or 3percentfthe ample; hebiggest roportion,3percent,ivenLuzon, 0percentntheVisayas,nd24percentnMindanao.Gender sequally istributed.heage groupsre as follows:3percentfrespondentsrebetween8and24yearsld,26percentetween5and 34years,8percentreaged35 to 49yearsnd22percentre more han 0years ld. One-thirdf therespondentsave ompletedheir lementaryeducation,9percentave raduatedromigh chool nd 16percentolda college or universityegree. Only12 percenthave not completedelementaryducation.About two-thirdsf therespondents ctivelyparticipatenthe abour orce,ne-thirdre tudying,etired,ousekeepingorunemployed.o assess he ocioeconomicackgroundfrespondents,States sreligious opulism. athan . Hatch,The emocratizationf mericanhristianityNewHaven,CT: YaleUniversityress, 989).9 Many fthe urveyuestions avebeendeveloped yTheodorHanf,Arnold-Bergstraesser-Institute,reiburg,ermany,nd constituteslightlyevised ersionf he uestionnairepplied nan earliertudynreligious hange nCostaRica Jean-Pierreastian, lrich anger,ngridWehr,NikolausWerz,ReligidserWandelinostaRica.EinesozialwissenschaftlichenterpretationMainz: Matthias-Grunewald-Verlag,000]). As thePhilippinesakepart n the nternationalocial Science Panel(ISSP) surveys,e ntegratedeveral uestions rom he SSP onreligion. he ISSPs areconductedby he urveynstituteocialWeathertations, hich indly rovidedhedatafile ndquestionnaireof he1991 nd 1998panels nreligion. ne additionaluestionn the uestionnaires taken romthe urobarometer.hequestionnairelsobenefitedromiscussions ith tafff he ocialWeatherStationsndPulseAsia.Wewould lso ike o hank ather erbert chneider or ishelp n dentifyingcharacteristicsfCharismatichristiansithinhe urveynd Dr.Reinhard empelmannrom heEvangelischeentralstelleurWeltanschauungsfragen,erlin,or is dvice nclassifyingon-CatholicchurchessCharismatic/non-Charismatic.

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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1- Spring006we combined he data onmonetaryncomewith n indexof householdpossessionsnd educational ttainments,oth of which orrelatewithincome. asedon these ariables,he ocioeconomictatus f17percentfrespondentssclassifieds ow,nd the ocioeconomictatusf7percentfrespondentss classifiedshigh.The datagainedfrom his urvey ascomplementedy qualitativeinterviewssingnterviewuidelines ith 2membersfPentecostalndCatholic harismaticroups; hese nterviewsere onductednTagalogby nterviewersromPC. The authors hemselvesnterviewed2 leadingmembers nd clergy f thesegroups nd churches. ll interviewseretranscribedndtheTagalognterviewsranslatedntoEnglish. he dataderived rom tandardizeduestionnairesnd in-depthnterviewseresupplementedy atagained y articipantbservationnvariouseligiousservicesnd seminarsndbackgroundnformationcquiredntalkswithacademic xperts.Whereas hesurveyovered llmajorregions fthePhilippines,ualitativeata interviews,xpertnterviewsndparticipantobservation)asrestrictedo MetroManila.ConceptualClarificationsThesubject four tudys therise ftheCharismaticovementnthePhilippines.he use of theterm harismaticnthis ontext eedsto beclarified,s socialscientistselate hetermCharismatico Max Weber'ssociologyfrule,whichwouldbe misleadingn the contextfreligiousmovementsnd denominations.he literaturen religiousmovementsreveals n inconsistencyn howthe abelsEvangelical,entecostalndCharismaticreemployed;ometimeshe ermsreeven sed ssynonyms.To furtheronfuse eaders,ll oftheseChristianraditionsre sometimessubsumednder he ermundamentalists.short xcursionn the riginsof these ifferenttrandsfChristianityillhelptoclarifyhis eeminglyarbitraryabelling.Historically,harismatichristianitys rooted n the US-AmericanHoliness Movementand its successor,the Pentecostal churches.PentecostalismmergedntheUnited tatest he eginningf he wentiethcentury.ts imwas orenewhe xistingmainline"rotestanthurchesyconcentratingn the ndividualpiritual xperience fbelievers,hecharismaticiftsmentionedntheBible nd theworksftheHoly pirit.However, he establisheddenominations eactedratherhostilely oPentecostalractices.onsequentlyhe enewalmovementormedts wnchurches.10entecostalhurchesround heworld rew normouslyn thesecondhalf fthe twentiethentury.n addition o this xpansion,he

10 HarveyG. Cox, Fire rom eaven. TheRiseof entecostalpiritualitynd theReshaping fReligionnthe wenty-FirstenturyReading,MA:Addison-Wesleyublishingompany,995).76


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesPentecostalmphasisntheHoly piritndon ndividualpiritualitypreadas a Charismatic ovementomainline rotestantenominationsnderthe eadershipfDennisBennet,nEpiscopal riest,n1959, ndto theRoman atholic hurch,eginningnPennsylvaniandMichigan niversitycircles.Today's Evangelicals an trace theirroots back to the ProtestantFundamentalists,movementhat merged arlynthe wentiethentury,slightlyfter hePentecostal ovement.entecostalsndFundamentalistscan be seenas two ifferenteligiouseactionso therapid ocial hangeinduced y ndustrializationnd urbanizationnNorth merica fter heCivilWar.With heirmphasisn ndividualpiritualxperience,entecostalsofferedreligiousnnovation,hile undamentaliststroveorestore heoldreligiousnd social rder.11Despite heir ifferences,entecostalsndFundamentalistsgreed nmost oints fdoctrine,uch s a literal eliefntheBible ndoppositionto iberalheology.utPentecostalractices,ike allingntrance,peakingintongues, eeping,ryingndlaughingut oudduringervices, ereregarded y undamentalistss mproperehaviournGod'shouse, ndbysome ven s satanic ctivities.espite ome ommon round,entecostalswere hereforetrictlyxcluded romheFundamentalistovement.12pto the1950s, eing vangelicalrFundamentalisteant irtuallyhe ameintheUS.After orldWarI,someFundamentalistspted or ooperationfor he ake fwinningouls or hrist.hey dopted hename vangelicalandcooperatedntheirmissionaryffortithmainlineenominationshatFundamentalistsegarded s apostate.Consequently,undamentalistseventuallyistancedhemselvesromvangelicals.13Giventhe broadagreement n theologicalssues,Pentecostal ndEvangelicalhurchesave ome loser oeachother.nthePhilippineshisis demonstratedy hefact hat entecostalhurchesre membersfthePhilippinevangelicalouncil fChurches a council ormerlyalled hePhilippineouncil fFundamentalisthurches.Theterm harismatics sometimessed na narrowense odistinguishthe Charismatichristians ithin on-PentecostalenominationsromChristianselongingo Pentecostalhurches.n ouruseofthe termwefollowhesuggestionfPoewe,whodefines harismatichristianitys

1 MartinRiesebrodt, undamentalismuslspatriarchalischerotestbewegung.merikanischerotestanten(1910-28) und iranische chiiten 1961-79) im VergleichTubingen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1990); Nancy T.Ammermann,North merican rotestantundamentalism,"nMartin .Martynd Scott .Appleby,eds.,FundamentalismsbservedChicago, ondon:UniversityfChicagoPress, 991).12 GeorgM. Marsden,Religionnd AmericanultureSan Diego,NewYork:Harcourt raceJovanovich,990), p.153 ff, .182 ff;Ammermann, orth mericanrotestantundamentalism;Hollenweger, Charismatisch-pfingstlicheshristentum,p. 217-218.13 Marsden, Religion nd American ulture, p. 217-18; Ammermann, NorthAmerican rotestantFundamentalism,. 37.77


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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1- Spring006"encompassingllChristianroupshatmphasizepiritualxperiencendtheactivities f theHoly Spirit."14 henwespeakof the Charismaticmovementn thePhilippines e thereforenclude entecostalhurches,Charismaticvangelicalswell s Charismaticainlinerotestanthristians,andCharismaticoman-Catholichristians.Theacknowledgementf imilaritiesxpressedy hePhilippinectorsthemselveslso egitimizesur nalysisf hedifferentroupsspart f hesame henomenon.lthoughatholic harismaticeadersrekeen o larifythat heydhere o Catholic eliefs ndpractices,hey ftenmentionhePentecostalnd Protestantharismaticriginsf theirmovement.s fornon-Catholics,na surveyn astonishing9percentf thedelegatest amissionaryongressrganized y he bove-mentionedhilippineouncilofEvangelicalhurchespted or ountingatholic harismaticss savedsouls ntheEvangelicalense.15The CharismaticMovementnthePhilippinesPentecostalnd Charismaticroupsre relativelyew henomenonnthePhilippines.omanCatholicisms a legacyf he panish olonial astandmainlinerotestantismirstnteredhe slands ith mericanolonizersin 1899. But substantial vangelicaland Pentecostalmissions, lsopredominantlyfUS-Americanrigin,id not tart eforeWorldWar I.PentecostalndEvangelicalhurchesereoon Filipinized,"ndFilipinopreachersook he ead. The Catholic harismatic ovement,hich,smentionedbove,originatedn the United tatesn 1967,reached hePhilippinesn theearly 970s.One ofour nterviewartnersraces heCatholic enewalmovemento Filipino ouple hat adcome nto ontactwith heCatholic harismaticenewaln the United tates.Most f thegroupstudied y swere stablishedy ilipinosnthe ate1970s rearly1980s. esus sLord,one of thebiggest harismaticrotestantroups,16with n estimated embershipfnearlynemillion, as oundedy ddieVillanuevan1978.MikeVelarde,formerusinessman,tartedl Shaddaiin1983. oday lShaddai laimsobe theargestf heCatholicharismaticgroups, ith womillionegisteredembersnd nestimatedevenmillionunregisteredollowers.ouplesforChrist eports .4 million egisteredmembersn 2001. 7Othergroups eportmembershipsn the tensofthousands.

14 Poewe, Charismatic hristianitys a GlobalCulture, . 2.15 "So muchmoreto do! EvaluatingAWN2000Philippines,"rticle vailable n the DawnMinistries eb ite, t,une 0,2003.16 JoseA.Carillo,Aprimernpolitical ropaganda," anilaTimes,9March 004, vailablet,30March 004).17 Accordingo ourdata,CouplesforChristxceedsEl Shaddai nmembership:.8percent frespondentsn themain ample re members f El Shaddaicompared o 3.7percentmembers f78


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesIncontrasto the explosionfProtestantismnLatinAmerica,"18hichshares Catholic olonialegacy ith hePhilippines,herecent rowthfEvangelicalnd Pentecostalroupsn thePhilippinesid not resultnasubstantialncreasen theProtestantopulation.n oursurvey,e findRomanCatholic opulation f 83 percentnd a non-Catholichristian

FigureResponsesoRapidSocialChange: opulist eligionn the hilippines

Sources:1948/1960:BureauofCensus ndStatistics,epartmentfCommerce nd ndustry,Republic fthePhilippines,Census fthePhilippines960PopulationandHousing, vol. I, SummaryeportManila:1963)table19,p. 17.There re no data onreligionvailable or he 1970 nd 1980census.1990: National tatisticsffice, epublic f thePhilippines,1990Census fPopulationndHousing,ReportNo. 3: Socioeconomic ndDemographicCharacteristics,"Manila:1992).2000: National tatisticsffice, epublic f thePhilippines,2000Census fPopulationndHousing,ReportNo. 2:DemographicndHousingCharacteristics,"Manila:2003).2003: Own urveyCouplesforChrist. hisfindingonfirmsheresults ftheSocialWeather tations ational urveyof2001,which ives hefiguresf2.7 percent orCouplesof Christ nd 0.5 percent l Shaddaimembers. SWS Survey napshots.A review f surveys onducted ySocial Weathertations, ol. II, no. 3(Manila, 002),p. 4.18 David Martin,Tongues f ire.The xplosion f rotestantismn Latin AmericaOxford,Cambridge,MA: Blackwell,1990).

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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1- Spring006FigurePhilippinerotestants

Sources:1948/1960:Bureauof Census ndStatistics,epartmentfCommercendIndustry,Republic fthePhilippines,Census fthePhilippines960PopulationandHousing, vol. I, SummaryeportManila:1963)table19,p. 17.Censusdata of 1948 nd 1960differentiatesnly etween rotestants,Aglipayansnd glesianiCristo. hefigure iven orNCCPchurches ereis thefigureorAglipayans.1990: National tatisticsffice, epublic fthePhilippines,1990Census fPopulationndHousing,ReportNo. 3: SocioeconomicndDemographicCharacteristics,"Manila:1992).2000: National tatisticsffice, epublic fthePhilippines,2000Census fPopulationndHousing,ReportNo. 2:DemographicndHousingCharacteristics,"Manila:2003).2003: Own urveypopulationf 6percent.19he data hownnfiguresand2suggesthat hepercentagef heCatholicopulationasbeen uite tablenrecentecades.EvangelicalndPentecostalhurches,ubsumed nder other rotestantchurches,"rewt the xpense fProtestant ainline enominations.

19 Asmentionedbove, or easons f ecuritye had toreplace redominantlyuslim reas nthe urvey.his xplains heunderrepresentationfMuslims1 percent). SocialWeathertationsSurveyf2001reportshatMuslims ccount or percentf hepopulationSWS urveynapshots.reviewf urveysonductedy ocial Weathertations, . 4) .80


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesData on churchmemberships ofonlyimited aluewhen tcomes oidentifyingharismatic hristians,s they re found n virtuallylldenominations. e thereforesked ll Christianespondentsnthemainsample orCharismaticracticesndmembershipnCharismaticroups.Theresultingiguresn active harismaticshow he pentecostalization"ofPhilippine rotestantism. ore than one-third f all non-CatholicChristiansnthePhilippinesre membersf Pentecostalhurchr a laygroup hathasadoptedCharismaticractices.hese results uttresshecensus iguresn churchmembership,ndicatinghat he ise fPentecostaland Evangelicalhurches hangednot so much therelations etweenCatholic nd non-Catholichristians,ut thereligiousandscapewithinPhilippinerotestantism.However,his ssessmentsmisleadingnsofars ittakes nly he ossofchurchmembersnto ccount. he Catholic hurchsas much ffectedytheriseof the Charismatic ovements theProtestanthurches.n thelongrun tmight e evenmore ffected,s Catholics resimultaneouslyCatholicnd members ftheCharismatic ovementnd thereforeffecttheCatholic hurch rom ithin. he most trikingesult fthe urveysthehigh ercentagefCatholic harismatics:5percentf ll nterviewedCatholicsre ctiventheCharismaticovement.hus, lthoughhilippine

Protestantismas a strongCharismatic ing, hebulkofPhilippineCharismaticselongto the Roman CatholicChurch.The CharismaticFigureCharismaticngagement

Source: 003, Own survey.81


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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1 - Spring006Christiansnthe urveyrecomprisedf70percent atholicsndonly 0percent entecostal/Protestanthristians.n termsfnumbers,hemostsuccessfuleligious urrentn thePhilippiness thereforehe CatholicCharismatic ovement.This esults alsoremarkablencomparisonoLatinAmerica, herehesuccess fPentecostalhurches assubstantiallyncreasedhenumberfProtestanthristians.20here s a Catholic harismaticenewaln LatinAmerica swellbut,unlikenthePhilippines,tseems esssuccessfulnpreventingonversionsrom atholicismo Pentecostalism.Theroots f his Catholization"f he entecostal/Charismaticeligiositycan be traced ack o thewaynwhich hePhilippineierarchyealtwiththebeginningsfCatholic enewal. fternitial eluctancendsuspicion,the RomanCatholicChurchwelcomed he CatholicCharismatics.hehierarchyuccessfullyntegratedhemovementnto heChurch tructureand ensured hat heCharismaticroupstuck o Catholic octrine hilesimultaneouslydaptingPentecostaltylefworshipndreligiousractice.Philippineatholicshus o nothave odismisshe aithhey ere roughtupin, f hey ish o ive heir eligiosityheCharismaticay.Most bserversend o ccept hatupportor heCharismatic ovementisstrongestmong he owertrata f ociety,epictingt s a phenomenonof heuneducated rban oor. his mpressiontems rommedia overageofEl Shaddaiprayer allies, ttendedbythepoorersegments f thepopulationnMetroManila, nd is supported y tudies n PentecostalchurchesnAfricand LatinAmerica. his ssumptions notborne utbyour data.Poorrespondentsre notover-representedn the Charismaticmovement. etropolitanesidence venworksntheopposite irection.Comparedothe thermajor egions,hepercentagef ctivemembersfthe Charismatic ovements smallestn MetroManila.Contraryo ourexpectations, espondentswithtertiaryducationare slightlyver-represented.he sameholds rue orwomen,utmuch ess han xpected.The genderdifferences notsignificant.his differenceetween hePhilippineharismatic ovementnd Charismatichristianslsewheresprobably ue to Catholicdominance.n thePhilippines,ecomingCharismatics notequivalento oining socialminority,ut subgroupwithin he Catholic ulture f themajority.hismightontributeo theattractivenessfCharismaticroupsor ll ocial trata. owever,ne has okeep nmind hatnthePhilippineshe astmajorityf hepopulationrepoor by anystandards;onsequently,he vastmajorityf CharismaticChristiansrepoor. herefore,he uccess f heCharismatic ovementnthePhilippinesoes not contradicthefindingsf other tudies, hich

20 PaulFreston,ContoursfLatinAmericanentecostalism,"nDonaldLewis, d.,ChristianityRe-Born:heGlobalxpansionf vangelicalismn the wentiethenturyGrandRapids,MI:Eerdman's,2004),pp.227-229.82


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesconnect harismaticeligiono the ower trata f ociety.tqualifieshesefindingsy howinghat harismaticeligionsattractiveor hepoor, utnot xclusivelyor hem.To evaluate eligious hange, ne has to go beyondmembershipfchurches nd lay groups nd askaboutreligious eliefs, racticesndattitudes. principalomponentnalysisfourdatareveals hat hehighparticipationatesntheCharismatic ovementlso reflectspecificypeofreligiosity.harismaticeligiosityncludes racticesnd beliefs hat recomparativelyewnreligiousxpressionnthePhilippines,uch stithing,beingbaptizedn theHolySpirit, articipatingnCharismaticeminars,publiclyestifyingne'sfaithnreligiouservices,tc.The Charismaticeligiosityactoronsistsf16 temsCronbach'slpha0.81) coveringntenseeligiousractice,harismaticeligiousxperiencesorCharismatic/entecostaleligiouseliefs.Weclassifyhe opquartilefrespondents,ho gree o at east even fthesetems,s showing highCharismaticeligiosity26percentf llrespondentsnthemain ample).Withinhe rotestantespondentshis hareumps pto64percent. mongtheCatholicespondentsefind high harismaticeligiosityn19percentofrespondents,till lmost ne-fifthf all Catholics. he PentecostalcharacterfProtestantismnthePhilippinessobvious ere.The reversepictures at theother nd of the scale:24 percent f the main amplerespondentscore ne ornoneon Charismaticeligiosity,ut nly percentofProtestantespondents,s opposedto 27 percent f theCatholicrespondents.ocioeconomic actorsre eitherrrelevantorCharismaticreligiosityrworkn anunexpectedirection,srespondentsithertiaryeducation re slightlyver-representedmongthosescoringhighonCharismaticeligiositynd MetroManila wellersreunder-representednthis roup. here snosignificantorrelationetweenocioeconomictatusor income ndCharismaticeligiosity.ur qualitativeatasuggesthatdifferentharismaticommunitiesend o cater ospecificocioeconomicgroups,utCharismaticeligiositysrestrictedoneitherhe oor nd ower-middle-classonstituencyfEl Shaddai nor the elite members ftheBrotherhoodf Christian usinessmennd Professionals.ontraryoconventionalisdom,MetroManilaresidentsre ess ikelyobe Charis-matics, ut n otherregions heurban/ruralplitdoes notsegregateCharismatics.ender s less mportanthanexpected. omegroups fCatholic omenremoreikelyhan thersobeCharismatic,ut ducationandcertainociopoliticalttitudesremore ecisivehan ender.Not surprisingly,harismaticeligiositys clearly elatedto activeinvolvementntheCharismatic ovementCramer's 0.6**)These iguresindicate hat heCharismatic ovementnthePhilippiness based on acertainypefreligiosity,set fpracticesnd beliefs hat asthepotentialto surviveossibleweaknessesnthemovement'srganization,eadershipchanges,tc.Theseresults aise hequestion f the auses fthis uccess.

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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1- Spring006WhatmakesCharismaticeligiosityo attractiveomparedto other,presumablylder, orms freligiosityn thePhilippines?The CharismaticMovement s PopulistReligionWepropose he thesis hat he transferfpopulisttylesndpopulisttopicsntothereligiousphere ccounts or he success f CharismaticreligionnthePhilippines.t sthepopulisttylefCharismaticreachersand thepopulistharacterfCharismaticracticendbelief hat endersthis ypefreligiosityo successfulnthePhilippines.Populismas a political phenomenoncombines certain tyle fmobilization,certainetoftopics,nd a specifictand n theeffectsfmodernization, nderstoodas complex, interrelated rocessesofurbanization,ndustrializationnd ndividualization.Populist oliticalmobilizationraws n charismaticeadershipintheWeberianense f he oncept)rhetoricalkillsndunconventionalethodsto attractublic ttention.opulistsrticulaterotestgainsthe lite ndthe ystemhat his lite upports,hile efrainingromropagatinglass-based nterests.hey allfor reductionn (institutional)omplexityndidealize he ast.nstead f omplicatedepresentativeroceduresn massdemocracy, opulistspropagatepersonal relationships, ace-to-faceinteractionnd small ommunitiesnwhich rass-rootsemocracyanflourishnd eaders repersonallyccountableo heir ollowers.21opulistsstriveor societynda state hat sfirmlyroundedna sharedmoralsystemhatncompassesrivateswell spoliticalnd conomicnstitutions.Inotherwords,opulists ant oreinstatehe acred osmos fpremodernsocieties nd getrid of thecomplexity,nsecuritynd pluralismhataccompanyodernization.opulismas hereforeeen onsidered"revoltagainstmodernity."22However,his quation ails orecognizehat opulists o notsimplystickoa backwardision f less omplex,raditional,remodernociety.Populistsightgainstorruptlites,nonymousureaucraciesnd rrogantexpertsnbehalf f theordinary an.They egitimizeheir ctionswith

21 Hans-Georgetz,Radical ight-Wingopulismn WesternuropeBasingstoke:acmillan,994)Torcuato .DiTelia, Populismnto heTwenty-firstentury,"overnmentndOpposition,2:46 (1996)pp.187-200; argaretanovan,Trusthe eople!Populismnd theTwo aces fDemocracy,"oliticalStudies,ol.XLVII 1999) pp.2-16; vesMenyndYves urel,TheConstitutivembiguityfPopulism,"inYvesMenyndYves urel, ds.,Democraciesndthe opulisthallengeBasingstoke:algrave,002);Yannis apadopoulos,Populism,heDemocraticuestion,ndContemporaryovernance,"nMenyand Surel,Democraciesnd the opulist hallenge;aul Taggart, Populism nd thePathologyfRepresentativeolitics,"nMenyndSurel, emocraciesnd he opulisthallenge,ans-Jiirgenuhle,"Zwischen rotest nd Politikstil:opulismus, eo-PopulismusndDemokratie,"n NikolausWerz,ed.,Populismus.opulistenn UberseendEuropaOpladen:Leske+Budrich,003).22 Betz,Radical ight-Wingopulismn Westernurope,. 22.84


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Populist eligionnthe hilippinesreferenceo the ightsfordinaryeople.Theassumptionnderlyinghislegitimizationthat rdinaryeoplehave ightso defendnd that ulersare ccountable o the ruled is based on quitemodern oncepts fcitizenshipnddemocracy.opulismhereforeeacts o modern ocietalcomplexityndpluralityy ombininghemodern otion f itizens'ightswith he magined ualities fpremodernocieties ased on personalrelations overned ymoralitynd shared thicsnstead fproceduralagreements.Transferringhepoliticalonceptfpopulismothe eligiousield s nota novel dea.The above-mentionedathanHatch, or nstance,ruitfullyappliedhe onceptf religiousopulism"nhis eminaltudyf he econdAwakeningntheUnited tatesetween780 nd 1830.23 eprefero peakofpopulisteligionnstead freligiousopulismnorder oemphasizehatwe renotdealingwith hyphenatedersion fpolitical opulism such sright-wingopulismr eft-wingopulismbutwith he ransferf certainpoliticaltyleo thereligiousphere.As a result fexternalnfluences,exacerbatedyhomegrownnstitutionalactors,opulist echniquesredeeplyntrenchednPhilippine oliticalulturendreadyobepicked pand usedby eligious ovements.ThePhilippinesnheritedrom heUS a politicalystemhat rovidesample pace or opulism.residentialismndpluralityoting,ornstance,favourersonalismndpopulist tylesfelectioneering.nthe bsence fparty rogrammes,andidates sually peratewith implisticlectionplatformshich ddress ey oncerns fordinaryeoplewithoutolvingthem:obs, prosperity,helter ndpublic afety.he enormousuccess fpopulisttrategiesnpolitics ashighlightedy hepresidentialampaignofjoseph . Estradan1998. twasno coincidencehatmanyfhis upporterswere lso followersf the Charismaticl Shaddaimovement. oliticalpopulismespondso he eepdistrustndcynicalttitudesfmanyrdinaryFilipinosowardsheir oliticalnstitutions,hichntheir iew avebeenhijacked y corruptlite nd are ncapable fmasteringhe hallengesfa rapidlyhanging orld. hey aveproduced eitherustainedconomicgrowth, ora modicum f social ustice.Notsurprisingly,istrust fPhilippine oliticalnstitutionsnd general ynicismowardsoliticsswidespreadmong lShaddaimembers.24his oincides ith he esultsfotherpinion ollsnwhicholiticalnstitutionsankow, hereashurchesscorewell.25

23 Hatch, TheDemocratizationfAmerican hristianity.24 GraceGorospejamon,TheEl Shaddai rayer ovement:olitical ocializationn ReligiousContext,"hilippineoliticalcienceournal,ol.20,no. 43 (1999),pp.83-126 ndpp. 116-117.25 JoseV.Abueva,Philippineemocratizationnd theConsolidation fDemocracyincethe1986Revolution:nOverviewftheMain ssues, rends ndProspects,"nFelipeB.Miranda, d.,Democratization:hilippineerspectivesQuezonCity: niversityfthePhilippinesress, 997),p. 77.85


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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1 - Spring006The enormousttractionftheCharismatic ovementas shownhat

populist tylesfmobilizationan successfullye transferredrom hepoliticalothe eligiousphere. hefollowingections escribehis ransferingreateretail or he entralopulisteatures: iracless unconventionalmethods fgainingttention, assmedia, he nternal tructurefthemovementndthe opicsf nti-systemrotestndreductionf omplexity.Supernaturalowers:MiraclesLikepolitical opulists,harismaticeaders ely npowerfulanguageandoyfulites. hepersuasivenessf heirhetoricalppeal ncreases iththeirbilityo nduce n auraof xtraordinaryower,power erivedromof heir loseness o God. Miracles reoften ited stestimonyo thegreatpower f heHoly pirit.One favoured omainformiracles s healing.Leadersoftenhaveareputationssuccessfulealers.WhileMikeVelarde fElShaddai nd thechairman f the National erviceCommitteen CatholicCharismaticRenewal, ather oey aller, re outstandingn thisrespect, early llCharismaticndPentecostalroups ighlighthehealing xperiencesftheir ollowers.he invitationo a "Lifen theSpirit eminar,"kind fentryeminarnto he Catholic harismatic ovement,tates:Healingsand miracles avebeen manifestednthe ives f thosewhoexperiencedtheBaptismntheHoly pirit.ou re nfor surprise yourifewill everbethe ame gain."n a countrynwhich ealthcareenefitsor hemajorityof thepopulationrevirtuallyonexistent,heprospect fmiraculoushealingsmust ave strongppeal.26 ddingo this ppeal reaffinitiesotraditionaleligiousractices.nvolvementithicknessndhealingwascentrallement fPhilippine re-Christianeligion.uggyndToliverhusnotedthathealing s more mportanthan peakingn tonguesmongFilipino entecostals.27Testimoniesfmiraculousealingsnd themessagesf hepreachersrebroadcasto wide udience y adio ndtelevangelism.nfact,lShaddai,the argest harismatic ovement,eganas a radioapostolate.n themeantime,elarde'sWXIradio tation roadcasts4hours day nd hasbecome neof hemost opulartationsnMetroManila. lShaddai lsohas14hours fTVtimeweekly,hich ivest presencen severalhannelsllover he ountry.28adio ndTVcover lShaddaisprayerallies, itheoplelisteningo ive roadcastsvenwhilenthewayoor ttendingrayerallies.29

26 Jenkins,heNext hristendom,. 73.27 LeonhardA. Tuggynd RalphToliver,eeingheChurchn the hilippinesManila:O.M.F.Publishers,972),p. 80.28 LeonardoN.Mercado, VD,El Shaddai. StudyManila:LogosPublications,001),p. 10.29 KatherineL. Wiegele, nvestingnMiracles: l Shaddaiand the ransformationf opularCatholicismin the hilippinesHonolulu:UniversityfHawai'iPress, 005),p. 43 ff.86


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesToday,irtuallyveryharismaticrouphas ts wn adioprogrammendChristianrogrammeseach substantialroportionf thepopulation.Thirty-oneercentftherespondentsnthemain ample eveal hat heylisten oreligiouservicesn radio rTVweeklynd 8percento sodaily.Electronic assmedia ave reated virtualhristianommunities,"30hichalso cater o thosewhohavenotoineda parish-basedrayer roup. heirmobilizingffects supplemented yothermedia such as newsletters,pamphlets,ideocassettesnd books.El Shaddai, or nstance,istributes300,000 ree opies f tsmonthlyagongLiwanagmagazine,hich ontainsVelarde's ermons.31Strongeadershipnd authoritariantructuresWhile heCharismaticroupsnd churchessuallytressqualitynd,inkeeping ith he deals f arly hristianity,hoose ongregationalormsof rganization,npracticeheyelyn hierarchicalatternsf rganization.Most harismaticndPentecostalroupsnterviewedy spracticeeitherdemocraticeadershipecruitmentordemocraticecisionmaking.ftenthe eaders the ounder f hegroup rchurch,upportedy noligarchyofelders. lders reusuallyersons ith long rack ecordnthegroupwho reproposednd nominatednan informalndtop-downrocess ythe roup'seaders. ltimately,he uthorityf eaderssbased n theBible.Notsurprisingly,orospe-Jamonound n a surveyf200 El Shaddaimembershat 0.5percent elievedneverythinghat heireader,MikeVelarde,ays.32evertheless,f isagreementsccurwithinhe ongregation,theyftennd nschism, hichs one reason or he pread fvarious ewcommunitiesnd organizations. owever,lthough ne could senseunderlyingonflictsetween ifferentharismaticroupsnour nterviews,the common ause ofspiritualenewalnd Charismaticevivaleems ooutweighnternal ifferencesnd fractions.Anti-elitismndanti-systemrotestThepopulistnti-elitismsanti-systemrotest.tmay e directedgainsta particularystemfgovernment,ureaucracies,olitical arties,usinessconglomeratesr even established hurch rganizations.he fact hatexistingnstitutionsreunable orepresenthe nterestsf rdinaryeopledelegitimizeshe ystem,lthoughhekey argetsf he rotestre he eadersand functional lites of these nstitutions. heirpower s viewed soverwhelming.rdinaryeople hus ave o chance oprotectheirnterestsagainsthese lites, hichreperceivedsarrogantndcorruptndtoblame

30 Gorospe-Jamon,TheEl ShaddaiPrayerMovement,. 100.31 Mercado, l Shaddai, . 1132 Gorospe-Jamon,TheEl ShaddaiPrayerMovement,. 109.87


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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1 - Spring006for ardships.opulistshus ct sadvocatesfthe uppressednterestsfthecommon eople.With heir ppealto thepeopletheyeekto createunitynd to transcendocial lasses.Ifpopulismsan assault n establisheduthority,o is theCharismaticmovement. hile olitical opulism argets oliticaluthorities,he nti-elitism f the Charismaticmovement hallenges stablished hurchhierarchies.heCatholic harismaticovementven hallengesierarchiesfrom ithin. s lsewhere,nthe hilippinesheir riticismsdirected ainlyagainstheCatholic hurch. ut rotestantainlinehurchesrenot paredfrom riticism.hey re also taken o task or heir old, erebral,iberaltheology,hich asnoplacefor motion ndspiritualxperience.In thePhilippines,riticismf theCatholic hurch ariesnintensity.Evangelicalharismaticsnd Pentecostalroups remorevocal n theircriticismf theCatholic hurch hanCatholic harismatics.ost f thenumericallyominantatholicharismaticroups,ncludinghe lShaddai,accentuateheir atholicdentityndaccept hedoctrinaluidance f heRomanCatholic hurch.Butapartfrom his treamliningn doctrinalmatters, harismaticCatholicseem omaintainsense fdistinctiveness.nour nowballampleof200Catholic harismaticsemade the nterestingbservationhat 2percentdentifyhemselvesotsimplys "Catholic" ut as "CharismaticCatholic," ome evenas "El Shaddai";none of the members f non-Charismaticatholicayorganizationsere pecific hen skedfor heirreligiousffiliation.his ndicateshat eing Charismaticomehowualifiesone's "Catholicness"s differentrom ellow atholics,otonlynscope,but lso nquality.harismaticsre notonly Katolikoerado"ery evotedCatholics,heyre Charismaticatholics.We nterprethis s a subtle utrecognizable ay fdistancingneself rom heCatholic hurch s such.What hen swrong ith atholicismrom heperspectivefCharismaticgroups?Wiegele ives hintwhen hequotes l Shaddai eaderVelarde ssayinghat ewantso free eoplefrom hebondage freligion,ecausereligion locks herelationshipith heHoly pirit. his s echoedby neofourCatholic harismaticespondents,hen he ays, My eligionan'tsaveme,only hrough y aith.. can saveme."What he andVelardereobviouslyeferringohere sCatholic itualndtradition,ts reoccupationwith acramentsnd itsneglect fevangelizing.33piritualitys mediatedthroughriests ho tandntheway f direct ndpersonal elationshipwith od."We re theChurch nd theChurch oes notbelong obishopsand cardinals," aid the leader of anotherCharismatic roupwheninterviewed.34elarde laims hat ilipinoCatholicswent ver o "BornAgain" roups reciselyor hese easons.

33 Wiegele,nvestingnMiracles,. 50.34 In-personnterviewith he eaderof Charismaticroup,Manila, eptember003.88


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesWhilethe remotenessf the church rom he faithfuls a common

denominatorfCharismaticiscontent,elarde's l Shaddaiwent urtherin ts istanceromheCatholichurch hanmost ther harismaticroups.Unlike hemoremiddle-class-basedroupsuch s LovedFlock, ouplesfor hristndBukas oob saDiyos, hichtrictlydhere othe nstitutionalchurch's oliticalgenda, l Shaddaihasrepeatedlyeen at oggerheadswith he churchhierarchyn thepolitical rena. n the1992and 1998presidentiallections, or nstance, l Shaddaisupported residentialcandidatesidelV.Ramos ndJoseph . Estrada.35othwere ehementlyopposed y heArchbishopfManila, ardinal aime .Sin, hen hemostseniorChurchofficialn thePhilippines, nd the CatholicBishopsConferencef thePhilippinesCBCP). The impeachmentf PresidentEstrada hree earsater, asedon charges fcorruption,ed to anotherserious onfrontationetweenlShaddai nd theCatholic hurch.Whilethe atter,ikemanymainline rotestanthurches,tronglyupportedhepeople'spowermovement,ventuallyorcingstrada ut ofoffice,hesupportersobilizedy strada erentheirmajorityembersf lShaddaiand the glesia iCristo hurch.ntheir iew residentstrada as manwhomayhavefailed, utwaswillingo do better with hehelpof histrustworthypiritual dviserBrotherMike Velarde.Velardegavetheimpressionhat ewas implyryingobe oyal oEstradas someoneeekinghis piritualupport a sinner, aybe,ut n honest eeker. isopponentswerevieweds simplytrivingorpower.n this iew nymember f thepoliticallitewasregardedsbeing orrupt. lamingther oliticiansorcorruptionasthus egardeds a thinlyeiled ttempto seizepower oroneself. residentstrada asnotnecessarilyhoughtohave ntegrity,utneither ere is pponents,ho laimed oprotectoliticalnddemocraticmorals. hey dvocatedbstract emocraticrinciples,hereas elardedemonstratedersonaloyaltyn times f risis,uttingersonalies boveabstractrinciples.

The anti-elitistutlookfmany harismaticroupsssupplementedyconcernor he religious) eeds f rdinaryeople, notherentraleatureofpopulism.harismaticassmovementsuch sElShaddai nparticularclaim omeet he motionalndreligiouseeds f hemasses eglected ytheofficialhurch. his ncludes strong uestforunity,enyingocialdifferencesnd stressingheequalityf rich nd poor.The oneness ffollowersssymbolizednprayermeetings ypracticesikeholding andsin a circlendhuggingachother.36

35 Edgardo .Dagdag, ThePoliticizationf hePhilippine atholic hurch," sian tudies,ol.34,centennialssue 1998),pp.50-77, . 55;Gorospe-Jamon,he l Shaddai rayer ovement,. 89;seealsoToday,8January003,p. 2,and 7February003,p. 1.36 Mercado, l Shaddai,p.8-9.89


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Pacific ffairs:olume9,No. 1 - Spring006As lreadymentioned,ur urveyata howhat heCharismaticopulistclaim f ranscendingocial lassessnot implydeology.owever,lthoughtheCharismaticovementefinitelyffersommonroundor eople romall social trata,tdoesso in a fragmenteday. ifferentocioeconomicclassesconcentraten differentrganizations.WhereasEl Shaddaiisdominated ythepoorer egmentsfsociety, ouplesforChrist aterspredominantlyo a middle-classudience.Other rganizationsuch sthe"Brotherhoodf BusinessmenndProfessionals"estrict embershipotheupper lass. n reality,hepronouncednitynd onenessn Christspracticeditheople f ne's wn ocial ackground,ut hemaid ttendingVelarde'smass rayerallies anrelate oherboss's aturdayreakfastsithhisBrotherhoodfBusinessmens manifestationsfthe ame pirituality.

Reduction fcomplexityModernitysusuallyquatedwithomplexity.his omplexitysthe esultofongoing iversificationnd differentiationf nstitutions,oles, ormsand nterests.eople xposed orapidmodernizationreforcedo dapt onewnstitutionsndfind hemselvesnunfamiliaroleshaped y ew ormsand interests. heyhave to cope with hegrowingomplexitiesndtechnicalitiesf modernizingociety.heseexperiencesender opulistviews uch as "complexitynlyblursresponsibilitiesnd underminesaccountability"37cceptablend attractive.Thepopulistnswero these rievancess a return osimpleolutions.Populistshus ppealto thewisdom f common ense, resuspiciousfexperts,nd hostile o deliberation.38fpolitical opulismhrivesn thereduction fcomplexity,he Charismatic ovementn thePhilippinescorrespondso thispattern f behaviour.With egard o thecomplexchallengesntheworldlyomain,harismaticsrovide simplexplanation:the modernworldhas turned way romGod and hisways. he ownmovementsthen een s reactionothis odless ay f ife. y nterpretingsocial hangenmoral erms,opulisteligiouseaders xplainwhy orldlyinstitutionsre seemingly nprepared o respond dequately o rapidmodernizationndwhy Christianenewals sourgentlyeeded. nfact,the inful orldlynstitutionsre an ntegral art f heproblem.Simple emedies orrelate ithimple xplanations.he solutiono alltemporal roblemsndhardships,ersonalswell ssocietal,conomicswell spolitical,ssimplyrustnGod andreliancen thepowerf heHolySpirit. orrespondingly,hismessages a recurringheme f the ermonsandprayersnCharismaticndPentecostal eetings.Pray ard,tworks!"reads n advertisementn one ofthemajor ighwaysfManila. his s an

37 Papadopoulos, Populism, he emocratic uestion,nd Contemporaryovernance,. 53.38 Papadopoulos, opulism,. 51.90


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Populist eligionn the hilippinesapproach hatdiffers arkedlyrom hepastoraletters f theCatholicbishopsrmainline rotestanthurches,hich rovidestructuralnalysisand callfor oliticalolutions.MikeVelarde, or nstance,s famous orhis"prosperityospel."Heencourages isfollowerso makeprayer equestsnd oveofferingsr totithe.Tithing giving 0 percentofone's incometo one's religiouscommunityispracticedy 6percentf espondentsith igh harismaticreligiosityn ourmain ample, omparedo 13percentf llrespondents.Velardereacheshat odwill ewardhese fferingsn veryiteral, aterialway.39heprosperityospels thus ittlemore han religiousquivalentfa most asic ntrepreneurialremise:tpays o nvestnGod. na societywhere0percentf hepopulationsbelow hepovertyine, uch rospectsmustertainlyave powerfulppeal.Theyre source fhopefor betterworldlyuturend guaranteeor place nheaven.nother ords,eadersof Charismaticroups uggest o their ollowershat here s practical,otherworldlyelpforworldly roblems.Unlikethe distancedGod ofmainline hurches r unreliable residentialandidates singpopulistpromisesn their lection ampaigns,he God proclaimed ypopulistreligiouseaders ot nlymaintainspersonal elationshipith is ollowers,he also ctivelyntervenesn behalf f he aithfulnworldlyffairsike isaapplicationsnduniversityxaminations.This dea of n activeGodcorrespondsithhewidespreadelief hattheBible mustbe taken iterally.here s no placefor n intellectualinterpretingway igns ndwondersr demons nd Satan.WhateverheBible ells s aboutGod'sdeeds s true ndrequiresaith,ot xegesis. heapproachf omebiblicalcholars,ho ookfor cientificxplanationsorsupernaturalhenomena eportedn theBible, s entirely ejected yCharismatics.ifty-fiveercentf ctive harismaticsnour urveyake heBibleiterally.owever,s50percentf llrespondentshare his erception,Charismaticeaders anrelate o pre-existingidespreadelief,nstead fhavingo convinceheir udience.40 ctivenvolvementsnot onfinedoGod:Satan nd demons representndverymuch ctiventhemodernworld. peakingntongues,or xample,s such n importantiftf theHoly piritoCharismatichristiansecause thissthe nlyanguageatancannot nderstand,"s we earnednCharismaticeminarsndservices.Poewecan thushardly e faulted orconcluding hatCharismaticChristianityreversesheemphases hatwe havetaken orgranted:hecentralityftherational,fcalculated oing, f rticulateerbalkills,f

39 Wiegele, InvestingnMiracles, . 17 ff.40 Thequestion oncerningiteral eliefntheBiblewas taken rom hequestionnairef theInternationalocialSciencePanel onreligionn1991 nd1998, dministeredn thePhilippinesySocialWeathertations.91


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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1 - Spring006doctrines,ndof hings estern."41his e-enchantmentf heworlds notonly solution or ersonal roblemsna modernizingorld,ut lsoforbroader oliticalnd economic roblems.PopulistReligion s a Recipe forSuccess

Having llustratedheparallelsbetween olitical opulism nd theCharismaticovementntheirtylefmobilization,heirnti-establishment,anti-hierarchical,ndclass-crossingrive,s well s theirimple olutionsandbackwardision f society overned y haredmorals ndvalues,nequestion emains:Whyspopulist eligiono attractive?We ited ome oots fpolitical opulismnthe hilippineoliticalystemabove.But he ttractivenessfpopulist eligion asdeeper oots han heresponsivenessf thepoliticalystemopopulism. hese roots ie in thequestionsosedbymodernization,uccessful odernizationswell s failedmodernization.o put tvery imply:uccessfulmodernizationrodescognitivendemotionalecurity,ndfailedmodernizationrodesmaterialsecurity.ass ommunicationonfrontsndividuals ithompeting oralsystems;eoplebecome ware hat here re lternativesotheir ay f ife.Institutionsike churches nd families hatformerlyrovidedmoralguidelinesose theirmonopoly.conomic rocesses ostermigrationndmodern ducationystemsfferpportunitiesor ocialmobility.eopleincreasinglyave hoices nddecisions omake: o ImigrateoSingaporetooffer yhildrenhe pportunityf etterchooling?o I trustraditionalhealers rtryoget ccess oWestern edicine?o I stay ithmy artneror leave himforgood? Where industrialization nd processesofmodernizationave ailed o mprovehe tandardf ivingor hemajorityas is thecase nthePhilippinesmodernizationncreases henumber fpeopleconfrontedith xistential aterialrises nd extremeoverty.Populisteligionnables eople oparticipatenmodernizationrocessesand offersrotectionrom heir rawbacks,oth uccessfulnd otherwise.Summingp theresults f the nterviewsithmembers f Charismaticgroups, ecan state hat opulist eligionmeets range fdifferenteeds.The religiouslyegitimatedorldviewnd moral utlook f Charismaticteachingsive rientationor verydayecisions ndgeneral onduct flife. piritual xperiencesrovidehe emotionalnergy eeded tocopewithhe trainsf verydayife.Membershiprovidessocialnetworkndthe ense fbelongingo community.hese spectsenderheCharismaticmovementttractiveopeopleofdifferentocioeconomicackgrounds,ndifferentersonalircumstances,ndfor ifferenteasons. oor ndunedu-catedpeoplemay e attractedy hemessage fhopefor ettermentndspirituals well s materialssistance.eople experiencinghefragilityf

41 Poewe, Charismatic hristianitys a GlobalCulture, . 12.92


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Populist eligionn the hilippinestheir amilyetworks ight e attractedy he lose-knitocial ies fthecommunities.iddle-classnd well-educatedeoplemighte attractedythe learmorals ndvalues hat heCharismaticorldviewffersn aworldfull f hoices.Therefore, aterialisticxplanationslongthe inesof the"opium fthemasses" all hort f xplaininghe uccess fpopulisteligion.here sthe spect freligionhat ivesmeaningodesperateivingonditions,utthere s more oCharismaticeligiosityhan omfort.hiskind f omfortisofferedy ny eligion. hat harismaticeligionas oofferremeaning,orientationnda social ohesion orndividuals ho etain heirbilityndtheir ight o choose. t is exactlyhis ombination facknowledgingindividuals s independent, mpowered ersons nd simultaneouslyacknowledgingheneedof ndividualsobe embeddedna socialnetworkthat rovidesrientationndmeaningo ifewhich enders harismaticreligion o attractive.he Charismaticmovement ffers (modern)individual ccess to God as well as the comfort f the (pre-modern)community.his combination esembleshepolitical opulist lend ofmodernndividual ivilrightsnd politics ased on sharedvalues ndpersonal elations.ConclusionMuch f he iteraturereatsopulismnpejorativeerms.owever, orerecent esearch as brokenwith hisnegativeiew. anovan ndTaggart,fornstance,ave hownhat opulisms notnecessarilynti-democratic,butmay ddress nclusivistspirationsf thepeople in representativedemocracies.42s outlinedbove, hepopulist upportor he nterestsfthe ommon eople s basedon themodern emocraticoncept fequalrightsor qualcitizens.eintroducinghe thics fface-to-facenteractioninto omplex olitical roceduresims o egitimizeemocraticeadershipandgovernment.t the ametime, opulism'seliance n sharedmoralvaluesdelegitimizeshepluralityf values and lifestylesn a moderndemocracy, nd by disregarding he need forspecializationandadministrationn a modern,unctionallyifferentiatedocietytdeprivesstatenstitutionsf egitimacy.Politicalopulismndpopulisteligionttackhe rawbacksfmodernity.Theycriticize he breakdown f stable social structures aused byindividualizationnd pluralizationnd try oprotect raditionalocialstructures.heyreject hecomplexityf modern nstitutionsausedbydifferentiation,ecausethis omplexityeduces he "Gestaltungsmacht"f

42 Margaretanovan,Takingolitics othePeople:Populisms the deologyfDemocracy,"nYvesMeny nd Yves urel, ds.,Democraciesnd the opulist hallengeBasingstoke:algrave,002);Taggart,Populism nd the athologyfRepresentativeolitics.93


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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1 - Spring006ordinaryeopleto determineheir wn ives andtheir elationshipithGod) They dvocateimpleolutions,omprehensibleynon-expertsndapplicable y aity. hey ejectmpersonalrocedural elationshipss thebasis f ociety,s these eprive eople f mbeddednessn ocial tructures.However,n fightingheperceivedlls ofmodernitynd appealing opremodernualities,olitical opulismndpopulist eligion ely n theverymodernnotionof ndividual ightsnd freedom o choose. Thisambiguityfpopulismesultsnambiguousocietal otential:tcan fosterdemocracywith tsreliance on individuals'rights nd it can fosterauthoritarianegimes ith ts uest or implicitynd ntoleranceowardsthosewho reperceivedsdifferent.Populismetainshismbivalentharacter ithegardodemocratizationiftransferredothereligiousphere. opulist eligionn thePhilippineshas a pro-democraticotentialnasmuch s itfostersn ethic fhonestyandaccountabilityroundednChristianalues.fthis thic ains roundwithinhepolitical phere,he urrentlyackingegitimizationfpoliticalinstitutionsould be effectivelymproved. opulist eligionmay lsostrengthenemocracyn otherways,lthoughts nfluence n politicalculture ndpoliticalttitudess ndirect,onvolutedndambiguous.hedemocratizingffectf theologyhatmphasizeshe ersonalelationshiptoGodover he hurch'sntermediaryunctionasbeen nalyzed yHatch(1989) indetail.Accordingo hisanalysis,ndividualpiritualityiberatespeoplefrom ogmaticubordination.indingne'sownway o God andrelatingpiritualxperienceopersonalircumstancesequiresndependentthinking, requisite usuallyattributed o democrats.As religiousindividualismroduces requenthurch chisms,t erodesthinkingnhierarchiesndcentralizedrganization,uestionsuthoritynd ccustomspeople to a pluralist ocial reality again, important equisitesfordemocracies.Martinhas made a similarpointabout contemporaryevangelicalrotestantisms a "creator ffree ocial pace"with egardoLatinAmerica.43It is assumed hat hese eligiousharacteristicsould oonspilloverintoother pheres f ife, ot east hepolitical omain.However,nthePhilippineshe nti-elitistnd anti-authoritarianhrustfpopulisteligionis muchweaker han n theUnited tates uringheSecondAwakening.Given he redominantlyatholic haracterf he hilippineharismatics,it squestionablehetheronclusionsrawn romredominantlyrotestantCharismatics an be transferredo thePhilippines.As the CatholicCharismaticMovements firmlymbedded n the CatholicChurch'shierarchicaltructure,ts apacityocreate freeocial pace"s urely orelimitedhan hat fPentecostalrEvangelicalhurches.ntheUS,religious

43 Martin,Tongues f ire, . 279.94


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Populist eligionn the hilippinespopulism ent and nhandwitheffersonianepublicanismnd ts ssaulton politicalauthority.44uch a politicalmovements missingn thecontemporaryhilippines. oreover,he elements f the newreligiosityconsidereduitable ordemocratizationust e weighed p against heauthoritariannd apolitical lements fpopulist eligion.One is thehierarchicnternal tructuref mostCharismaticay organizationsndPentecostal hurches, trait hey harewith ther ntermediaryndsupposedlyemocratizingnstitutionsn the ountry,uch s NGOs.Another ounterdemocraticlement s the fundamentalistendenciesinherentntheCharismatic ovement'sim tobuild societyootednChristianaith.nforcinghristianamilythics y aw na society ithsubstantialMuslimminorityontradictshedemocratic rinciple fprotectinginorities.naveryasic ense,hemoral utlook nd nchantedworldviewf Charismatichristiansan be criticizeds anti-democratic:whoever ruly elieves hathis or herpolitical pinionsreflect ivinerevelation ight avedifficultiesarticipatingna democraticiscourseosearch or hebest rguments.he Charismaticenewal herefore ightfosterChristianuthoritariannd theocraticision f ociety.Stollhas asked imilaruestionsbout heLatinAmerican ontext:IsLatinAmericanPentecostalism stepon the road to demystifying,secularizing,ndrationalizingatin mericanociety,spredictedyMartin,or s t nevitablyhaumaturgicalthatsmagicalndmystifyingasarguedbyBastian?.. Is LatinAmerican rotestantismasicallyaudillistic,r doitstendencies ofragmentationive t moredemocraticmplications?"45Strobele-Gregor as aptlycalled thisambiguity anti-enlightenedenlightenment.46On balance, he"anti-enlightenednlightenment"fpopulist eligioninthe hilippines ayndeed ontributeodemocracy,ut ertainlyhighlyconservativeemocracy,democracyhat ffersittlecope or ocial ction.Such an assessmentoincideswith hefact hatmostCharismaticroupshardly o beyond harityn their evelopmentork. o farnone ofthempursuessystematicpproachopovertylleviationnd ocial hange,nlessone regards vangelizationnd individualpiritualenewal s such anapproach.Although eare convinced hat eligiousttitudeso affecteople'sbehaviour,speciallyfembeddedna socialmovementikethepopulist

44 Hatch, TheDemocratizationfAmerican hristianity,. 10.45 DavidStoll, Introduction,"nVirginiaGarrard-Burnettnd DavidStoll, ds.,RethinkingProtestantismnLatinAmericaPhiladelphia: empleUniversityress, 993),p. 14.46 JulianeStroebele-Gregor, ialektik erGegenaujkldrung.ur Problematikundamentalistischerndevangelikaler issionierung ei den urbanenAymara n La Paz (Bolovien) Bonn: Holos Verlag, 1988),quoted in: Yves Bizeul, Christlicheekten nd religiose ewegungenn der sudlichenHemisphdre. ineLiteraturstudieBonn:Deutsche ischofskonferenz,995),p. 143.95


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Pacific ffairs: olume9,No. 1 - Spring006Charismaticeligious enewal, econclude his rticlewith caveat.Allconsiderationsegardinghepotentialoliticalffectsf hismovementnthePhilippinesrethe esult fdeductivehinkingatherhan f mpiricalanalysis.his shardlyurprising,onsideringhe normous ethodologicaldifficultiesnestablishingested ausalrelations etween opulisteligionand he ctual oliticalehaviourfCharismatic,entecostalndEvangelicalChristians.urstudyxploredhe copeandqualityfpopulist eligion;researchingts astingangible oliticalffects ill e the hallengingndpromisingask ffuture ork.ArnoldBergstraessernstituteor ocio-culturalesearch,reiburg, ermany,ndAlbert-Ludwigs-Universitdt,reiburg, ermany ugust2005

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Populist Religion

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