Projects Texts

7/27/2019 Projects Texts

1/38

Learner Autonomy has been a buzz word in foreign language education in the pastdecades, especially in relation to lifelong learning skills. It has transformed old practicesin the language classroom and has given origin to self access language learningcenters around the world such as the SALC at Kanda University of InternationalStudies in Japan, the ASLLC at The Hong Kong Institute of Education, the SAC at HongKong University of Science and Technology and ELSAC at the University of Auckland [1].

As the result of such practices, language teaching is now seen as language learning andit has placed the learner as the centre of our attention in language learning education. [1]

The term "learner autonomy" was first coined in 1981 by Henri Holec, the "father" oflearner autonomy. Many definitions have since been given to the term, depending on thewriter, the context, and the level of debate educators have come to. It has beenconsidered as a personal human trait, as a political measure, or as an educational move.This is because autonomy is seen either (or both) as a means or as an end in education.

Some of the most well known definitions in present literature are:

'Autonomy is the ability to take charge of one's own learning' (Henri Holec[2]) 'Autonomy is essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the

process and content of learning' (David Little)

'Autonomy is a situation in which the learner is totally responsible for all the decisionsconcerned with his [or her] learning and the implementation of those decisions'.(Leslie Dickinson)

'Autonomy is a recognition of the rights of learners within educational systems'. (PhilBenson)

Taken from Gardner and Miller, Establishing Self-Access from theory to practice. CUP

(1999)See also Leni Dam, who has written a seminal work on autonomy. (Dam, L.(1995) Autonomy from Theory to Classroom Practice. Dublin: Authentik.)

One of the key aspects to consider in defining Learner Autonomy is whether we view itas a means to an end (learning a foreign language) or as an end in itself (making peopleautonomous learners). These two options do not exclude each other, both of them canbe part of our views towards language learning or learning in general.

Principles of learner autonomy could be:(Frank Lacey)

Autonomy means moving the focus from teaching to learning. Autonomy affords maximum possible influence to the learners. Autonomy encourages and needs peer support and cooperation. Autonomy means making use of self/peer assessment. Autonomy requires and ensures 100% differentiation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_wordhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_access_language_learning_centershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_access_language_learning_centershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanda_University_of_International_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanda_University_of_International_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hong_Kong_Institute_of_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_University_of_Science_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_University_of_Science_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Aucklandhttp://www.elsac.auckland.ac.nz/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-1http://www.elsac.auckland.ac.nz/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Aucklandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_University_of_Science_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_University_of_Science_and_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hong_Kong_Institute_of_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanda_University_of_International_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanda_University_of_International_Studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_access_language_learning_centershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self_access_language_learning_centershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buzz_word


2/38

Autonomy can only be practised with student logbooks which are a documentation oflearning and a tool of reflection.

The role of the teacher as supporting scaffolding and creating room for thedevelopment of autonomy is very demanding and very important.

Autonomy means empowering students, yet the classroom can be restrictive, so arethe rules of chess or tennis, but the use of technology can take students outside of

the structures of the classroom, and the students can take the outside world into theclassroom.

For an introduction to learner autonomy, see Reinders (2010)[3]

There is a comprehensive bibliography for learner autonomy[4]

Educational assessment[edit]

There have been numerous studies relating the conative factors associated withautonomous learning.[5][6]The salient characteristics associated with autonomouslearning (resourcefulness, initiative, and persistence) are crucial for high school-levelstudents. Currently, the school structure in place in the US is composed of a laddersystem of advancement as directed solely by academic achievement. As studentsproceed up the ladder, they are exposed to ever greater needs for learner autonomy.This increase in learner autonomy does not have a linear incremental increasethroughout the 13 grades (from K-12), but shows a dramatic increase in the transitionfrom middle (or junior high) school to high school. Studies suggest that students taught

methods for autonomous learning have a greater probability of succeeding in a highschool setting. Further, students screened for their level of autonomous learning performbetter than those advanced simply on scholarly achievement[7]

An instrument for assessing learner autonomy may play a significant role in determininga students readiness for high school.[8]Such an instrument now exists that isappropriate for the adolescent learner. This instrument is suitable for assessingsuitability for greater learner autonomy; a quality that should be present in high schoolstudents.

See also[edit]

Anarchistic free school Education reform Unschooling Sudbury school Compulsory education
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learner_autonomy&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learner_autonomy&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchistic_free_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_reformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unschoolinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compulsory_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unschoolinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_reformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarchistic_free_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learner_autonomy&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistence_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Learner_autonomy&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learner_autonomy#cite_note-3


3/38

What is Learner Autonomy and How Can It Be Fostered?

Dimitrios Thanasoulasakasa74 [at] hotmail.com

1. Introduction

Over the last two decades, the concepts of learner autonomy and independence havegained momentum, the former becoming a 'buzz-word' within the context of languagelearning (Little, 1991: 2). It is a truism that one of the most important spin-offs of morecommunicatively oriented language learning and teaching has been the premium placedon the role of the learner in the language learning process (see Wenden, 1998: xi). Itgoes without saying, of course, that this shift of responsibility from teachers to learnersdoes not exist in a vacuum, but is the result of a concatenation of changes to thecurriculum itself towards a more learner-centred kind of learning. What is more, thisreshaping, so to speak, of teacher and learner roles has been conducive to a radicalchange in the age-old distribution of power and authority that used to plague thetraditional classroom. Cast in a new perspective and regarded as having the 'capacity fordetachment, critical reflection, decision-making, and independent action' (Little, 1991:4), learners, autonomous learners, that is, are expected to assume greater responsibilityfor, and take charge of, their own learning. However, learner autonomy does not meanthat the teacher becomes redundant, abdicating his/her control over what is transpiringin the language learning process. In the present study, it will be shown that learnerautonomy is a perennial dynamic process amenable to 'educational interventions'(Candy, 1991), rather than a static product, a state, which is reached once and for all.Besides, what permeates this study is the belief that 'in order to help learners to assume

greater control over their own learning it is important to help them to become aware ofand identify the strategies that they already use or could potentially use' (Holmes &Ramos, 1991, cited in James & Garrett, 1991: 198). At any rate, individual learnersdiffer in their learning habits, interests, needs, and motivation, and develop varyingdegrees of independence throughout their lives (Tumposky, 1982).

2. What is Autonomy?

For a definition of autonomy, we might quote Holec (1981: 3, cited in Benson & Voller,

1997: 1) who describes it as 'the ability to take charge of one's learning'. On a generalnote, the term autonomy has come to be used in at least five ways (see Benson &Voller, 1997: 2):

for situations in which learners study entirely on their own; for a set of skills which can be learned and applied in self-directed learning; for an inborn capacity which is suppressed by institutional education; for the exercise of learners' responsibility for their own learning; for the right of learners to determine the direction of their own learning.


4/38

It is noteworthy that autonomy can be thought of in terms of a departure fromeducation as a social process, as well as in terms of redistribution of power attending theconstruction of knowledge and the roles of the participants in the learning process. Therelevant literature is riddled with innumerable definitions of autonomy and othersynonyms for it, such as 'independence' (Sheerin, 1991), 'language awareness' (Lier,1996;James & Garrett, 1991), 'self-direction' (Candy, 1991), 'andragogy' (Knowles,1980; 1983 etc., which testifies to the importance attached to it by scholars. Let usreview some of these definitions and try to gain insights into what learner autonomymeans and consists of. As has been intimated so far, the term autonomy has sparkedconsiderable controversy, inasmuch as linguists and educationalists have failed to reacha consensus as to what autonomy really is. For example, in David Little's terms, learnerautonomy is 'essentially a matter of the learner's psychological relation to the processand content of learning--a capacity for detachment, critical reflection, decision-making,and independent action' (Little, 1991: 4). It is not something done to learners;therefore, it is far from being another teaching method (ibid.). In the same vein, LeniDam (1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 16), drawing upon Holec (1983), definesautonomy in terms of the learner's willingness and capacity to control or oversee herown learning. More specifically, she, like Holec, holds that someone qualifies as anautonomous learner when he independently chooses aims and purposes and sets goals;chooses materials, methods and tasks; exercises choice and purpose in organising andcarrying out the chosen tasks; and chooses criteria for evaluation.

To all intents and purposes, the autonomous learner takes a (pro-) active role in thelearning process, generating ideas and availing himself of learning opportunities, ratherthan simply reacting to various stimuli of the teacher (Boud, 1988; Kohonen, 1992;Knowles, 1975). As we shall see, this line of reasoning operates within, and is congruentwith, the theory of constructivism. For Rathbone (1971: 100, 104, cited in Candy, 1991:271), the autonomous learner is a self-activated maker of meaning, an active agent inhis own learning process. He is not one to whom things merely happen; he is the onewho, by his own volition, causes things to happen. Learning is seen as the result of hisown self-initiated interaction with the world.

Within such a conception, learning is not simply a matter of rote memorisation; 'it is aconstructive process that involves actively seeking meaning from (or even imposingmeaning on) events' (Candy, 1991: 271).

Such "inventories" of characteristics evinced by the putative autonomous learnerabound, and some would say that they amount to nothing more than a romantic idealwhich does not square with reality. This stands to reason, for most of the characteristicsimputed to the "autonomous learner" encapsulate a wide range of attributes notcommonly associated with learners. For instance, Benn (1976, cited in Candy, 1991:102) likens the autonomous learner to one '[w]hose life has a consistency that derivesfrom a coherent set of beliefs, values, and principles--[and who engages in a] still-continuing process of criticism and re-evaluation', while Rousseau ([1762] 1911, cited inCandy, 1991: 102) regards the autonomous learner as someone who 'is obedient to alaw that he prescribes to himself'. Within the context of education, though, there seem


5/38

to be seven main attributes characterising autonomous learners (see Omaggio, 1978,cited in Wenden, 1998: 41-42):

1. Autonomous learners have insights into their learning styles and strategies;2. take an active approach to the learning task at hand;3. are willing to take risks, i.e., to communicate in the target language at all costs;4. are good guessers;5. attend to form as well as to content, that is, place importance on accuracy as well

as appropriacy;6. develop the target language into a separate reference system and are willing to

revise and reject hypotheses and rules that do not apply; and7. have a tolerant and outgoing approach to the target language.

Here, some comments with respect to the preceding list are called for. The points brieflytouched upon above are necessary but not sufficient conditions for the development oflearner autonomy, and many more factors such as learner needs, motivation, learningstrategies, and language awareness have to be taken into consideration. For example,the first point hinges upon a metalanguage that learners have to master in order to be

regarded as autonomous, while points 4) and 7) pertain to learner motivation. In view ofthis, an attempt will be made, in subsequent sections, to shed some light on some of theparameters affecting, and interfering with, learners' self-image as well as their capacityand will to learn. It is of consequence to note that autonomy is a process, not a product.One does not become autonomous; one only works towards autonomy. One corollary ofviewing autonomy in this way is the belief that there are some things to be achieved bythe learner, as well as some ways of achieving these things, and that autonomy 'islearned at least partly through educational experiences [and interventions]' (Candy,1991: 115). But prior to sifting through the literature and discussing learning strategies,motivation, and attitudes entertained by learners, it would be pertinent to cast learnerautonomy in relation to dominant philosophical approaches to learning. The assumptionis that what is dubbed as learner autonomy and the extent to which it is a permissibleand viable educational goal are all too often 'based on [and thus constrained by]particular conceptions of the constitution of knowledge itself' (Benson, 1997, cited inBenson & Voller, 1997: 20).

3. Learner Autonomy and Dominant Philosophies of Learning

In this section, three dominant approaches to knowledge and learning will be briefly

discussed, with a view to examining how each of them connects up with learnerautonomy. Positivism, which reigned supreme in the twentieth century, is premisedupon the assumption that knowledge reflects objective reality. Therefore, if teachers canbe said to hold this "objective reality," learning can only 'consist--in the transmission ofknowledge from one individual to another' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 20). Congruent withthis view, of course, is the maintenance and enhancement of the "traditional classroom,"where teachers are the purveyors of knowledge and wielders of power, and learners areseen as 'container[s] to be filled with the knowledge held by teachers' (ibid.). On theother hand, positivism also lends support to the widespread notion that knowledge is


6/38

attained by dint of the 'hypothesis-testing' model, and that it is more effectivelyacquired when 'it is discoveredrather than taught' (ibid.) (my italics). It takes littleperspicacity to realise that positivism is incongruent with, and even runs counter to, thedevelopment of learner autonomy, as the latter refers to a gradual but radical divorcefrom conventions and restrictions and is inextricably related to self-direction and self-evaluation.

Constructivism is an elusive concept and, within applied linguistics, is stronglyassociated with Halliday (1979, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 21). As Candy (1991:254) observes, '[o]ne of the central tenets of constructivism is that individuals try togive meaning to, or construe, the perplexing maelstrom of events and ideas in whichthey find themselves caught up'. In contrast to positivism, constructivism posits the viewthat, rather than internalising or discovering objective knowledge (whatever that mightmean), individuals reorganise and restructure their experience. In Candy's terms(Candy, 1991: 270), constructivism 'leads directly to the proposition that knowledgecannot be taught but only learned (that is, constructed)', because knowledge issomething 'built up by the learner' (von Glasersfeld & Smock, 1974: xvi, cited in Candy,

1991: 270). By the same token, language learning does not involve internalising sets ofrules, structures and forms; each learner brings her own experience and worldknowledge to bear on the target language or task at hand. Apparently, constructivismsupports, and extends to cover, psychological versions of autonomy that appertain tolearners' behaviour, attitudes, motivation, and self-concept (see Benson & Voller, 1997:23). As a result, constructivist approaches encourage and promote self-directed learningas a necessary condition for learner autonomy.

Finally, critical theory, an approach within the humanities and language studies, shareswith constructivism the view that knowledge is constructed rather than discovered orlearned. Moreover, it argues that knowledge does not reflect reality, but rather

comprises 'competing ideological versions of that reality expressing the interests ofdifferent social groups' (Benson & Voller, 1997: 22). Within this approach, learningconcerns issues of power and ideology and is seen as a process of interaction with socialcontext, which can bring about social change. What is more, linguistic forms are boundup with the social meanings they convey, in so far as language is power, and vice versa.Certainly, learner autonomy assumes a more social and political character within criticaltheory. As learners become aware of the social context in which their learning isembedded and the constraints the latter implies, they gradually become independent,dispel myths, disabuse themselves of preconceived ideas, and can be thought of as'authors of their own worlds' (ibid.: 53).

4. Conditions for Learner Autonomy

The concern of the present study has so far been with outlining the generalcharacteristics of autonomy. At this juncture, it should be reiterated that autonomy isnot an article of faith, a product ready made for use or merely a personal quality or trait.Rather, it should be clarified that autonomous learning is achieved when certainconditions obtain: cognitive and metacognitive strategies on the part of the learner,motivation, attitudes, and knowledge about language learning, i.e., a kind ofmetalanguage. To acknowledge, however, that learners have to follow certain paths to


7/38

attain autonomy is tantamount to asserting that there has to be a teacher on whom itwill be incumbent to show the way. In other words, autonomous learning is by no means"teacherless learning." As Sheerin (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63) succinctlyputs it, '[t]eachers--have a crucial role to play in launching learners into self-access andin lending them a regular helping hand to stay afloat' (my italics).

Probably, giving students a "helping hand" may put paid to learner autonomy, and this is

mainly because teachers are ill-prepared or reluctant to 'wean [students]--away fromteacher dependence' (Sheerin, 1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 63). After all, 'it isnot easy for teachers to change their role from purveyor of information to counsellor andmanager of learning resources--And it is not easy for teachers to let learners solveproblems for themselves' (Little, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 11). Such a transitionfrom teacher-control to learner-control is fraught with difficulties but it is mainly inrelation to the former (no matter how unpalatable this may sound) that the latter findsits expression. At any rate, learner-control--which is ancillary to autonomy--'is not asingle, unitary concept, but rather a continuum along which various instructionalsituations may be placed' (Candy, 1991: 205). It is to these 'instructional situations' thatwe will turn in the next section. In this section, it is of utmost importance to gaininsights into the strategies learners use in grappling with the object of enquiry, i.e., thetarget language, as well as their motivation and attitude towards language learning ingeneral. A question germane to the discussion is, what does it mean to be anautonomous learner in a language learning environment?

4.1. Learning Strategies

A central research project on learning strategies is the one surveyed in O'Malley andChamot (1990). According to them, learning strategies are 'the special thoughts orbehaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain new

information' (O'Malley and Chamot, 1990: 1, cited in Cook, 1993: 113)--a definition inkeeping with the one provided in Wenden (1998: 18): 'Learning strategies are mentalsteps or operations that learners use to learn a new language and to regulate theirefforts to do so'. To a greater or lesser degree, the strategies and learning styles thatsomeone adopts 'may partly reflect personal preference rather than innate endowment'(Skehan, 1998: 237). We will only briefly discuss some of the main learning strategies,refraining from mentioning communication or compensatory strategies (see Cook, 1993for more details).

4.1.1. Cognitive StrategiesAccording to O'Malley and Chamot (1990: 44), cognitive strategies 'operate directly onincoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance learning'. Learners may useany or all of the following cognitive strategies (see Cook, 1993: 114-115):

repetition, when imitating others' speech; resourcing, i.e., having recourse to dictionaries and other materials; translation, that is, using their mother tongue as a basis for understanding and/or

producing the target language;


8/38

note-taking; deduction, i.e., conscious application of L2 rules; contextualisation, when embedding a word or phrase in a meaningful sequence; transfer, that is, using knowledge acquired in the L1 to remember and understand

facts and sequences in the L2; inferencing, when matching an unfamiliar word against available information (a new

word etc); question for clarification, when asking the teacher to explain, etc.

There are many more cognitive strategies in the relevant literature. O'Malley andChamot (1990) recognise 16.

4.1.2. Metacognitive Strategies

According to Wenden (1998: 34), 'metacognitive knowledge includes all facts learnersacquire about their own cognitive processes as they are applied and used to gainknowledge and acquire skills in varied situations'. In a sense, metacognitive strategiesare skills used for planning, monitoring, and evaluating the learning activity; 'they are

strategies about learning rather than learning strategies themselves' (Cook, 1993: 114).Let us see some of these strategies:

directed attention, when deciding in advance to concentrate on general aspects of atask;

selective attention, paying attention to specific aspects of a task; self-monitoring, i.e., checking one's performance as one speaks; self-evaluation, i.e., appraising one's performance in relation to one's own

standards; self-reinforcement, rewarding oneself for success.

At the planning stage, also known as pre-planning (see Wenden, 1998: 27), learners

identify their objectives and determine how they will achieve them. Planning, however,may also go on while a task is being performed. This is called planning-in-action. Here,learners may change their objectives and reconsider the ways in which they will goabout achieving them. At the monitoring stage, language learners act as 'participantobservers or overseers of their language learning' (ibid.), asking themselves, "How am Idoing? Am I having difficulties with this task?", and so on. Finally, when learnersevaluate, they do so in terms of the outcome of their attempt to use a certain strategy.According to Wenden (1998: 28), evaluating involves three steps: 1) learners examinethe outcome of their attempts to learn; 2) they access the criteria they will use to judge

it; and 3) they apply it.

4.2. Learner Attitudes and Motivation

Language learning is not merely a cognitive task. Learners do not only reflect on theirlearning in terms of the language input to which they are exposed, or the optimalstrategies they need in order to achieve the goals they set. Rather, the success of alearning activity is, to some extent, contingent upon learners' stance towards the worldand the learning activity in particular, their sense of self, and their desire to learn (see


9/38

Benson & Voller, 1997: 134-136). As Candy (1991: 295-296) says, 'the howandthe whatof learning are intimately interwoven--[T]he overall approach a learner adoptswill significantly influence the shape of his or her learning outcomes' (my italics). Inother words, language learning--as well as learning, in general--has also an affectivecomponent. 'Meeting and interiorising the grammar of a foreign language is not simplyan intelligent, cognitive act. It is a highly affective one too--' (Rinvolucri, 1984: 5, citedin James & Garrett, 1991: 13). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993: 1, cited in Graham, 1997:92) define 'affective variables' as the 'emotionally relevant characteristics of theindividual that influence how she/he will respond to any situation'. Other scholars, suchas Shumann (1978) and Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) attach less importance tolearners' emotions, claiming that 'social and psychological factors' give a more suitabledescription for students' reactions to the learning process. Amongst the social andaffective variables at work, self-esteem and desire to learn are deemed to be the mostcrucial factors 'in the learner's ability to overcome occasional setbacks or minor mistakesin the process of learning a second [or foreign] language' (Tarone & Yule, 1989: 139). Inthis light, it is necessary to shed some light on learner attitudes and motivation.

Wenden (1998: 52) defines attitudes as 'learned motivations, valued beliefs,evaluations, what one believes is acceptable, or responses oriented towards approachingor avoiding'. For her, two kinds of attitudes are crucial: attitudes learners hold abouttheir role in the learning process, and their capability as learners (ibid.: 53). In a sense,attitudes are a form of metacognitive knowledge. At any rate, 'learner beliefs about theirrole and capability as learners will be shaped and maintained--by other beliefs they holdabout themselves as learners' (ibid.: 54). For example, if learners believe that certainpersonality types cannot learn a foreign language and they believe that they are thattype of person, then they will think that they are fighting a "losing battle," as far as

learning the foreign language is concerned. Furthermore, if learners labour under themisconception that learning is successful only within the context of the "traditionalclassroom," where the teacher directs, instructs, and manages the learning activity, andstudents must follow in the teacher's footsteps, they are likely to be impervious orresistant to learner-centred strategies aiming at autonomy, and success is likely to beundermined.

In a way, attitudes are 'part of one's perception of self, of others, and of the culture inwhich one is living [or the culture of the target language]' (Brown, 1987: 126), and itseems clear that positive attitudes are conducive to increased motivation, while negativeattitudes have the opposite effect. But let us examine the role of motivation.

Although the term 'motivation' is frequently used in educational contexts, there is littleagreement among experts as to its exact meaning. What most scholars seem to agreeon, though, is that motivation is 'one of the key factors that influence the rate andsuccess of second or foreign language (L2) learning. Motivation provides the primaryimpetus to initiate learning the L2 and later the driving force to sustain the long andoften tedious learning process' (Dornyei, 1998: 117). According to Gardner andMacIntyre (1993: 3), motivation is comprised of three components: 'desire to achieve agoal, effort extended in this direction, and satisfaction with the task'.


10/38

It is manifest that in language learning, people are motivated in different ways and todifferent degrees. Some learners like doing grammar and memorising; others want tospeak and role-play; others prefer reading and writing, while avoiding speaking.Furthermore, since '[the learning of a foreign language] involves an alteration in self-image, the adoption of new social and cultural behaviours and ways of being, andtherefore has a significant impact on the social nature of the learner' (Williams, 1994:77, cited in Dornyei, 1998:122), an important distinction should be made betweeninstrumental and integrative motivation. Learners with an instrumental orientation viewthe foreign language as a means of finding a good job or pursuing a lucrative career; inother words, the target language acts as a 'monetary incentive' (Gardner & MacIntyre,1993: 3). On the other hand, learners with an integrative orientation are interested inthe culture of the target language; they want to acquaint themselves with the targetcommunity and become integral parts of it. Of course, this approach to motivation hascertain limitations (see Cookes and Schmidt, 1991, cited in Lier, 1996: 104-105), but anin-depth analysis is not within the purview of this study. The bottom line is thatmotivation is 'a central mediator in the prediction of language achievement' (Gardner &MacIntyre, 1993: 3), as various studies have shown (see Kraemer, 1990; Machnick andWolfe, 1982; et al.).

4.3. Self-esteem

Closely related to attitudes and motivation is the concept of self-esteem, that is, theevaluation the learner makes of herself with regard to the target language or learning ingeneral. '[S]elf-esteem is a personal judgement of worthiness that is expressed in theattitudes that the individual holds towards himself' (Coopersmith, 1967: 4-5, cited inBrown, 1987: 101-102). If the learner has a 'robust sense of self', to quote Breen andMann (1997, cited in Benson & Voller, 1997: 134), his relationship to himself as alearner is unlikely to be marred by any negative assessments by the teacher.

Conversely, a lack of self-esteem is likely to lead to negative attitudes towards hiscapability as a learner, and to 'a deterioration in cognitive performance', thus confirminghis view of himself as incapable of learning (Diener and Dweck, 1978, 1980, cited inWenden, 1998: 57).

Now that we have examined some of the factors that may enhance, or even militateagainst, the learner's willingness to take charge of her own learning and her confidencein her ability as a learner, it is of consequence to consider possible ways of promotinglearner autonomy. To say, though, that learner autonomy can be fostered is not toreduce it to a set of skills that need to be acquired. Rather, it is taken to mean that the

teacher and the learner can work towards autonomy by creating a friendly atmospherecharacterised by 'low threat, unconditional positive regard, honest and open feedback,respect for the ideas and opinions of others, approval of self-improvement as a goal,collaboration rather than competition' (Candy, 1991: 337). In the next section, somegeneral guidelines for promoting learner autonomy will be given, on the assumption thatthe latter does not mean leaving learners to their own devices or learning in isolation.

5. How Can Learner Autonomy be Promoted?


11/38

To posit ways of fostering learner autonomy is certainly to posit ways of fosteringteacher autonomy, as '[t]eachers' autonomy permeates into [learners'] autonomy'(Johnson, Pardesi and Paine, 1990, cited in Gathercole, 1990: 51). Nevertheless, ourmain focus will be on what the learner can do in order to attain a considerable degree ofautonomy, even though the success of the learner is, to a great extent, determined--alas! vitiated--by the educational system and the requisite role of the teacher.

5.1. Self-reports

According to Wenden (1998: 79-95), a good way of collecting information on howstudents go about a learning task and helping them become aware of their ownstrategies is to assign a task and have them report what they are thinking while they areperforming it. This self-report is called introspective, as learners are asked to introspecton their learning. In this case, 'the [introspective] self-report is a verbalization of one'sstream of consciousness' (Wenden, 1998: 81). Introspective reports are assumed toprovide information on the strategies learners are using at the time of the report.

However, this method suffers from one limitation: '[t]he concentration put on thinkingaloud might detract from [learners'] ability to do the task efficiently' (ibid.: 83), thusrendering the outcome of the report spurious and tentative.

Another type of self-report is what has been dubbed as retrospective self-report, sincelearners are asked to think back or retrospect on their learning. Retrospective self-reports are quite open ended, in that there is no limit put on what students say inresponse to a question or statement that points to a topic in a general way. There aretwo kinds of retrospective self-reports: semi-structured interviews and structuredquestionnaires. A semi-structured interview may focus on a specific skill with a view toextracting information about learners' feelings towards particular skills (reading,listening, etc.), problems encountered, techniques resorted to in order to tackle theseproblems, and learners' views on optimal strategies or ways of acquiring specific skills ordealing with learning tasks. A structured questionnaire seeks the same information butin a different way: by dint of explicit questions and statements, and then asking learnersto agree or disagree, write true or false, and so forth.

It could be argued that self-reports can be a means of raising awareness of learners'strategies and the need for constant evaluation of techniques, goals, and outcomes. AsWenden (1998: 90) observes, 'without awareness [learners] will remain trapped in theirold patterns of beliefs and behaviors and never be fully autonomous'.

5.2. Diaries and Evaluation Sheets

Perhaps one of the principal goals of education is to alter learners' beliefs aboutthemselves by showing them that their putative failures or shortcomings can be ascribedto a lack of effective strategies rather than to a lack of potential. After all, according toVygotsky (1978), learning is an internalised form of a formerly social activity, and 'alearner can realize [his] potential interactively--through the guidance of supportive otherpersons such as parents, teachers, and peers' (Wenden, 1998: 107). Herein lies the roleof diaries and evaluation sheets, which offer students the possibility to plan, monitor,


12/38

and evaluate their learning, identifying any problems they run into and suggestingsolutions. Let us have a look at the following diaries based on authentic studentaccounts of their language learning:

A.Dear Diary,These first few days have been terrible. I studied English for eight yearsjust think, eight

years, but I only learned a lot of grammar. I can't speak a word. I don't dare. I can'texpress myself in the right way, so I am afraid to speak.The other day I started watching TV, so I could get accustomed to the sound. I don'tunderstand TV news very wellonly a few words. I can't get the main point. In school it'seasy to understand, but I can't understand the people in the stores.What can I do?Yours Truly,Impatient(from Wenden, 1998: 102)

B.Dear Diary,I read the New York Times every day. Every day I learn many new expressions-a lot ofvocabulary. But I can't use this vocabulary in conversation. The same thing happenswith what I learn at school. I can't use it when I want to talk to Americans or even withmy own Spanish friends.I need some help.Yours Truly,Confused(from Wenden, 1998: 102)

Alongside diaries, students can also benefit from putting pen to paper and writing ontheir expectations of a course at the beginning of the term, and then filling in evaluationsheets, or reporting on the outcomes of a course, at the end of the term. Theseactivities are bound to help learners put things into perspective and manage theirlearning more effectively. Let us consider two such reports:

1.What do I want to do this year?"I want to speak more English and I'd like to spell better that I do now. I would like towork with another boy or girl who is willing to speak English with me and make someactivities in English. Materials: Challenge to think and crosswords.I would like to get a more varied language and I would like to be better at spelling,especially the words used in everyday situations. How: I will prepare two minutes' talk'for every lesson, I will write down new words five times and practise pronouncing them.I will get someone or myself to correct it. I will read at least two booksdifficultonesand make book-reviews.(Beginning of term4th year of English


13/38

[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,1990: 30])

2.What do you feel you know now that you didn't know before?"I think that we have grown better at planning our own time. We know more about whatwe need to do and how to go about it. We try all the time to extend our vocabulary and

to get an active language. Evaluation also helped us. It is like going through thingsagain.(End of term4th year of English[from Dam, 1990, cited in Gathercole,1990: 32])

So far, one of the assumptions underlying this discussion on learner autonomy has beenthat the teacher has not relinquished his "authority"; rather, that he has committedhimself to providing the learners with the opportunity to experiment, make hypotheses,and improvise, in their attempt to master the target language and, along with it, to learnhow to learn in their own, individual, holistic way (see Papaconstantinou, 1997). It maybe the case that learner autonomy is best achieved when, among other things, theteacher acts as a facilitator of learning, a counsellor, and as a resource (see Voller,1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 99-106). In other words, when she liessomewhere along a continuum between what Barnes (1976, cited in Benson and Voller,1997: 99) calls transmission and interpretation teachers. As Wright (1987: 62, cited inBenson and Voller, 1997: 100) notes, transmission teachers believe in subject disciplinesand boundaries between them, in content, in standards of performance laid down bythese disciplines that can be objectively evaluated--that learners will find it hard to meetthe standards; interpretation teachers believe that knowledge is the ability to organizethought, interpret and act on facts; that learners are intrinsically interested andnaturally inclined to explore their worlds--that learners already know a great deal andhave the ability to refashion that knowledge.

The interpretation teacher respects learners' needs and is 'more likely to followa fraternal-permissive model' (emphasis added) (Stevick, 1976: 91-93, cited in Bensonand Voller, 1997: 100). It is with this type of teacher that the role of persuasivecommunication is most congruent.

5.3. Persuasive Communication as a Means of Altering Learner Beliefs and Attitudes

Inasmuch as the success of learning and the extent to which learners tap into theirpotential resources in order to overcome difficulties and achieve autonomy aredetermined by such factors as learners' motivation, their desire to learn, and the beliefsthey hold about themselves as learners and learning per se, it is manifest that changingsome negative beliefs and attitudes is bound to facilitate learning. 'Attitude change [isassumed to] be brought about through exposure to a persuasive communication[between the teacher and the learners]' (Wenden, 1998: 126). According to theElaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) of attitude change developed by Petty and Cacciopo


14/38

(1986, cited in Wenden, 1998: 126), there are several ways of bringing about thischange, however, our concern will only be with persuasive communication.

A persuasive communication is a discussion presenting information and arguments tochange a learner's evaluation of a topic, situation, task, and so on. These argumentscould be either explicit or implicit, especially when the topic is deemed of importance. If,for instance, a deeply ingrained fear or belief precludes the learner from engaging in the

learning process, persuasive communication purports to help bring these facts to lightand identify the causes that underlie them. It should be noted, though, that noarguments to influence students' views are given. Rather, the communication comprisesfacts that show what learners can do to attain autonomy and that learners who do soare successful (see Wenden, 1998: 126). This approach is based on the assumption thatwhen learners are faced with convincing information about a situation, 'they can be ledto re-examine existing evaluations they hold about it and revise or change themcompletely' (ibid.: 127).

6. Conclusion

This study is far from comprehensive, as we have only skimmed the surface of thesubject and the puzzle called learner autonomy. Many more pieces are missing. Forinstance, no mention has been made of the role of the curriculum in promoting learnerautonomy, despite the debate on the relationship between classroom practice andideological encoding (Littlejohn, 1997, cited in Benson and Voller, 1997: 181-182). Atany rate, the main point of departure for this study has been the notion that there aredegrees of learner autonomy and that it is not an absolute concept. It would be nothingshort of ludicrous to assert that learners come into the learning situation with theknowledge and skills to plan, monitor, and evaluate their learning, or to make decisions

on content or objectives. Nevertheless, learner autonomy is an ideal, so to speak, thatcan, and should, be realised, if we want self-sufficient learners and citizens capable ofevaluating every single situation they find themselves in and drawing the line at anyinconsistencies or shortcomings in institutions and society at large. Certainly, though,autonomous learning is not akin to "unbridled learning." There has to be a teacher whowill adapt resources, materials, and methods to the learners' needs and even abandonall this if need be. Learner autonomy consists in becoming aware of, and identifying,one's strategies, needs, and goals as a learner, and having the opportunity to reconsiderand refashion approaches and procedures for optimal learning. But even if learner

autonomy is amenable to educational interventions, it should be recognised that it 'takesa long time to develop, and--simply removing the barriers to a person's ability to thinkand behave in certain ways may not allow him or her to break away from old habits orold ways of thinking' (Candy, 1991: 124). As Holyoake (1892, vol. 1, p. 4) succinctly putit, '[k]nowledge lies everywhere to hand for those who observe and think'.

Pedagogical ProjectsADD COMMENT
http://teaching.lfhanley.net/english790sp2011/pedagogical-projects/#respondhttp://teaching.lfhanley.net/english790sp2011/pedagogical-projects/#respond


15/38

The goals of your pedagogical project are several: to start you thinking about how toteach and how students learn; to add a concrete, ready-to-go teaching project to yourportfolio; to give you an opportunity to think, in an authentic way, about the possibilitiesof new media in teaching and learning; to encourage familiarity with new mediapractices and concepts. These are the kinds of things your portfolio should do.Here is a rough set of expectations about what your project should look like:

- a discussion of the big idea(s) or understanding(s) that drive your project. Here,you should think about the McWiggins discussion of learning and understanding -e.g. enduring understanding, important to know and do, worth being familiar with.What are the essential questions that will frame your inquiry?- a discussion of evidence of student learning. Once youve elaborated the largergoals and frames for you project - what kinds of evidence of learning will you ask yourstudents to produce? Remember, this can encompass a range of assessments (fromquizzes to projects, etc.), depending on the range of understanding that youreinterested in fostering.- a discussion of instructional activities. Now that you know where youre going -conceptually, how will you get the students there? What kinds of classroom orinstructional activities will provide the scaffolding for (what kind of) student learning?These connections should be clear and persuasive.- a rationale for the use of new media in your pedagogy. Here, you should draw onthe more theoretical or conceptual essays about new media that weve read thissemester. Some questions to consider: What is the relation between your pedagogicalproject and the kinds of relations, practices, epistemologies proposed by critics andscholars of new media? In what ways has/does new media de-familiarize or make morevisible your assumptions, intuitions, understanding of pedagogy? What kinds ofchallenges does new media pose to your understanding and/or experience of pedagogy?Quote chapter and verse to support/illustrate your thinking here.I expect that youd need several good, rich paragraphs (at least) to adequately engagewith these four areas. You can either use a blog post to present your project or createa page for the project on your blog. In either case, take advantage of the rich mediapossibilities of your platform - use images, links, video, etc.Obviously, I am an important audience for your project. But, consider other audiencesyou might be writing to: your comrades in the class, fellow teachers, hiring committees,future colleagues.Well have one final crowd-sourced review of the your pedagogical project next week(May 3). To get better feedback, youll want a neat, clean, orderly draft published andready for commenting.Enjoy!


16/38

Project-based learning

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Project-based learning is considered an alternative to paper-based, rote memorization,teacher-led classrooms. Proponents of project-based learning cite numerous benefits tothe implementation of these strategies in the classroom including a greater depth ofunderstanding of concepts, broader knowledge base, improved communication andinterpersonal/social skills, enhanced leadership skills, increased creativity, and improvedwriting skills.

John Dewey initially promoted the idea of "learning by doing." In My PedagogicalCreed(1897) Dewey enumerated his beliefs regarding education: "The teacher is not inthe school to impose certain ideas or to form certain habits in the child, but is there as amember of the community to select the influences which shall affect the child and toassist him in properly responding to these.......I believe, therefore, in the so-calledexpressive or constructive activities as the centre of correlation."[1](Dewey, 1897)Educational research has advanced this idea of teaching and learning into a methodologyknown as "project-based learning." Blumenfeld & Krajcik (2006)[2]cite studies by Marxet al., 2004, Rivet & Krajcki, 2004 and William & Linn, 2003 state that "research hasdemonstrated that student in project-based learning classrooms get higher scores thanstudents in traditional classroom."

John Dewey, 1902

Markham (2011) describes project-based learning (PBL) as: " PBL integrates knowingand doing. Students learn knowledge and elements of the core curriculum, but alsoapply what they know to solve authentic problems and produce results that matter. PBLstudents take advantage of digital tools to produce high quality, collaborative products.PBL refocuses education on the student, not the curriculum--a shift mandated by theglobal world, which rewards intangible assets such as drive, passion, creativity,empathy, and resiliency. These cannot be taught out of a textbook, but must beactivated through experience."[3]

Project-based learning has been associated with the "situated learning" perspective ofJames G. Greeno (2006) and on the constructivist theories of Jean Piaget. A moreprecise description of the processes of PBL given by Blumenfeld et al. says that,"Project-based learning is a comprehensive perspective focused on teaching by engagingstudents in investigation. Within this framework, students pursue solutions to nontrivialproblems by asking and refining questions, debating ideas, making predictions,designing plans and/or experiments, collecting and analyzing data, drawing conclusions,communicating their ideas and findings to others, asking new questions, and creating
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Deweyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Dewey_in_1902.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey


17/38

artifacts."[4](Blumenfeld, et al., 1991) The basis of PBL lies in the authenticity or real-life application of the research. Students working as a team are given a "drivingquestion" to respond to or answer, then directed to create an artifact (or artifacts) topresent their gained knowledge. Artifacts may include a variety of media such aswritings, art, drawings, three-dimensional representations, videos, photography, ortechnology-based presentations.

Project-based learning is not without its opponents, however; in Peer Evaluation inBlended Team Project-Based Learning: What Do Students Find Important?Hye-Jung &Cheolil (2012) describe social loafing as a negative aspect of collaborative learning.Social loafing may include insufficient performances by some team members as well as alowering of expected standards of performance by the group as a whole to maintaincongeniality amongst members. These authors said that because teachers tend to gradethe finished product only, the social dynamics of the assignment may escape theteacher's notice.[5]

Structure[edit]

Project-based learning emphasizes learning activities that are long-term,interdisciplinary and student-centered. Unlike traditional, teacher-led classroomactivities, students often must organize their own work and manage their own time in aproject-based class. Project-based instruction differs from traditional inquiry by itsemphasis on students' collaborative or individual artifact construction to represent whatis being learned.

Elements[edit]The core idea of project-based learning is that real-world problems capture students'interest and provoke serious thinking as the students acquire and apply new knowledgein a problem-solving context. The teacher plays the role of facilitator, working withstudents to frame worthwhile questions, structuring meaningful tasks, coaching bothknowledge development and social skills, and carefully assessing what students havelearned from the experience. Typical projects present a problem to solve (What is thebest way to reduce the pollution in the schoolyard pond?) or a phenomenon to

investigate (What causes rain?).Comprehensive Project-based Learning:

is organized around an open-ended driving question or challenge. creates a need to know essential content and skills. requires inquiry to learn and/or create something new. requires critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration, and various forms of

communication, often known as "21st Century Skills."[6]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-4


18/38

allows some degree of student voice and choice. incorporates feedback and revision. results in a publicly presented product or performance.[7]Examples[edit]

Although projects are the primary vehicle for instruction in project-based learning, there

are no commonly shared criteria for what constitutes an acceptable project. Projectsvary greatly in the depth of the questions explored, the clarity of the learning goals, thecontent and structure of the activity, and guidance from the teacher. The role of projectsin the overall curriculum is also open to interpretation. Projects can guide the entirecurriculum (more common in charter or other alternative schools) or simply comprise ofa few hands-on activities. They might be multidisciplinary (more likely in elementaryschools) or single-subject (commonly science and math). Some projects involve thewhole class, while others are done in small groups or individually.

When PBL is used with 21st-century tools/skills [1], students are expected to usetechnology in meaningful ways to help them investigate, collaborate, analyze, synthesizeand present their learning. Where technology is infused throughout the project, a moreappropriate term for the pedagogy can be referred to as iPBL (copyright 2006, ITJAB), toreflect the emphasis on technological skills as well as academic content.

An example of applied PBL is Muscatine High School, located in Muscatine, Iowa. Theschool started the G2 (Global Generation Exponential Learning) which consists of middleand high school Schools within Schools that deliver the four core subject areas. At thehigh school level, activities may include making water purification systems, investigatingservice learning, or creating new bus routes. At the middle school level, activities mayinclude researching trash statistics, documenting local history through interviews, orwriting essays about a community scavenger hunt. Classes are designed to help diversestudents become college and career ready after high school.

The Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation has provided funding to start holistic PBL schoolsacross the United States. These organizations include:

EdVisions Schools [2] Envision Schools [3] North Bay Academy of Communication and Design [4] Big Picture Schools [5] New Tech Network [6]Another example is Manor New Technology High School, a public high school that is partof the New Tech Network of school. Manor New Technology High School is a 100 percentproject-based instruction school. Students average 60 projects a year across subjects.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=3http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/index.php?Itemid=120&id=254&option=com_content&task=viewhttp://rantsofjeffitjab.blogspot.com/http://www.g-squared.info/http://www.edvisions.org/http://www.envisionschools.org/http://www.nbacd.org/http://www.bigpicture.org/http://newtechnetwork.org/http://newtechnetwork.org/http://www.bigpicture.org/http://www.nbacd.org/http://www.envisionschools.org/http://www.edvisions.org/http://www.g-squared.info/http://rantsofjeffitjab.blogspot.com/http://www.21stcenturyskills.org/index.php?Itemid=120&id=254&option=com_content&task=viewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-7


19/38

Since opening in fall 2007, the school has outperformed the state of Texas and ManorIndependent School District in the percentage of students passing state standards inthree of the four subjects tested: science, social studies, and reading/English languagearts.[8]

Roles[edit]

PBL relies on learning groups. Student groups determine their projects, in so doing, theyengage student voice by encouraging students to take full responsibility for theirlearning. This is what makes PBL constructivist. Students work together to accomplishspecific goals.

When students use technology as a tool to communicate with others, they take on anactive role vs. a passive role of transmitting the information by a teacher, a book, orbroadcast. The student is constantly making choices on how to obtain, display, ormanipulate information. Technology makes it possible for students to think actively

about the choices they make and execute. Every student has the opportunity to getinvolved either individually or as a group.

Instructor role in Project Based Learning is that of a facilitator. They do not relinquishcontrol of the classroom or student learning but rather develop an atmosphere of sharedresponsibility. The Instructor must structure the proposed question/issue so as to directthe student's learning toward content-based materials. The instructor must regulatestudent success with intermittent, transitional goals to ensure student projects remainfocused and students have a deep understanding of the concepts being investigated. It

is important for teachers not to provide the students any answers because it defeats thelearning and investigating process. Once the project is finished, the instructor providesthe students with feedback that will help them strengthen their skills for their nextproject

Student role is to ask questions, build knowledge, and determine a real-world solution tothe issue/question presented. Students must collaborate expanding their active listeningskills and requiring them to engage in intelligent focused communication. Therefore,allowing them to think rationally on how to solve problems. PBL forces students to takeownership of their success.

Outcomes[edit]

More important than learning science, students need to learn to work in a community,thereby taking on social responsibilities. The most significant contributions of PBL havebeen in schools languishing in poverty stricken areas; when students take responsibility,or ownership, for their learning, their self-esteem soars. It also helps to create betterwork habits and attitudes toward learning. In standardized tests, languishing schoolshave been able to raise their testing grades a full level by implementing PBL.[citation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructivist_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-8


20/38

needed] Although students do work in groups, they also become more independentbecause they are receiving little instruction from the teacher. With Project-BasedLearning students also learn skills that are essential in higher education. The studentslearn more than just finding answers, PBL allows them to expand their minds and thinkbeyond what they normally would. Students have to find answers to questions andcombine them using critically thinking skills to come up with answers.

PBL is significant to the study of (mis-)conceptions; local concepts and childhoodintuitions that are hard to replace with conventional classroom lessons. In PBL, projectscience isthe community culture; the student groups themselves resolve theirunderstandings of phenomena with their own knowledge building. Technology allowsthem to search in more useful ways, along with getting more rapid results.

Opponents of Project Based Learning warn against negative outcomes primarily inprojects that become unfocused and tangential arguing that underdeveloped lessons canresult in the wasting of precious class time. No one teaching method has been proven

more effective than another. Opponents suggest that narratives and presentation ofanecdotal evidence included in lecture-style instruction can convey the same knowledgein less class time. Given that disadvantaged students generally have fewer opportunitiesto learn academic content outside of school, wasted class time due to an unfocusedlesson presents a particular problem. Instructors can be deluded into thinking that aslong as a student is engaged and doing, they are learning. Ultimately it is cognitiveactivity that determines the success of a lesson. If the project does not remain on taskand content driven the student will not be successful in learning the material. The lesson

will be ineffective. A source of difficulty for teachers includes, "Keeping these complexprojects on track while attending to students' individual learning needs requires artfulteaching, as well as industrial-strength project management."[9]Like any approach,Project Based Learning is only beneficial when applied successfully.

Problem-based learning is a similar pedagogic approach, however, problem-basedapproaches structure students' activities more by asking them to solve specific (open-ended) problems rather than relying on students to come up with their own problems inthe course of completing a project.

A meta-analysis conducted by Purdue University found that when implemented well, PBLcan increase long-term retention of material and replicable skill, as well as improveteachers' and students' attitudes towards learning.[10]

Criticism[edit]

One concern is that PBL may be inappropriate in mathematics, the reason being thatmathematics is primarily skill-based at the elementary level. Transforming thecurriculum into an over-reaching project or series of projects does not allow for the
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project-based_learning#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed


21/38

necessary practice at particular mathematical skills. For instance, factoring quadraticequations in elementary algebra is something that requires extensive practice.

On the other hand, a teacher could integrate a PBL approach into the standardcurriculum, helping the students see some broader contexts where abstract quadraticequations may apply. For example, Newton's law implies that tossed objects follow aparabolic path, and the roots of the corresponding equation correspond to the startingand ending locations of the object.

Another criticism of PBL is that measures that are stated as reasons for its success arenot measurable using standard measurement tools, and rely on subjective rubrics forassessing results.

In PBL there is also a certain tendency for the creation of the final product of the projectto become the driving force in classroom activities. When this happens, the project canlose its content focus and be ineffective in helping students learn certain concepts and

skills. For example, academic projects that culminate in an artistic display or exhibit mayplace more emphasis on the artistic processes involved in creating the display than onthe academic content that the project is meant to help students learn.

See also[edit]

Da Vinci Schools Dos Pueblos Engineering Academy Energetic Learning Campus (North Peace Secondary School) Experiential education Fremdsprachen und Hochschule (German academic journal) Inquiry-based learning Metoda projektw (pol.) Minnesota State University, Mankato Masters Degree in Experiential Education New Technology High School North Bay Academy of Communication and Design Northwoods Community Secondary School

Problem-based learning Projekt socjalny (pol.) Reggio Emilia approach student voice Summers-Knoll School TAGOS Leadership Academy Teaching for social justice Valley New School
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Vinci_Schoolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dos_Pueblos_Engineering_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Peace_Secondary_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiential_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremdsprachen_und_Hochschulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiry-based_learninghttp://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda_projekt%C3%B3whttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_State_University,_Mankato_Masters_Degree_in_Experiential_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Technology_High_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Bay_Academy_of_Communication_and_Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwoods_Community_Secondary_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learninghttp://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_socjalnyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggio_Emilia_approachhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summers-Knoll_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAGOS_Leadership_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_for_social_justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_New_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valley_New_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_for_social_justicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAGOS_Leadership_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summers-Knoll_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student_voicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggio_Emilia_approachhttp://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projekt_socjalnyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem-based_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwoods_Community_Secondary_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Bay_Academy_of_Communication_and_Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Technology_High_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_State_University,_Mankato_Masters_Degree_in_Experiential_Educationhttp://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metoda_projekt%C3%B3whttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inquiry-based_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremdsprachen_und_Hochschulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiential_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Peace_Secondary_Schoolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dos_Pueblos_Engineering_Academyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Da_Vinci_Schoolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=7


22/38

External links[edit]

Project Based Learning Online From Super Star Learning Company Project Based Learning for the 21st Century From The Buck Institute for Education Ten Tips for Assessing Project-Based Learning From Edutopia by The George Lucas

Educational Foundation.

Project-Based Learning and High Standards at Shutesbury ElementarySchool From Edutopia by The George Lucas Educational Foundation.

Project Foundry- Project-based Learning Management Tool grew out of aneducational non-profit in Milwaukee, WI.

Learning for a Cause is a project-based high school creative writing initiative inCanada founded in 2003 by noted educator and writer Michael Ernest Sweet.

[7] Changing the Face of Traditional Education: Project-based Learning Intel Teach Elements: Project-Based Approaches is a free, online professional

development course that explores project-based learning. LearningReviews Directory of Project Based Learning Lesson Websites has websites

with ideas, planning templates and grading rubrics.

Project Work in (English) Language Teaching provides a practical guide to running asuccessful 30-hour (15-lesson) short film project in English with (pre-)intermediatestudents: planning, lessons, evaluation, deliverables, samples and experiences, plusideas for other projects.

Checklists to support Project Based Learning and evaluation
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=8http://www.projectbasedlearning.com/http://www.bie.org/http://www.edutopia.org/10-tips-assessment-project-based-learning-resource-guidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edutopiahttp://www.edutopia.org/php/article.php?id=Art_182http://www.edutopia.org/php/article.php?id=Art_182http://www.edutopia.org/php/article.php?id=Art_182http://www.edutopia.org/php/article.php?id=Art_182http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edutopiahttp://www.projectfoundry.org/http://www.learningforacause.org/http://www.oercommons.org/community/changing-the-face-of-traditional-education-project-based-learninghttp://www.intel.com/education/elementshttp://www.learningreviews.com/Project-Based-Learning.htmlhttp://project-work-in-english-teaching.blogspot.com/http://project-work-in-english-teaching.blogspot.com/http://www.learningreviews.com/Project-Based-Learning.htmlhttp://www.intel.com/education/elementshttp://www.oercommons.org/community/changing-the-face-of-traditional-education-project-based-learninghttp://www.learningforacause.org/http://www.projectfoundry.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edutopiahttp://www.edutopia.org/php/article.php?id=Art_182http://www.edutopia.org/php/article.php?id=Art_182http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edutopiahttp://www.edutopia.org/10-tips-assessment-project-based-learning-resource-guidehttp://www.bie.org/http://www.projectbasedlearning.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Project-based_learning&action=edit&section=8


23/38

Building Motivation

Project Based Learning allowsteachers to create tasks whosecomplexity and openness mimicproblems in the real world. Studentscan see the interdisciplinary nature ofthese tasks, and see that each taskmay have more than one solution.Students who have the freedom tochoose different strategies andapproaches may become moreengaged in the learning process, andthese students will be more likely toapproach other problems with anopen mind.

In addition, students who areinvolved in creating the projectassignment or the project checklistgain valuable experience in settingtheir own goals and standards ofexcellence. This gives students asense of ownership and control overtheir own learning.Learners have theadded opportunity to identify relatedsub-topics and explore them in aproject based scenario. Teaching withthe project based method enablesstudents to work cooperatively withpeers and mentors in a student-centered environment where learnersare encouraged to explore varioustopics of interest.

Projects that have depth, duration,and complexity will challengestudents and motivate them towardsconstruction of knowledge. They willacquire problem-solving,communication, collaboration,planning, and self- evaluation skills.After completing a project, askstudents to create a self-evaluation ofthe project. This enables the studentsto focus on their learning process andallows them to see their progress.Self-evaluation gives students asense of accomplishment and further

instills responsibility for learning.

Learners who can see theconnection between a project basedtask and the real world will be moremotivated to understand and solvethe problem at hand. Students enjoylearning when learning makessense. Project Based Learning lendsitself to many disciplines. It provideslearners the opportunity to have avoice in how and what they learn,while building intrinsic motivationtowards problem-solving.

PBL Project Checklists Involving Students in Checklist

Creation Using Multiple Intelligences Read More About Student

Motivation to Learn

Student Motivation To Learn
http://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/checklist.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/students.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/students.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/students.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/students.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/intell.shtmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.htmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/intell.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/students.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/students.shtmlhttp://pblchecklist.4teachers.org/checklist.shtml


24/38

Credits

Source

ERICClearinghouseonEducationalManagement

Contents

What IsStudentMotivation?

What FactorsInfluence TheDevelopmentOf Students'Motivation?

Are ThereAdvantagesTo IntrinsicMotivation?

How CanMotivation ToLearn Be

Fostered InThe SchoolSetting?

What Can BeDone To HelpUnmotivatedStudents?

Infants and young children appear to be propelled by curiosity, driven byan intense need to explore, interact with, and make sense of theirenvironment. As one author puts it, "Rarely does one hear parentscomplain that their pre-schooler is 'unmotivated' " (James Raffini 1993).

Unfortunately, as children grow, their passion for learning frequentlyseems to shrink. Learning often becomes associated with drudgery

instead of delight. A large number of students--more than one in four--leave school before graduating. Many more are physically present in theclassroom but largely mentally absent; they fail to invest themselvesfully in the experience of learning.

Awareness of how students' attitudes and beliefs about learning developand what facilitates learning for its own sake can assist educators inreducing student apathy.

What Is Student Motivation?

Student motivation naturally has to do with students' desire toparticipate in the learning process. But it also concerns the reasons orgoals that underlie their involvement or noninvolvement in academicactivities. Although students may be equally motivated to perform atask, the sources of their motivation may differ.

A student who is INTRINSICALLY motivated undertakes an activity "forits own sake, for the enjoyment it provides, the learning it permits, orthe feelings of accomplishment it evokes" (Mark Lepper 1988). AnEXTRINSICALLY motivated student performs "IN ORDER TO obtain some

reward or avoid some punishment external to the activity itself," such asgrades, stickers, or teacher approval (Lepper).

The term MOTIVATION TO LEARN has a slightly different meaning. It isdefined by one author as "the meaningfulness, value, and benefits ofacademic tasks to the learner--regardless of whether or not they areintrinsically interesting" (Hermine Marshall 1987). Another notes thatmotivation to learn is characterized by long-term, quality involvement inlearning and commitment to the process of learning (Carole Ames 1990).

What Factors Influence The Development Of Students' Motivation?

According to Jere Brophy (1987), motivation to learn is a competenceacquired "through general experience but stimulated most directlythrough modeling, communication of expectations, and direct instructionor socialization by significant others (especially parents and teachers)."

Children's home environment shapes the initial constellation of attitudesthey develop toward learning. When parents nurture their children'snatural curiosity about the world by welcoming their questions,
http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#creditshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Whathttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Whathttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Whathttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Helphttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Motivationhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Advantageshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Factorshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Whathttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Whathttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Whathttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#credits


25/38

Resources

ForumsEducation

and Kids

GiftedChildren

Raising ourKids

RelatedArticlesHelping YourChild GetReady forSchool

TeachingChildren with

AttentionDeficitDisorder

Giftednessand theGifted:What's It AllAbout?

encouraging exploration, and familiarizing them with resources that canenlarge their world, they are giving their children the message thatlearning is worthwhile and frequently fun and satisfying.

When children are raised in a home that nurtures a sense of self-worth,competence, autonomy, and self-efficacy, they will be more apt to acceptthe risks inherent in learning. Conversely, when children do not view

themselves as basically competent and able, their freedom to engage inacademically challenging pursuits and capacity to tolerate and cope withfailure are greatly diminished.

Once children start school, they begin forming beliefs about their school-related successes and failures. The sources to which children attributetheir successes (commonly effort, ability, luck, or level of task difficulty)and failures (often lack of ability or lack of effort) have importantimplications for how they approach and cope with learning situations.

The beliefs teachers themselves have about teaching and learning and

the nature of the expectations they hold for students also exert apowerful influence (Raffini). As Deborah Stipek (1988) notes, "To a verylarge degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them tolearn."

Schoolwide goals, policies, and procedures also interact with classroomclimate and practices to affirm or alter students' increasingly complexlearning-related attitudes and beliefs.

And developmental changes comprise one more strand of the

motivational web. For example, although young children tend to maintainhigh expectations for success even in the face of repeated failure, olderstudents do not. And although younger children tend to see effort asuniformly positive, older children view it as a "double-edged sword"(Ames). To them, failure following high effort appears to carry morenegative implications--especially for their self-concept of ability--thanfailure that results from minimal or no effort.

Back to the Table of Contents

Using Multiple Intelligences
http://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#Resourceshttp://www5.kidsource.com/forums?14@@.ee6b2a9http://www5.kidsource.com/forums?14@@.ee6b2a9http://www5.kidsource.com/forums?14@@.ee6b4d3http://www5.kidsource.com/forums?14@@.ee6b4d3http://www5.kidsource.com/forums?14@%[email protected]://www5.kidsource.com/forums?14@%[email protected]://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/getready.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/getready.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/getready.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/getready.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/add.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/add.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/add.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/add.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/add.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/giftedness_and_gifted.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/giftedness_and_gifted.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/giftedness_and_gifted.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/giftedness_and_gifted.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/giftedness_and_gifted.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#contentshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content2/Student_Motivatation.html#contentshttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/giftedness_and_gifted.htmlhttp://www.kidsource.com/kidsource/content/giftedness_and_gifted.htmlhttp://ww

Date post:	02-Apr-2018
Category:	Documents
Upload:	renata-mello
View:	216 times
Download:	0 times

Projects Texts

Documents