+ All Categories
Home > Documents > Psychiatry—Important Advances in Clinical Medicine

Psychiatry—Important Advances in Clinical Medicine

Date post: 08-Oct-2015
Category:
Upload: diskta-w-ronica
View: 214 times
Download: 0 times
Share this document with a friend
Description:
jiwa
2
 EPITOMES-PSYCHIATRY a t previously tolerated blood concentrations. Lithium c a n b e given i n combination with diuretics i f blood centrations a re measured frequently during initiation a n d adjustment of diuretics. Lithium m a y increase t h e potential f o r digitalis toxicity b y lowering intracellular potassium levels; thus, careful monitoring o f electro- cardiograms should b e carried o u t during stabilization periods. Lithium u s e i s contraindicated during preg- nancy a n d for women w h o a r e breast-feeding. ROBERT H GERNER, M REFERENCES Ananth J , Gold J , Ghadriran A M , e t a l: Long-term effects o f lithium carbonate on cognitive functions.  Psychiatry Treat Eval 1981; 3:551-555 Cooper TB, Simpson G M : T h e 24-hour lithium level a s a prognosticator o f dosage requirements:  2-year follow-up study.  m J Psychiatry 1976 Apr; 133:440-443 Jchnson FN : Handbook of Lithium Therapy. Baltimore, University Park Press, 1980 R am sey T A, C ox M : Lithium a n d t h e kidney:  review.  m  Psychi- atry 1982 Apr; 139:443-449 Vestergaard P , Amdisen A, Schou M : Clinically significant side effects o f lithium treatment-A survey o f 2 3 7 patients i long-term treatment. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1980 Sep; 62:193-200 Sleep Disorders Medicine: A New Subspecialty SLEEP DISORDERS MEDICINE h a s recently emerged a s a n ew subspecialty. Nearly 1 0 0 sleep disorder centers have already been established i n hospitals throughout t h e United States. Certified sleep disorder specialists  clinical polysomnographers) drawn from pulmonary medicine, neurology, cardiology, psychiatry, psychology a n d other fields offer comprehensive medical a n d psy- chiatric evaluation a n d treatment f o r a wide variety o f clinical problems.  fe w disorders are a s follows. Excessive Daytime Sleepiness Patients with excessive daytime sleepiness  EDS) show a persistent propensity to fall asleep a t times when they wish t o remain awake. Two major diagnoses should b e considered: narcolepsy a n d obstructive sleep apnea. Narcolepsy i s associated with cataplexy, consisting o f brief episodes o f objective muscle weakness usually precipitated b y emotional arousal. I t i s found equally i n m e n a n d women a n d begins during t h e late teenage years an d 20s. In contrast, patients with obstructive sleep apnea have hundreds of episodes dur- i n g t h e night when effective respiration ceases because o f upper airway obstruction. I t i s usually associated with profound snoring a n d occurs most frequently i n obese middle-aged men. T h e symptoms o f excessive daytime sleepiness m a y b e related t o t h e metabolic an d blood g a s abnormalities associated with prolonged, r e - peated apnea. Patients with both forms o f this disorder fall asleep in t h e sleep laboratory during day- time a n d nocturnal recordings. Narcoleptic patients usually enter rapid-eye-move- ment  REM) sleep immediately on falling asleep. P a - tients w h o have sleep apnea show numerous episodes of apnea a nd m a y have severe, life-threatening periods o f hypoxemia, hypercapnea, pulmonary a n d systemic hypertension a n d cardiac arrhythmias during apneic episodes. Once t h e diagnosis is established, relatively successful therapies a r e fo r both forms o f sleep disorder. Major Depressive Disorders Most depressed patients have insomnia, though a f e w have hypersomnia. More recently it h a s been found that many depressed patients show rather specific a b - normalities o f sleep, including a loss o f stage 4 sleep  a n electroencephalographic category) an d a shortened R E M latency  t h e elapsed time from sleep onset t o t h e first R EM period). These findings have stimulated siderable research into biologic factors i n affective ill- ness. T h e clinical usefulness o f sleep laboratory i n - vestigations of depressed patients i s currently being studied i n such areas as differential diagnosis, assess- ment o f severity a n d prediction o f response t o treatment. Impotence T h e differentiation o f psychogenic a n d organic factors i s a n important consideration i n t h e management o f impotent patients. Because every normal m a n h a s full erections i n association with RE M periods, all-night- sleep laboratory recordings of sleep a n d nocturnal penile tumescence provide valuable information t o clinicians w h o must decide whether t o treat a patient psychiatri- cally, medically o r surgically. During R E M periods, i t i s possible t o measure changes i n penile circumference that occur with erections and o n awakening, t o measure rigidity. Patients with organic impotency show little o r n o evidence of a n objective erection during several nights i n a sleep laboratory a n d a r e candidates f o r a penile prosthesis o r a vascular operation. J . CHRISTIAN GILLIN, M REFERENCES Gillin J C , Duncan W , Pettigrew K D , e t a l : Successful separation of depressed, normal, a n d insomniac subjects b y EEG sleep d at a. Arch Ge n Psychiatry 1979 Jan; 36:85-90 Guilleminault C: Sleeping a n d Waking Disorders: Indications a n d Techniques. Menlo Park, Calif, Addison-Wesley, 1982 Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome T H E NEUROLEPTIC MALIGNANT SYNDROME appears i n patients being treated with antipsychotic medication a n d i s characterized b y fever, muscular rigidity, altered consciousness an d autonomic dysfunction. Although t h e syndrome i s considered rare, it i s recently being reported with more frequency i n t h e United States. Usually seen i n m e n younger than 4 0 years, i t h a s been reported i n patients with various psychiatric diagnoses. Neuroleptic malignant syndrome h a s also been reported t o occur with the administration o f most major families o f neuroleptic drugs, most often i n therapeutic doses. It i s seen less frequently with other psychotropic agents that a r e given either alone o r in combination. T h e syndrome usually resolves spontaneously when t h e offending neuroleptic agent is discontinued an d does n o t always reappear when t he causative agent i s read- ministered. I t i s also n o t related to t h e duration o f drug administration. Laboratory evaluation shows nonspecifi- T H E WESTERN JOURNAL O F MEDICINE 0 8
Transcript
  • 5/19/2018 PsychiatryImportant Advances in Clinical Medicine

    1/3

    EPITOMES-PSYCHIATRY

    a t

    p r e v i o u s l y

    t o l e r a t e d b l o o d c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .

    L i t h i u m

    c a n

    b e g i v e n

    i n

    c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h d i u r e t i c s

    i f

    b l o o d

    c o n -

    c e n t r a t i o n s

    a r e m e a s u r e d

    f r e q u e n t l y d u r i n g

    i n i t i a t i o n

    a n d

    a d j u s t m e n t

    o f

    d i u r e t i c s . L i t h i u m

    may

    i n c r e a s e

    t h e

    p o t e n t i a l

    f o r d i g i t a l i s

    t o x i c i t y b y

    l o w e r i n g

    i n t r a c e l l u l a r

    p o t a s s i u m

    l e v e l s ;

    t h u s ,

    c a r e f u l

    m o n i t o r i n g

    o f

    e l e c t r o -

    c a r d i o g r a m s s h o u l d

    b e c a r r i e d o u t

    d u r i n g

    s t a b i l i z a t i o n

    p e r i o d s .

    L i t h i u m u s e

    i s

    c o n t r a i n d i c a t e d

    d u r i n g

    p r e g -

    n a n c y

    a n d

    f o r

    women

    who

    a r e

    b r e a s t - f e e d i n g .

    R OBE R T

    H .

    GERNER,

    M

    REFERENCES

    A n a n t h J , G o l d

    J , G h a d r i r a n

    A M , e t a l :

    L o n g - t e r m e f f e c t s o f

    l i t h i u m

    c a r b o n a t e on

    c o g n i t i v e

    f u n c t i o n s .

    P s y c h i a t r y

    T r e a t E v a l

    1 9 8 1 ;

    3 : 5 5 1 - 5 5 5

    C o o p e r T B ,

    S i m p s o n

    GM :

    T h e

    2 4 - h o u r l i t h i u m

    l e v e l

    a s

    a

    p r o g n o s t i c a t o r

    o f

    d o s a g e

    r e q u i r e m e n t s :

    2 - y e a r

    f o l l o w - u p s t u d y .

    m

    J

    P s y c h i a t r y

    1 9 7 6

    A p r ;

    1 3 3 : 4 4 0 - 4 4 3

    J c h n s o n FN :

    Handbook

    o f

    L i t h i u m

    T h e r a p y . B a l t i m o r e ,

    U n i v e r s i t y

    P a r k P r e s s , 1 9 8 0

    R am sey T A, C ox

    M: L i t h i u m

    a n d

    t h e

    k i d n e y :

    r e v i e w . m

    P s y c h i -

    a t r y

    1 9 8 2

    A p r ;

    1 3 9 : 4 4 3 - 4 4 9

    V e s t e r g a a r d

    P ,

    Amdisen

    A ,

    S c h o u M:

    C l i n i c a l l y

    s i g n i f i c a n t

    s i d e

    e f f e c t s

    o f

    l i t h i u m

    treatment-A

    s u r v e y

    o f 2 3 7

    p a t i e n t s

    i n

    l o n g - t e r m

    t r e a t m e n t .

    A c t a

    P s y c h i a t r

    S c a n d

    1 9 8 0

    S e p ;

    6 2 : 1 9 3 - 2 0 0

    S l e e p

    D i s o r d e r s M e d i c i n e :

    A New

    S u b s p e c i a l t y

    S L E E P D I S O R D E R S

    M E D I C I N E

    h a s

    r e c e n t l y

    e m e r g e d

    a s

    a

    n e w

    s u b s p e c i a l t y .

    N e a r l y

    1 0 0

    s l e e p

    d i s o r d e r

    c e n t e r s

    h a v e

    a l r e a d y

    b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d

    i n

    h o s p i t a l s

    t h r o u g h o u t

    t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . C e r t i f i e d

    s l e e p

    d i s o r d e r

    s p e c i a l i s t s

    c l i n i c a l

    p o l y s o m n o g r a p h e r s )

    d r a w n

    f r o m

    p u l m o n a r y

    m e d i c i n e ,

    n e u r o l o g y ,

    c a r d i o l o g y ,

    p s y c h i a t r y ,

    p s y c h o l o g y

    a n d o t h e r f i e l d s o f f e r

    c o m p r e h e n s i v e

    m e d i c a l a n d

    p s y -

    c h i a t r i c e v a l u a t i o n

    a n d

    t r e a t m e n t

    f o r

    a w i d e

    v a r i e t y

    o f

    c l i n i c a l

    p r o b l e m s .

    f e w d i s o r d e r s a r e a s

    f o l l o w s .

    E x c e s s i v e

    D a y t i m e

    S l e e p i n e s s

    P a t i e n t s

    w i t h

    e x c e s s i v e

    d a y t i m e

    s l e e p i n e s s

    E D S )

    s h o w

    a

    p e r s i s t e n t

    p r o p e n s i t y

    t o

    f a l l

    a s l e e p

    a t

    t i m e s

    w h e n

    t h e y

    w i s h t o

    r e m a i n a w a k e . T wo

    m a j o r d i a g n o s e s

    s h o u l d

    b e c o n s i d e r e d :

    n a r c o l e p s y

    a n d

    o b s t r u c t i v e

    s l e e p a p n e a .

    N a r c o l e p s y

    i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h

    c a t a p l e x y ,

    c o n s i s t i n g

    o f

    b r i e f

    e p i s o d e s

    o f

    o b j e c t i v e

    m u s c l e w e a k n e s s

    u s u a l l y

    p r e c i p i t a t e d

    b y

    e m o t i o n a l a r o u s a l . I t

    i s f o u n d

    e q u a l l y

    i n m en a n d

    w o m e n

    a n d

    u s u a l l y

    b e g i n s d u r i n g

    t h e

    l a t e

    t e e n a g e y e a r s

    a n d

    e a r l y

    2 0 s . I n

    c o n t r a s t , p a t i e n t s

    w i t h

    o b s t r u c t i v e

    s l e e p a p n e a

    h a v e

    h u n d r e d s

    o f

    e p i s o d e s

    d u r -

    i n g

    t h e

    n i g h t

    w h e n

    e f f e c t i v e

    r e s p i r a t i o n

    c e a s e s

    b e c a u s e

    o f

    u p p e r

    a i r w a y

    o b s t r u c t i o n .

    I t

    i s

    u s u a l l y

    a s s o c i a t e d

    w i t h

    p r o f o u n d

    s n o r i n g

    a n d

    o c c u r s m o s t

    f r e q u e n t l y

    i n

    o b e s e

    m i d d l e - a g e d

    m e n .

    T h e

    s y m p t o m s

    o f

    e x c e s s i v e

    d a y t i m e

    s l e e p i n e s s

    may

    b e

    r e l a t e d

    t o

    t h e

    m e t a b o l i c

    a n d

    b l o o d

    g a s

    a b n o r m a l i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d

    w i t h

    p r o l o n g e d ,

    r e -

    p e a t e d

    a p n e a .

    P a t i e n t s w i t h

    b o t h

    f o r m s

    o f t h i s

    d i s o r d e r

    f a l l

    a s l e e p q u i c k l y

    i n

    t h e

    s l e e p l a b o r a t o r y

    d u r i n g

    d a y -

    t i m e a n d

    n o c t u r n a l

    r e c o r d i n g s .

    N a r c o l e p t i c

    p a t i e n t s

    u s u a l l y

    e n t e r

    r a p i d - e y e - m o v e -

    m e n t

    R E M )

    s l e e p

    i m m e d i a t e l y

    o n

    f a l l i n g

    a s l e e p .

    P a -

    t i e n t s

    who

    h a v e

    s l e e p

    a p n e a

    s h o w

    n u m e r o u s

    e p i s o d e s

    o f

    a p n e a

    a n d

    may

    h a v e

    s e v e r e ,

    l i f e - t h r e a t e n i n g p e r i o d s

    o f

    h y p o x e m i a ,

    h y p e r c a p n e a , p u l m o n a r y

    a n d

    s y s t e m i c

    h y p e r t e n s i o n

    a n d c a r d i a c a r r h y t h m i a s

    d u r i n g

    a p n e i c

    e p i s o d e s .

    O n c e

    t h e

    d i a g n o s i s

    i s

    e s t a b l i s h e d ,

    r e l a t i v e l y

    s u c c e s s f u l

    t h e r a p i e s

    a r e

    a v a i l a b l e f o r

    b o t h

    f o r m s

    o f

    s l e e p

    d i s o r d e r .

    M a j o r

    D e p r e s s i v e D i s o r d e r s

    M o s t

    d e p r e s s e d

    p a t i e n t s h a v e i n s o m n i a ,

    t h o u g h

    a

    f e w

    h a v e

    h y p e r s o m n i a .

    M o r e r e c e n t l y

    i t

    h a s

    b e e n

    f o u n d

    t h a t

    many

    d e p r e s s e d

    p a t i e n t s

    s h o w

    r a t h e r

    s p e c i f i c

    a b -

    n o r m a l i t i e s

    o f

    s l e e p ,

    i n c l u d i n g

    a

    l o s s

    o f s t a g e 4

    s l e e p

    a n

    e l e c t r o e n c e p h a l o g r a p h i c

    c a t e g o r y )

    a n d

    a

    s h o r t e n e d

    R E M

    l a t e n c y t h e

    e l a p s e d

    t i m e f r o m s l e e p o n s e t t o

    t h e

    f i r s t

    R E M

    p e r i o d ) . T h e s e

    f i n d i n g s h a v e s t i m u l a t e d

    c o n -

    s i d e r a b l e

    r e s e a r c h

    i n t o

    b i o l o g i c

    f a c t o r s

    i n a f f e c t i v e

    i l l

    n e s s .

    T h e

    c l i n i c a l u s e f u l n e s s

    o f s l e e p l a b o r a t o r y

    i n -

    v e s t i g a t i o n s

    o f

    d e p r e s s e d

    p a t i e n t s

    i s c u r r e n t l y

    b e i n g

    s t u d i e d i n

    s u c h

    a r e a s

    a s d i f f e r e n t i a l

    d i a g n o s i s ,

    a s s e s s -

    m e n t

    o f s e v e r i t y a n d

    p r e d i c t i o n o f r e s p o n s e

    t o

    t r e a t m e n t .

    I m p o t e n c e

    T h e

    d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n

    o f

    p s y c h o g e n i c

    a n d

    o r g a n i c

    f a c t o r s

    i s

    a n

    i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n

    i n

    t h e

    m a n a g e m e n t

    o f

    i m p o t e n t

    p a t i e n t s .

    B e c a u s e

    e v e r y

    n o r m a l man h a s

    f u l l

    e r e c t i o n s i n

    a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h

    REM p e r i o d s ,

    a l l - n i g h t -

    s l e e p

    l a b o r a t o r y

    r e c o r d i n g s o f s l e e p a n d

    n o c t u r n a l

    p e n i l e

    t u m e s c e n c e

    p r o v i d e

    v a l u a b l e

    i n f o r m a t i o n

    t o

    c l i n i c i a n s

    who

    m u s t d e c i d e

    w h e t h e r t o t r e a t a

    p a t i e n t

    p s y c h i a t r i -

    c a l l y ,

    m e d i c a l l y o r

    s u r g i c a l l y .

    D u r i n g

    REM p e r i o d s ,

    i t

    i s

    p o s s i b l e t o

    m e a s u r e

    c h a n g e s i n

    p e n i l e

    c i r c u m f e r e n c e

    t h a t

    o c c u r w i t h

    e r e c t i o n s

    a n d o n a w a k e n i n g , t o

    m e a s u r e

    r i g i d i t y .

    P a t i e n t s

    w i t h

    o r g a n i c

    i m p o t e n c y s h o w l i t t l e

    o r

    n o e v i d e n c e

    o f a n

    o b j e c t i v e e r e c t i o n

    d u r i n g

    s e v e r a l

    n i g h t s i n a

    s l e e p

    l a b o r a t o r y a n d

    a r e

    c a n d i d a t e s f o r

    a

    p e n i l e

    p r o s t h e s i s o r a

    v a s c u l a r

    o p e r a t i o n .

    J .

    C H R I S T I A N

    G I L L I N ,

    M

    REFERENCES

    G i l l i n J C , Duncan W,

    P e t t i g r e w

    KD, e t a l :

    S u c c e s s f u l

    s e p a r a t i o n

    o

    d e p r e s s e d , n o r m a l ,

    a n d

    i n s o m n i a c

    s u b j e c t s

    b y

    EEG s le e p d at a. Arch

    Ge n

    P s y c hi a tr y 1 9 7 9

    J a n ;

    3 6 : 8 5 - 9 0

    G u i l l e m i n a u l t

    C :

    S l e e p i n g

    a n d

    Waking

    D i s o r d e r s :

    I n d i c a t i o n s

    a n d

    T e c h n i q u e s .

    Menlo

    P a r k ,

    C a l i f ,

    A d d i s o n - W e s l e y ,

    1 9 8 2

    N e u r o l e p t i c

    M a l i g n a n t S y n d r o m e

    THE

    N E U R O L E P T I C

    M A L I G N A N T

    S Y N D R O M E

    a p p e a r s

    i n

    p a t i e n t s

    b e i n g

    t r e a t e d

    w i t h

    a n t i p s y c h o t i c

    m e d i c a t i o n

    a n d

    i s

    c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y f e v e r ,

    m u s c u l a r

    r i g i d i t y ,

    a l t e r e d

    c o n s c i o u s n e s s

    a n d

    a u t o n o m i c

    d y s f u n c t i o n .

    A l t h o u g h

    t h e

    s y n d r o m e

    i s

    c o n s i d e r e d r a r e ,

    i t i s

    r e c e n t l y b e i n g

    r e p o r t e d

    w i t h

    m o r e

    f r e q u e n c y

    i n

    t h e

    U n i t e d

    S t a t e s .

    U s u a l l y

    s e e n

    i n

    men

    y o u n g e r

    t h a n

    4 0

    y e a r s ,

    i t

    h a s

    b e e n

    r e p o r t e d

    i n

    p a t i e n t s

    w i t h

    v a r i o u s

    p s y c h i a t r i c

    d i a g n o s e s .

    N e u r o l e p t i c

    m a l i g n a n t

    s y n d r o m e h a s a l s o

    b e e n

    r e p o r t e d

    t o

    o c c u r w i t h

    t h e

    a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

    o f m o s t

    m a j o r

    f a m i l i e s

    o f

    n e u r o l e p t i c

    d r u g s ,

    m o s t

    o f t e n

    i n

    t h e r a p e u t i c

    d o s e s .

    I t i s

    s e e n l e s s

    f r e q u e n t l y

    w i t h

    o t h e r

    p s y c h o t r o p i c a g e n t s

    t h a t

    a r e

    g i v e n e i t h e r

    a l o n e

    o r

    i n

    c o m b i n a t i o n .

    T h e

    s y n d r o m e

    u s u a l l y

    r e s o l v e s

    s p o n t a n e o u s l y w h e n

    t h e

    o f f e n d i n g

    n e u r o l e p t i c a g e n t

    i s

    d i s c o n t i n u e d a n d d o e s

    n o t a l w a y s

    r e a p p e a r w h e n

    t h e

    c a u s a t i v e

    a g e n t

    i s

    r e a d -

    m i n i s t e r e d .

    I t

    i s

    a l s o n o t

    r e l a t e d t o t h e

    d u r a t i o n

    o f d r u g

    a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

    L a b o r a t o r y

    e v a l u a t i o n s h o w s

    n o n s p e c i f i -

    TH E

    WESTERN

    JOURNAL

    OF MEDICINE

    0 8

  • 5/19/2018 PsychiatryImportant Advances in Clinical Medicine

    2/3

    EPITOMES-PSYCHIATRY

    c a l l y

    a b n o r m a l

    f i n d i n g s ,

    i n c l u d i n g

    a n e l e v a t e d

    c r e a t i n e

    k i n a s e ,

    r a i s e d

    l i v e r

    e n z y m e

    l e v e l s a n d d i f f u s e

    s l o w i n g

    s e e n o n t h e

    e l e c t r o e n c e p h a l o g r a m .

    No

    s t r u c t u r a l

    a b -

    n o r m a l i t i e s

    i n

    t h e c e n t r a l n e r v o u s

    s y s t e m

    h a v e

    b e e n

    f o u n d

    i n

    a u t o p s y

    s t u d i e s .

    D e a t h

    o c c u r s

    i n 2 0

    p e r c e n t

    o f

    t h e

    c a s e s - u s u a l l y

    d u e

    t o

    r e s p i r a t o r y

    f a i l u r e - a n d

    5 0

    p e r c e n t

    o f t h e s e

    h a v e

    b e e n

    r e l a t e d

    t o t h e u s e o f

    l o n g -

    a c t i n g

    p h e n o t h i a z i n e s .

    O t h e r

    s e r i o u s

    c o m p l i c a t i o n s

    i n -

    c l u d e

    t h r o m b o e m b o l i s m , a s p i r a t i o n

    p n e u m o n i a ,

    c a r d i o -

    v a s c u l a r

    c o l l a p s e ,

    r e n a l f a i l u r e a n d i r r e v e r s i b l e

    b r a i n

    d a m a g e .

    T h e

    u n d e r l y i n g

    c a u s a t i v e

    p h y s i o l o g i c

    m e c h a n i s m

    o f

    t h i s d i s o r d e r i s

    u n k n o w n ,

    b u t

    s p e c u l a t i o n

    r e l a t e s

    i t

    t o

    d o p a m i n e b l o c k a d e

    i n

    t h e

    b a s a l

    g a n g l i a

    a n d

    h y p o t h a l a -

    m u s .

    P r e d i s p o s i n g f a c t o r s

    may

    i n c l u d e

    o r g a n i c

    b r a i n

    d i s e a s e , d e h y d r a t i o n o r

    p h y s i c a l

    e x h a u s t i o n .

    A t h o u g h

    t h e r e

    h a v e b e e n

    s c a t t e r e d

    r e p o r t s

    o f

    t r e a t -

    m e n t s u c c e s s w i t h

    a n t i p a r k i n s o n i a n

    a g e n t s ,

    t h e r e i s

    c u r r e n t l y

    n o

    k n o w n

    t r e a t m e n t t h a t c a n

    r e v e r s e t h e

    s y n -

    d r o m e i n

    m o s t c a s e s .

    P a l l i a t i v e

    m e a s u r e s

    i n c l u d e c e s s a -

    t i o n o f

    a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f

    t h e

    n e u r o l e p t i c

    a g e n t a n d

    s u p p o r t i v e m e d i c a l c a r e .

    B e c a u s e t h e m o s t

    e f f e c t i v e

    t r e a t m e n t , t h e n ,

    i s

    p r e v e n t i o n , c l i n i c i a n s s h o u l d

    p r e -

    s c r i b e

    n e u r o l e p t i c

    m e d i c a t i o n

    o n l y w h e n t h e

    b e n e f i t s

    o u t w e i g h

    t h e

    r i s k s i n

    a p s y c h o t i c

    p a t i e n t .

    C H A R L E S

    B .

    SCHAFFER,

    M

    REFERENCES

    C a r o f f

    S N :

    The

    n e u r o l e p t i c

    m a l i g n a n t

    s y n d r o m e .

    J C l i n P s y c h i a t r y

    1 9 8 0 M a r ;

    4 1 : 7 9 - 8 3

    H e n d e r s o n VW ,

    Wooten GF :

    N e u r o l e p t i c

    m a l i g n a n t

    s y n d r o m e :

    p a t h o g e n e t i c r o l e f o r

    d o p a m i n e r e c e p t o r

    b l o c k a d e ?

    N e u r o l o g y NY

    1 9 8 1

    F e b ;

    3 1 : 1 3 2 - 1 3 7

    S m e g o

    R

    J r ,

    D u r a c k

    DT:

    T h e

    n e u r o l e p t i c

    m a li g n a n t s y n d r o m e .

    A r c h

    I n t e r n M e d 1 9 8 2

    J u n ;

    1 4 2 : 1 1 8 3 - 1 1 8 5

    U n d e r d i a g n o s i s

    o f

    B i p o l a r

    D i s o r d e r :

    C a u s e s

    a n d

    I m p l i c a t i o n s

    NUMEROUS

    S T U D I E S ,

    e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g

    t h e

    p a s t

    d e c a d e ,

    h a v e

    r e s u l t e d i n

    r e d e f i n i n g

    t h e

    c r i t e r i a f o r

    d i f f e r e n t i a l

    d i a g n o s i s

    o f v a r i o u s

    p s y c h i a t r i c

    d i s o r d e r s ,

    e s p e c i a l l y

    f o r

    d i s t i n g u i s h i n g

    t h e

    m a j o r

    a f f e c t i v e

    d i s o r d e r s

    f r o m

    t h e

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c

    d i s o r d e r s .

    O b s e r v a t i o n s

    s u g g e s t ,

    h o w e v e r ,

    t h a t

    c l i n i c a l

    p r a c t i c e

    d o e s n o t

    y e t

    f u l l y

    r e f l e c t

    t h e s e

    r e d e f i n i t i o n s , w i t h c a s e s

    o f

    b i p o l a r

    d i s o r d e r ,

    e s p e c i a l l y

    t h e m a n i c

    t y p e ,

    c o n t i n u i n g

    t o

    b e

    d i a g n o s e d

    a n d

    t h e r e -

    f o r e

    t r e a t e d

    a s

    s c h i z o p h r e n i a . T h e

    c o n s e q u e n c e s

    o f s u c h

    a

    m i s d i a g n o s i s a r e s e v e r a l a n d

    c a n

    b e

    t r a g i c :

    1 )

    t h e r e

    i s

    g r e a t e r

    s o c i a l

    s t i g m a a t t a c h e d t o

    t h e

    l a b e l

    o f

    s c h i z o -

    p h r e n i a

    t h a n

    t o

    b i p o l a r

    d i s o r d e r

    m a n i c - d e p r e s s i v e

    d i s o r d e r ) , 2 ) t h e r e

    a r e

    p o o r e r

    p r o g n o s t i c

    i m p l i c a t i o n s

    o f a

    d i a g n o s i s

    o f

    s c h i z o p h r e n i a

    a n d

    a

    m o r e

    n e g a t i v e

    e f f e c t o n

    a

    p a t i e n t ,

    t h e

    f a m i l y

    a n d

    t r e a t m e n t

    p e r s o n n e l

    t h a t i s

    O n c e

    a

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c ,

    a l w a y s

    a

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c )

    a n d

    3 )

    o f t e n

    t r e a t m e n t

    i s w i t h

    a g e n t s

    t h a t

    a r e l e s s

    e f f e c t i v e

    a n d

    h a v e t h e

    p o t e n t i a l

    f o r

    m o r e b o t h s h o r t -

    t e r m a n d

    l o n g - t e r m

    d e l e t e r i o u s

    e f f e c t s .

    M u l t i n a t i o n a l

    s t u d i e s i n W e s t e r n

    E u r o p e

    h a v e

    e s t a b -

    l i s h e d

    a n

    a p p r o x i m a t e

    1 :

    1

    r a t i o o f

    s c h i z o p h r e n i a

    t o

    b i p o l a r d i s o r d e r

    a m o n g

    h o s p i t a l

    a d m i s s i o n s .

    T h i s

    r a t i o

    w a s

    c o n f i r m e d

    b y

    a

    s t u d y

    i n t h e

    U n i t e d S t a t e s

    a n d

    G r e a t

    B r i t a i n , i n d i c a t i n g

    t h a t t h e

    a c t u a l

    p a t i e n t

    t y p e s

    d i d n o t d i f f e r

    i n

    t h e t w o

    c o u n t r i e s . V a r i o u s

    s t u d i e s h a v e

    s h o w n ,

    h o w e v e r ,

    t h a t A m e r i c a n

    p s y c h i a t r i s t s

    h a v e

    d i a g -

    n o s e d

    s c h i z o p h r e n i a a s much a s 8

    t o 1 2

    t i m e s

    a s

    f r e q u e n t l y

    a s

    b i p o l a r

    d i s o r d e r .

    R e c e n t d a t a

    f r o m

    C a l i -

    f o r n i a

    s u g g e s t

    t h a t

    u n d e r d i a g n o s i s

    o f

    a f f e c t i v e

    d i s o r d e r

    r e l a t i v e

    t o

    s c h i z o p h r e n i a

    i s

    c o n t i n u i n g ,

    t h o u g h

    t h e

    t r e n d

    i s t o w a r d

    t h e

    1 : 1

    r a t i o .

    P e r t i n e n t t o

    t h e u n d e r d i a g n o s i s

    o f b i p o l a r

    d i s o r d e r

    i n

    t h i s

    c o u n t r y

    h a s

    b e e n

    t h e

    a d a g e

    e v e n

    a

    t r a c e o f

    s c h i z o -

    p h r e n i a

    i s

    s c h i z o p h r e n i a , s u p p o r t e d

    b y a d i a g n o s t i c

    a p -

    p r o a c h

    t h a t h a s

    r e l i e d o n a

    c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l

    v i e w

    o f

    s i g n s

    a n d

    s y m p t o m s .

    T h e

    D i a g n o s t i c

    a n d

    S t a t i s t i c a l

    M a n u a l

    o f

    M e n t a l

    D i s o r d e r s ,

    2 n d

    E d ,

    w h i c h w a s i n

    u s e u n t i l

    1 9 8 0 ,

    u s e d s u c h

    s l i c e - i n - t i m e

    d e s c r i p t i o n s

    a n d

    a d d i t i o n a l l y

    r e -

    q u i r e d

    t h a t

    f o r

    a

    d i a g n o s i s o f

    a f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n

    a n y

    d i s -

    t u r b a n c e

    o f

    t h o u g h t

    o r

    b e h a v i o r m u s t

    b e c o n s o n a n t w i t h

    t h e

    p r i m a r y

    d i s o r d e r

    o f

    m o o d .

    T h e r e f o r e , t h e

    p r e s e n c e

    o f

    a n y

    m o o d - i n c o n g r u e n t

    p s y c h o t i c

    f e a t u r e s

    e x c l u d e d

    t h e

    d i a g n o s i s o f a n

    a f f e c t i v e

    d i s o r d e r .

    S u b s e q u e n t t o

    t h i s

    e d i t i o n ,

    r e s e a r c h

    h a s

    c l a r i f i e d

    t h e n o n s p e c i f i c i t y

    o f

    many

    o f

    t h e

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c

    s y m p t o m s ,

    i n c l u d i n g

    m o o d -

    i n c o n g r u e n t

    h a l l u c i n a t i o n s

    a n d

    d e l u s i o n s ,

    t h o u g h t

    d i s -

    o r d e r

    a n d

    c a t a t o n i a . T h e

    e n t i r e r a n g e o f

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c

    s y m p t o m s h a s

    b e e n

    n o t e d i n

    2 0 p e r c e n t

    t o

    5 0 p e r c e n t

    o f b o t h

    m a n i c a n d

    d e p r e s s e d

    p a t i e n t s . T h e

    p r e s e n c e

    o r

    a b s e n c e

    o f

    a f f e c t i v e

    s y m p t o m s ,

    t h e

    f a m i l y h i s t o r y

    f o r

    s c h i z o p h r e n i a a n d

    a f f e c t i v e

    d i s o r d e r p a r t i c u l a r l y ) ,

    t h e

    p r e m o r b i d

    p e r s o n a l i t y a n d

    t h e c o u r s e

    o f i l l n e s s

    a r e

    m o r e

    s p e c i f i c d i a g n o s t i c i n d i c a t o r s .

    Age

    o f o n s e t i s n o t

    t h e

    d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g

    c r i t e r i o n o n c e

    t h o u g h t ;

    i t

    i s

    now

    r e c o g -

    n i z e d

    t h a t

    b i p o l a r

    d i s o r d e r c a n

    o c c u r

    i n

    c h i l d h o o d

    a n d

    a d o l e s c e n c e

    a n d

    t h a t

    s u c h c a s e s t e n d

    t o

    h a v e a

    h i g h e r

    g e n e t i c

    l o a d i n g

    a n d

    a

    l e s s

    f a v o r a b l e

    c o u r s e .

    T h e

    t h i r d

    e d i t i o n o f t h e

    a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d m a n u a l ,

    now

    i n u s e ,

    p r o v i d e s

    s p e c i f i c d i a g n o s t i c

    c r i t e r i a ,

    r a t h e r

    t h a n

    c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l

    d e s c r i p t i o n s , a n d

    i n c o r p o r a t e s

    many

    o f

    t h e f i n d i n g s

    o f r e c e n t

    r e s e a r c h

    i n

    t h e

    c r i t e r i a

    f o r

    d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c d i s o r d e r s

    a n d t h e

    a f f e c -

    t i v e

    d i s o r d e r s . T h e

    t r e n d i n

    t h e C a l i f o r n i a

    f i n d i n g s

    m a y

    w e l l r e f l e c t

    i n c r e a s i n g

    f a m i l i a r i t y

    w i t h

    t h e s e

    c r i t e r i a :

    c a t e g o r y

    o f

    s c h i z o a f f e c t i v e

    d i s o r d e r

    r e m a i n s ,

    w i t h o u t

    d i a g n o s t i c

    c r i t e r i a , f o r

    t h o s e

    i n s t a n c e s

    i n

    w h i c h a c l i n i -

    c i a n i s

    u n a b l e

    t o

    m a k e t h e

    d i f f e r e n t i a l d i a g n o s i s w i t h

    a n y

    d e g r e e

    o f

    c e r t a i n t y ;

    i t

    i s

    n o t ,

    h o w e v e r ,

    a s

    w a s

    f o r m e r l y t h e c a s e ,

    i n c l u d e d

    among t h e

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c

    d i s o r d e r s

    b u t

    u n d e r a new

    c a t e g o r y

    o f

    p s y c h o t i c

    d i s -

    o r d e r s

    n o t

    e l s e w h e r e

    c l a s s i f i e d . S u c h

    i n s t a n c e s e m p h a -

    s i z e

    t h e

    n e e d

    f o r c a r e f u l

    d i a g n o s t i c

    e v a l u a t i o n a s

    a n

    o n g o i n g

    p r o c e s s .

    I n

    t h o s e

    i n s t a n c e s i n

    w h i c h

    t h e

    d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n b e -

    t w e e n

    a

    s c h i z o p h r e n i c

    i l l n e s s a n d

    a n

    a f f e c t i v e

    i l l n e s s

    f e a t u r i n g m a n i c

    s y m p t o m s

    i s n o t

    c l e a r , i t

    i s

    a p p r o p r i a t e

    t o

    i n s t i t u t e a

    t r i a l

    o f

    l i t h i u m

    c a r b o n a t e

    t r e a t m e n t . S u c h

    i s

    p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e

    c a s e

    w h e n

    r e s p o n s e t o

    n e u r o l e p t i c s

    i s

    n o t

    s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h e d u r a t i o n

    o f

    s u c h a

    t r i a l

    b a r r i n g

    t h e

    d e v e l o p m e n t

    o f

    a d v e r s e

    r e a c t i o n s ,

    s h o u l d

    b e a t

    l e a s t

    a

    m o n t h

    a t

    a d e q u a t e

    s e r u m

    c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .

    R e s e a r c h

    M A R C H

    1 9 8 3

    1 3 8

    3

    4 0 9

  • 5/19/2018 PsychiatryImportant Advances in Clinical Medicine

    3/3


Recommended