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PSYCHOLOGIA
PAEDAGOGIA
1/2018
STUDIA UNIVERSITATIS BABEŞ-BOLYAI
PSYCHOLOGIA-PAEDAGOGIA
Volume 63, Issue 1, June 2018
STUDIA UNIVERSITATIS BABEȘ-BOLYAI PSYCHOLOGIA-PAEDAGOGIA
EDITORIAL OFFICE: 7th Sindicatelor Str., Cluj-Napoca, ROMANIA, Phone: +40-264-405337 Web site: http://www.studia.ubbcluj.ro/serii/psychologia/index_en.html
Contact: [email protected] EDITORS-IN-CHIEF: Associate Prof. ADINA GLAVA, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Associate Prof. DOROTHEA IONESCU, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania EDITORIAL BOARD: Professor VASILE CHIŞ, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Professor MUŞATA BOCOŞ, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Professor CONSTANTIN CUCOȘ, Ph.D., Alexandru Ioan Cuza University, Iași, Romania Professor HARRY DANIELS, Ph.D., University of Oxford, UK Professor CĂLIN FELEZEU, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Professor ROMIȚĂ IUCU, Ph.D., University of Bucharest, Romania Professor ADRIAN OPRE, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Professor VASILE PREDA, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Professor VLADIMIR RADULOV, Ph.D., University of Sofia, Bulgary Professor CHARLES TEMPLE, Ph.D., Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Geneva, USA Assistant Prof. GIORGOS NICOLAOU, Ph.D., University of Ioannina, Greece Assistant Prof. FLORIN SALAJAN, Ed.D., North Dakota State University, USA Professor DOREL UNGUREANU, Ph.D., West University of Timișoara, Romania Professor ION ALBULESCU, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Professor CRISTIAN STAN, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Associate Prof. CAROLINA BODEA-HAȚEGAN, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Associate Prof. ANDREEA HATHÁZI, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Associate Prof. MIRELA ALBULESCU, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Associate Prof. IOANA MAGDAŞ, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Associate Prof. OANA DAVID, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Associate Prof. CĂTĂLIN GLAVA, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Lecturer LAVINIA CHEIE, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Lecturer OANA NEGRU, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Lecturer DANA OPRE, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Lecturer SILVIU MATU, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Lecturer JANOS REKA, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania Researcher SEBASTIAN VAIDA, Ph.D., Babeş-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
YEAR Volume63(LXIII)2018MONTH JUNEISSUE 1
PUBLISHEDONLINE:2018‐06‐25PUBLISHEDPRINT:2018‐06‐25
ISSUEDOI:10.24193/subbpsyped.2018.1
STUDIAUNIVERSITATISBABEŞ‐BOLYAIPSYCHOLOGIA‐PAEDAGOGIA
1
STUDIAUBBEDITORIALOFFICE:B.P.Hasdeuno.51,400371Cluj‐Napoca,Romania,Phone+40264405352,[email protected]
SUMAR–SOMMAIRE–CONTENTS–INHALT
ÉVA KÁLLAY, SEBASTIAN PINTEA, The Role of Emotion‐RegulationStrategies in the Relationship between Demographic Factors andDepressionTendencies.................................................................................................5
CRISTINA PIELMUŞ, Teaching Legal English to Law School StudentsThroughVocabularyPracticeTasks....................................................................27
ROXANAI.HOLIC,TheValidationofPerformanceFailureAppraisal In‐ventoryfortheEducationalContextofHighSchoolStudentsinRo‐mania..................................................................................................................................49
ELENAANCUȚASANTI,COSMINSANTI,GABRIELGORGHIU,EducationintheSpiritofEcumenicalValues........................................................................79
ADELE CARPITELLI, CLAUDIA LORIA, ROBERTA TRE RE, VALENTINAPETRINI,EffectofIntensiveTactInstructiononSpontaneousVerbalBehaviorinThreeChildrenwithDevelopmentalDisability.....................91
IOANA‐MARIACÂMPEAN,OLGACHIȘ,ActiveLearning:theConditionofObtainingQuantifiableSchoolResultsinNationalEvaluationTests....103
STUDIAUBBPSYCHOL.‐PAED.,LXIII,1,2018,p.5‐26(RecommendedCitation)DOI:10.24193/subbpsyped.2018.1.01
THEROLEOFEMOTION‐REGULATIONSTRATEGIESINTHERELATIONSHIPBETWEENDEMOGRAPHIC
FACTORSANDDEPRESSIONTENDENCIES
ÉVAKÁLLAY1,SEBASTIANPINTEA2
ABSTRACT.Thedrasticchangescharacteristictoourtimesforceindi‐vidualstofacerapidlychanginglifeconditions,resultinginanincreas‐ing number of individuals who cannot adequately adapt. There is aplethoraofresearchindicatingdifferencesindepressiontendenciesbe‐tweengenderdifferencesandeducational levels.However, thecogni‐tiveandemotionalmechanismsthatmayexplainsuchdifferencesareunderstudied.Ourstudyinvestigateswhichcognitiveemotion‐regula‐tionstrategiesmediatetherelationshipbetweengender/education,anddepressivetendencies.Ourresultsindicateasignificantrelationshipbe‐tweengenderanddepressiontendencies;womenhavinghigherlevelsofdepressive symptoms.Wealso founda significant relationshipbe‐tweeneducationanddepression;lowerlevelsofdepressivesymptomsforparticipantswithhigherlevelsofeducation.Femaleparticipantsusetoahigherdegreestrategiesasself‐blame,acceptance,rumination,put‐ting into perspective, and catastrophizing. Concerning mediationalmodels,therelationshipbetweengenderanddepressiontendenciesismediated by self‐blame, acceptance, rumination and catastrophizing,whiletherelationshipbetweeneducationanddepressiontendenciesismediatedbyacceptance,catastrophizing,andothersblame.Inconclu‐sion,evenifsocialfactorsaremoreintuitiveandeasiertoidentifyinthe
1 Correspondingauthor:DepartmentofPsychology,Babes‐BolyaiUniversity,Cluj‐Napoca,Romania.Email:[email protected].
2 Department of Psychology, Babes‐Bolyai University, Cluj‐Napoca, Romania. Email:[email protected].
ÉVAKÁLLAY,SEBASTIANPINTEA
6
formofsocialcategories(gender/educationgroups),behindthesecat‐egoriesstanddifferentpsychologicalprofiles,generatedbydifferencesinusingpsychologicalmechanismssuchasemotion‐regulationstrate‐gies.Ourstudypointsouttheneedtoidentifysuchsubtlemechanismsthatcanexplaintheunequaldistributionofdistressinthepopulation.Keywords:depression,emotion‐regulationstrategies,age,gender,edu‐cation,mediation.ZUSAMMENFASSUNG.DieRollederEmotion‐RegelstrategieninderBeziehung zwischen demographischen Faktoren und DepressionTendenzen.DiedrastischenVeränderungen,diefürunsereZeitcharak‐teristischsind,zwingendieIndividuendazu,denschnelländerndenLe‐bensbedingungen gegenüberstehen, was zu einer steigenden AnzahlvonIndividuenführt,diesichnichtadäquatanpassenkönnen.EsgibteineFüllevonUntersuchungen,dieaufUnterschiedeindenDepressivi‐tätstendenzen zwischen Geschlechterunterschieden und Bildungsni‐veauhinweisen.DiekognitivenundemotionalenMechanismen,diesol‐cheUnterschiedeerklärenkönnten,sindjedochzuwenigerforscht.Un‐sereStudieuntersucht,welchekognitivenEmotionsregulationsstrate‐giendieBeziehungzwischenGeschlecht/BildungunddepressivenTen‐denzen vermitteln.Unsere Ergebnisse zeigen eine signifikanteBezie‐hungzwischenGeschlechtundDepressionTendenzen;FrauenzeigenhöheredepressivenSymptomen.WirfandenaucheinesignifikanteBe‐ziehungzwischenBildungundDepression;niedrigereNiveausvonde‐pressivenSymptomenfürTeilnehmermiteinemhöherenBildungsni‐veau.WeiblicheTeilnehmerWeiblicheTeilnehmernutzeninhöheremMaßeStrategienalsSelbstschuld,Akzeptanz,Wiederkäuen,Relativie‐renundKatastrophieren.InBezugaufMediationsmodellewirddieBe‐ziehungzwischenGeschlechtundDepressionstendenzendurchSelbst‐beschuldigung,Akzeptanz,WiederkäuenundKatastrophisierungver‐mittelt,währenddieBeziehungzwischenBildungundDepressionsten‐denzenistdurchAkzeptanz,KatastrophisierungundandereSchuldzu‐weisungenvermittelt.Abschließend,auchwennsozialeFaktorenintui‐tiverundleichterinFormvonsozialenKategorien(Geschlect/Bildung
THEROLEOFEMOTION‐REGULATIONSTRATEGIES…
7
Gruppen)zuidentifizierensind,stehenhinterdiesenKategorienunter‐schiedlichepsychologischeProfile,iedurchUnterschiedeinderAnwen‐dung psychologischer Mechanismen wie Emotionsregulationsstrate‐gienentstehen.UnsereStudieweistaufdieNotwendigkeithin,solchesubtilenMechanismen zu identifizieren, die die ungleiche VerteilungvonDistressinderBevölkerungerklärenkönnen.Schlüsselwörter: Depression, Emotionsregulationsstrategien, Alter, Ge‐schlecht,Bildung,Vermittlung.IntroductionOver thepast century, the entireworld haswitnessed fast and
drasticdemographic,social,technological,political,andeconomicchanges(Amundson,2006;Hidaka,2012).Thesechangeshavecreatedanenvi‐ronmentsignificantlydifferentfromwhathumanshavebeenusedtoeffi‐ciently adapt to (Eaton, Strassman, Nesse, Neel, Ewald,Williams et al.,2002).Theconsiderablediscrepancybetweenpresentandpastlifestylesconstrain individuals to dealwith a constantly growing body of chal‐lenges,whichfrequentlyleadtoimpairingsymptomsofstress(affectingcognitive,behavioral,physiological,emotional,social,etc.,functioning),further hindering the complex processes of adaptation. Consequently,thenumberofindividualswhoexperiencehighlevelsofdistressandcan‐notfunctionattheirbestisconstantlyincreasing(Cuijpersetal.,2007;Cunninghametal.,2006;EuropeanCommission,2005;Wittchen&Jacobi,2005).Thistendencyisreflectedbythegrowingnumberofadultsandchildren suffering from diagnosable mental disorders (Flett & Hewitt,2013;Hidaka,2012),trendaggravatedbyanequallyimportantphenom‐enon,namely,thecaseofthosewhodonotdevelopclinicallysignificantand diagnosable symptoms, but still cannot efficiently adapt to thesehighlystressfullifechallenges(Cuijpersetal.,2007;daSilvaLima&deAlmeidaFleck,2007).
ÉVAKÁLLAY,SEBASTIANPINTEA
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Researchhasallocatedincreasedinteresttotheinvestigationofstrategiesandmechanismsthataffectindividuals'emotionalreactionstothedemandsoftheenvironment(Johnson,Carver&Fulford,2010).Thereview of several studies conducted by Suveg, Morelen, Brewer, andThomassin (2010) indicate that the way one responds to adversity(stress,dailyhassles,negativelifeevents)ismorepredictiveofmentalhealthorpsychopathologythanthenatureofthenegativeeventitself,andthatemotion‐regulationstrategiesplayasignificantroleinthepro‐cessof(mal)adaptation.
Emotion regulation has been defined as "the rangeofactivitiesthatallowanindividualtomonitor,evaluate,andmodifythenatureandcourseofanemotionalresponse, inordertopursuehisorhergoalsandappropriately respond to environmental demands" (Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012,p.163,ascitedinColeetal.,2004;Johnsonetal.,2010).Emotiondysregulationisconsideredasoneofthecentralmechanismsinvolvedinthedevelopmentofdifferentformsofpsychopathology(Aldao,Nolen‐Hoeksema&Schweizer,2010;Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012).Severaltheoret‐ical approaches indicate that individualswho cannot use appropriateemotionregulationstrategiestomanagetheirexacerbatedemotionalre‐actionsarepronetodevelopmoreintenseandlongerlastingperiodsofdistress,whichmayaggravateandleadtoclinicallydiagnosabledisor‐ders(Aldao&Nolen‐Hoeksema,2010;Nolen‐Hoeksema&Aldao,2012).Accordingtoapproacheswhichemphasizethefunctionaldifferentiationofemotionregulationstrategies,rumination,suppression,avoidance,catastro‐phizing, other‐blame, and self‐blame are associated with maladaptiveemotionalreactions(Aldaoetal.,2010;Aldao&Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012),especiallywithdepressionandanxiety(Garnefski&Kraaij,2006;Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012).Ontheotherhand,emotionregulationstrategiesasacceptance,cognitivereappraisal,problemsolving,puttingintoperspec‐tive,positiverefocusing,planning,werefoundtobeassociatedwithpos‐itiveemotional(reductionofnegativeemotionality),behavioral(effec‐tiveinterpersonalfunctioning),andphysiologicalreactions(cardiacre‐activity)(Garnefski&Kraaij,2006;Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012).
THEROLEOFEMOTION‐REGULATIONSTRATEGIES…
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Differenttheorieshaveproposedthatemotiondysregulationmayoccurinseveraldistinctways:(i)thefailuretodown‐regulatenegativeemotionsbyusingadaptiveemotionregulationstrategies(e.g.,problemsolving,reappraisal,acceptance)(Aldaoetal.,2010);(ii)thetendencytoengageinemotionregulationstrategiesthatexacerbatenegativeemotions(e.g.,rumination)(McLaughlin&Nolen‐Hoeksema,2011),and(iii)exces‐siveattemptstodownregulatenegativeemotions(e.g.,suppression,avoid‐ance)(e.g.,Kashdan&Breen,2007;Wenzlaff&Wegner,2000).
Oneofthemajordirectionsinthescientificinvestigationofemotionregulationhasfocusedontheconsciouscognitivemechanismsinvolvedintheadaptiveandmaladaptiveprocesses.Animportantadvantageim‐pliedininvestigatingcognitiveemotion‐regulationstrategiesliesinthepossibilitytochangethem,eitherthroughpersonalexperiencesorpsy‐chotherapeutically(Garnefski,Kraaij&Spinhoven,2002).Garnefskietal.’s(2002) approach identifiednine specific conscious cognitive emotion‐regulationstrategies,as:self‐blame,acceptance,rumination,positivere‐focusing,refocusonplanning,positivereappraisal,putting intoperspec‐tive,catastrophizing,andotherblame.Positivereappraisal,acceptance,problem‐solvinghavelongbeenassociatedwithadaptiveemotionalre‐actions, while rumination, catastrophizing, self and other blame withmaladaptivereactions(Aldao&Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012).
Genderandeducationdifferencesinmaladaptiveemotional
reactionsandemotionregulation
Literaturehasdocumentedthatacrossdifferentnationsandcul‐tures, twice as many women develop depression than men (Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012;Parker&Brotchie,2010).Theorieshypothesizethatbesidessexroles,social factors,biologicaldeterminants,differencesintheuseofemotionregulationstrategiesmaysignificantlycontributetothesediscrepancies(Nolen‐Hoeksema&Aldao,2012).Furthermore,re‐searchalsoindicatesthatoverall,womenhaveagreatertendencytouse
ÉVAKÁLLAY,SEBASTIANPINTEA
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more (both adaptive and maladaptive) emotion regulation strategiesthanmando(Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012).Theseapproachessuggest thatwomenhaveamorepassive reaction towards their emotions andarepronetoanalyzethem(Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012),beingmorelikelytouseemotion‐regulationstrategiesasruminationforexample(Cox,Mezulis&Hyde,2010;Lopez,Driscoll&Kistner,2009).Menaremoreactionori‐ented,andinordertocontroltheemotionelicitingsituation,theyengagemore frequently in problem solving or reappraisal (Tamres, Janicki&Helgeson,2002).
Aldao and Nolen‐Hoeksema (2010), Aldao et al. (2010) haveshownthattheuseofmaladaptiveemotionregulationstrategies(rumi‐nation,suppression,avoidance,worry)aresystematically,morestronglyassociatedtopsychopathologythanadaptivestrategies(problemsolv‐ing,reappraisal,etc.)(Aldao&Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012).Thesefindingshavesignificantpracticalutility,consideringthefactthatpreventionandinterventionofemotionaldisordersheavilycapitalizesonteachingcli‐entshowtouseadaptivestrategiesefficiently(Roemer,Orsillo&Salters‐Pedneault,2008).Besidegender,levelofeducationhasalsobeenfoundtobeasignificantpredictorofdepression.Thus,lackorlowerlevelsofeducationareconsistentlyassociatedwiththeselectionofadaptiveemo‐tionregulationstrategiesacrossdifferentculturesandnations(e.g.,Oha‐yon,2007;Pikhart,Bobak,Pajak,Malyutina,Kubinova,Toporetal.,2004).Peoplewithhigherlevelsofeducationhavebetteraccesstoinformation,possessalargerpoolofoptionsregardingemotionregulationstrategies,whichincreasestheirchancestoselectthegroupofstrategiesthatbestsuitthecontextualdemandsofthesituation,aswellasfacilitatesthead‐herencetopreventionandintervention(Gotlib&Hammen,2009).
Basedonthescientificdocumentationregardinggenderandedu‐cationaldifferences inbothdepressionandemotionregulationstrate‐gies, themajor objective of our studywas to explorewhich cognitiveemotion‐regulationstrategiesmediatetherelationshipbetweengenderandeducationononehand,anddepressivesymptomsontheother.
THEROLEOFEMOTION‐REGULATIONSTRATEGIES…
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Study
ParticipantsInourstudyweincluded962healthyparticipantsfromthegen‐
eralpopulation,338malesand624females,withameanageof40years(SD=9years).Regarding level of education, themeanwas14yearsofschoolingwithastandarddeviationof3years.Afterprovidinginformedconsent,participantscompletedthequestionnairepacketsthattook45minutestofill,inaface‐to‐faceassessmentsessionwiththeresearcher.
Measures
Demographicvariablesare:age,gender,andlevelofeducation.
DepressiontendenciesweremeasuredwiththeBeckDepressionInventory‐II(BDI,Beck,Rush,Shaw&Emery,1979;Romanianadapta‐tionDavid&Dobrean,2012).TheBDIisa21‐item,multiple‐choicefor‐matinventory,designedtomeasurethepresenceofdepressioninadultsandadolescents.Eachof the21 itemsassessesa symptomorattitudespecifictodepression,inquiringitssomatic,cognitiveandbehavioralas‐pects.Byitsassessments,singlescoresareproduced,whichindicatetheintensityofthedepressiveepisode.Scoresrangingfrom0to9,representnormallevelsofdepression.Scoressituatedbetween10and18repre‐sentmildtomoderatedepression;valuesbetween19and29representmoderatetoseveredepression,whilescoresabovethevalueof30rep‐resentseveredepression.InternalconsistencyindicesoftheBDIareusu‐allyabove.90.Inourstudywedidnotuseclinicalcut‐offpointsforanal‐ysisorselectionofparticipants,buttreateddepressiontendenciesasacontinuumrangingfromminimaltomaximalscoresobtainedbypartici‐pantsontheBDIscale.
EmotionregulationstrategiesweremeasuredwiththeCogni‐tiveEmotionRegulationQuestionnaire(CERQ)(Garnefski,Kraaij&Spin‐hoven,2002;Romanianadaptation,Perte&Tincas,2010).TheCERQisa
ÉVAKÁLLAY,SEBASTIANPINTEA
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self‐reportquestionnairedesignedtomeasurecognitivecopingstrate‐gies, assessing what people think after confronting specific negativeevents,ortoassessthewaypeoplegenerallyreactafterconfrontingneg‐ativeevents.Thescale iscomprisedofninesub‐scales: self‐blame,ac‐ceptance,rumination,positiverefocusing,refocusonplanning,positivereappraisal,puttingintoperspective,catastrophizing,otherblame,eachsubscalecontainingfouritems.Subjectshavetoindicateonafive‐pointLikert scale (almost never – to – almost always) the frequency withwhich theyuse thespecificcognitiveemotionregulationstrategy.Theinternalconsistencyoftheoriginalsubscalesforadultpopulationrangefrom.75to.86.
Results
Descriptivestatistics
Table1presents thedescriptivestatisticsof themainvariablesincludedintheanalysis.Oneofthemaininformationthatcanbeidenti‐fiedfromtable1isthelevelofdepressionofwomen(M=8.73,SD=8.27),significantlyhigher(p=.006)thantheoneidentifiedformen(M=7.20,SD=8.00),butwithasmalleffectsize(Cohen'sd=0.17).Also,asthecop‐ingstrategiesareconcerned,theresultsshowthatwomenusewithasig‐nificantly higher frequency cognitive emotion regulation strategies asself‐blame,acceptance,rumination,puttingintoperspectiveandcatastro‐phizingwitheffectsizesthatvaryfromsmalltomedium.
Inthenextstep,weanalyzedwhichofthecopingstrategiesusedmostfrequentlybywomenaresignificantlycorrelatedwithdepression.InTable2wepresent the correlationmatrixbetweendepressionandcognitiveemotionregulationstrategies,alongwiththelevelofeducation,whichwillbeanalyzedinthesecondpartoftheresultssection.
AsTable2shows,amongthecopingstrategiesmorefrequentlyusedbywomen (self‐blame, acceptance, rumination, putting into per‐spective and catastrophizing), only self‐blame, acceptance, rumination
THEROLEOFEMOTION‐REGULATIONSTRATEGIES…
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andcatastrophizingweresignificantlycorrelatedwithdepression.Asaconsequence,onlythesefourcopingstrategiesweretestedasmediatorsoftherelationshipbetweengenderanddepression.
Table1.Descriptivestatisticsforthemainvariablesofthestudy
Variables Male(N=338)M±SD
Female(N=624)M±SD
pvalue Cohen'sd
Age 40.48±9.09 39.90±8.95 0.340 ‐Education 14.27±2.89 13.95±3.29 0.133 ‐Depression 7.20±8.00 8.73±8.27 0.006** 0.17Self‐blame 8.99±2.50 9.49±9.74 0.005** 0.07Acceptance 10.97±3.95 11.76±3.27 0.001** 0.21Rumination 10.15±2.86 10.73±3.15 0.005** 0.19Positiverefocusing 10.81±3.92 11.21±3.76 0.121 ‐Refocusonplanning 13.78±3.16 14.15±3.44 0.097 ‐Positivereappraisal 13.58±3.47 13.83±3.70 0.311 ‐Puttingintoperspective 11.86±3.43 12.79±3.57 0.001** 0.26Catastrophizing 7.59±2.99 8.08±3.26 0.024* 0.15Othersblame 7.86±2.87 7.81±2.81 0.798 ‐
*Statisticallysignificantatp<0.05,**p<0.01
Table2.Correlationmatrixbetweeneducation,copingstrategiesanddepressionsymptoms
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 111.Education 12.Depression ‐.19** 13.Selfblame .02 .39** 1 4.Acceptance ‐.08* .20** .44** 15.Rumination ‐.02 .30** .52** .46** 16.Positivere‐focusing
‐.10** .00 .06 .18** .06 1
ÉVAKÁLLAY,SEBASTIANPINTEA
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 117.Refocusonplanning
‐.02 ‐.05 .24** .31** .31** .46** 1
8.Positivere‐appraisal
.04 ‐.10** .20** .31** .26** .49** .73** 1
9.Puttingintoperspective
‐.05 .02 .24** .38** .25** .43** .50** .59** 1
10.Catastro‐phizing
‐.18** .47** .41** .24** .42** .06* .05 ‐.02 .12** 1
11.Otherblame
‐.14** .36** .27** .14** .31** .07* .03 ‐.09** .08* .58** 1
*Statisticallysignificantatp<0.05,**atp<0.01
Mediatorsoftherelationshipbetweengenderanddepression
Forall themediationmodels,weanalyzedtheregressionequa‐tionsusedtoassessmediationfollowingMacKinnon(2008),inwhichwecalculatedtheeffectof thepredictoruponthemediator(a), thedirecteffectofthemediatoruponthecriterion(b),thetotaleffectofthepre‐dictoruponthecriterion(c),thedirecteffectofthepredictoruponthecriterion(c'),andthemediatedeffect(a*borc‐c').Ineachofthemedia‐tiondiagramspresentedbelow,wealsoincludedthestandardversionforeacheffect(β)anditsstandarderror(SE).Fortestingthestatisticalsignificanceofeachmediationeffect,wecalculatedtheZtest inwhichthestandarderrorof themediatedeffectwascalculated followingtherecommendationsofSobel(1982).Also,foreachanalysis,wecalculatedtheeffectsizeofthemediationeffect,whichisthepercentofthetotaleffect,explainedthroughthemediator,calculatedbydividingthemedi‐ationeffecttothetotaleffectandmultiplyingtheresultby100.
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Self‐blame
InFigure1,themediationdiagramofself‐blameispresentedinrelationshipbetweengenderanddepression.
Figure1.Thediagramforthemediationofself‐blamebetweengenderanddepression
AsFigure1shows,thereisasignificantbutsmalltotaleffectofgenderupondepression(βc=‐.09,p=.006).Whencontrollingfortheme‐diator,thepredictorhasnosignificantdirecteffect(βc'=‐.05,p=.072).Themediationeffect(c‐c'=a*b)provedtobestatisticallysignificantac‐cordingtotheSobeltest(Z=‐2.66,p=.007).Theproportionaleffectsizeofthemediationeffectindicatesthat39%ofthetotalrelationbetweengenderanddepressionismediatedbyself‐blame.
AcceptanceFigure2describesthemediationdiagramofacceptanceinthere‐
lationshipbetweengenderanddepression.
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Figure2.Thediagramforthemediationofacceptancebetweengenderanddepression
AsFigure2shows,whencontrollingforthemediator,thepredic‐
torstillhasasignificantdirecteffect(βc'=‐.06,p=.038).Themediationeffect(c‐c'=a*b)provedtobestatisticallysignificantaccordingtotheSo‐beltest(Z=‐3.20,p=.001).Theproportionaleffectsizeofthemediationeffect indicates that26%of the totalrelationbetweengenderandde‐pressionismediatedbyacceptance.
RuminationFigure3describesthemediationdiagramofruminationinthere‐
lationshipbetweengenderanddepression.AsseeninFigure3,whencontrollingforrumination,genderstill
hasasignificantdirecteffect(βc'=‐.06,p=.048).Themediationeffect(c‐c'=a*b)provedtobestatisticallysignificantaccordingtotheSobeltest(Z=‐2.74,p=.006).Theproportionaleffectsizeofthemediationeffectindicatesthat31%ofthetotalrelationbetweengenderanddepressionismediatedbyrumination.
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Figure3.Thediagramforthemediationofruminationbetweengenderanddepression
Catastrophizing
Figure4describes themediationdiagramof catastrophizing intherelationshipbetweengenderanddepression.
Figure4.Thediagramforthemediationofcatastrophizingbetweengenderanddepression
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AsFigure4indicates,whencontrollingforcatastrophizing,gen‐derhasanosignificantdirecteffect(βc'=‐.05,p=.058).Themediationeffect(c‐c'=a*b)provedtobestatisticallysignificantaccordingtotheSo‐beltest(Z=‐2.26,p=.023).Theproportionaleffectsizeofthemediationeffect indicates that39%of the totalrelationbetweengenderandde‐pressionismediatedbycatastrophizing.
Mediatorsoftherelationshipbetweeneducationanddepression
AsTable2indicated,thereisanegativeandsignificantsmalltomoderaterelationshipbetweeneducationanddepression.Thesamecor‐relation matrix indicates also that education is negatively associatedwithacceptance,positiverefocusing,catastrophizingandotherblame.Inturn,amongthesefourcopingstrategiesonlyacceptance,catastrophiz‐ingandotherblameweresignificantcorrelatesofdepression.
Asaconsequence,wetestedallthesethreecognitivestrategiesasmediatoroftherelationshipbetweeneducationanddepression,follow‐ingthesamestepsofanalysisasmentionedpreviously.
Acceptance
Figure5describesthemediationdiagramofacceptanceinthere‐lationshipbetweeneducationanddepression.
AsFigure5shows,thereisasignificantbutsmalltomoderateto‐taleffectofeducationupondepression(βc=‐.19,p=.001).Whencontrol‐lingforpositiverefocusing,educationstillhasasignificantdirecteffect(βc'=‐.17,p=.001).Themediationeffect(c‐c'=a*b)provedtobestatisti‐callynotsignificantaccordingtotheSobeltest(Z=‐2.43,p= .014).Theproportionaleffectsizeofthemediationeffectindicatesthat10%ofthetotal relation between education and depression is mediated by ac‐ceptance.
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Figure5.Thediagramforthemediationofpositiverefocusingbetweeneducationanddepression
CatastrophizingFigure6describes themediationdiagramof catastrophizing in
therelationshipbetweeneducationanddepression.
Figure6.Thediagramforthemediationofcatastrophizingbetweeneducationanddepression
ÉVAKÁLLAY,SEBASTIANPINTEA
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AsFigure6indicates,whencontrollingforcatastrophizing,gen‐derhasanosignificantdirecteffect(βc'=‐.10,p=.001).Themediationeffect(c‐c'=a*b)provedtobestatisticallysignificantaccordingtotheSo‐beltest(Z=‐5.64,p=.001).Theproportionaleffectsizeofthemediationeffectindicatesthat47%ofthetotalrelationbetweeneducationandde‐pressionismediatedbycatastrophizing.
OtherblameFigure7describesthemediationdiagramofotherblameinthe
relationshipbetweeneducationanddepression.
Figure7.Thediagramforthemediationofotherblamebetweeneducationanddepression
AsFigure7shows,whencontrollingforotherblame,education
hasanosignificantdirecteffect(βc'=‐.13,p=.001).Themediationeffect(c‐c'=a*b)provedtobestatisticallysignificantaccordingtotheSobeltest(Z=‐3.80,p=.001).Theproportionaleffectsizeofthemediationeffectindicatesthat28%ofthetotalrelationbetweeneducationanddepres‐sionismediatedbyotherblame.
THEROLEOFEMOTION‐REGULATIONSTRATEGIES…
21
ConclusionsandDiscussionsOurstudyisbaseduponseveralmainpremises.First,thefastand
drasticdemographic,social,technological,political,andeconomicchangesoverthepastcenturygeneratehighlevelsofdistressinpopulation.Sec‐ond,distressisnotequallydistributedinthepopulation,suchvariationsbeingeasilyidentifiedasafunctionofgenderandeducation.Third,thereisscientificliteratureconfirmingthatemotionregulationstrategiesarehighlyinvolvedindistressingeneralandspecificallyindepression,andthosestrategiesaredifferentiallyusedbygenderoreducationcatego‐ries.Baseduponthesepremises,ourstudyaimedatexploringpreciselywhichemotionregulationstrategiesmediatestherelationshipbetweengender and education on one hand, and depressive symptoms on theother.
First of all, our studyhas identifieda significant effect of smallmagnitudeofgenderupondepression,withwomenhavinghigherlevelsofdepressivesymptoms.Theseresultsareinaccordancewiththelitera‐ture(Nolen‐Hoeksema,2001;2012;Parker&Brotchie,2010),indicatingthatwomen in general aremore prone to develop and report signifi‐cantlyhigherlevelsofdepressionthanmen.
Also,ourresultsconfirmthefindingsofpreviousstudies,whichindicatethattherearesignificantdifferencesindepressiondependingonthelevelofeducation(e.g.,Ohayon,2007;Pikhartetal.,2004).Thusinoursamplewefoundasignificanteffectofsmalltomediummagnitudeofeducationupondepression,withlowerlevelsofdepressivesymptomsforparticipantswithhigherlevelsofeducation.Suchdifferencesareusu‐allyattributedtothefactthatthosewithhigherlevelsofeducationhavebetteraccesstoinformation,possessalargerpoolofoptionsregardingemotionregulationstrategies,whichincreasestheirchancestoselectthegroupofstrategiesthatbestsuitthecontextualdemandsofthesituation,as well as facilitates the adherence to prevention and intervention(Gotlib&Hammen,2009).
ÉVAKÁLLAY,SEBASTIANPINTEA
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Exploringgenderdifferencesinusingemotionalregulationstrat‐egies, our results show thatwomen use to a higher degree thanmenstrategies as self‐blame, acceptance, rumination, putting into perspec‐tive,andcatastrophizing.Itseemsthatwecannottalkaboutapredomi‐nanceofratherfunctionalorratherdysfunctionalstrategiesforwomen.As scientific literature confirms (Nolen‐Hoeksema, 2012),women useemotion‐regulationstrategiestoahigherdegreethanmen,irrespectiveoftheirfunctional(adaptive)ordysfunctional(maladaptive)value.
Concerningmediationalmodels,ourresultsprovedthattherela‐tionshipbetweengenderanddepressionismediatedbyself‐blame,ac‐ceptance,ruminationandcatastrophizing,withrelativemediationalef‐fectsizesbetween26%and39%ofthetotaleffect.Whatisworthmen‐tioninghereisthefactthatfunctionalstrategieshavelowermediationalvalues (26% of the total effect) while dysfunctional strategies havehighermediationalvalues(31%‐39%ofthetotaleffect).
Analyzing themediators of the relationshipbetween educationanddepression,webroughtempiricalevidenceforacceptance,catastro‐phizingandothersblame,withrelativemediationaleffectsizesrangingfrom10%to47%ofthetotaleffect.Again,itisworthmentioningthatfunctionalstrategiesplayalessimportantrole(10%ofthetotaleffect),whiledysfunctionalstrategiesseemtobeofgreaterimportance(28%‐47%ofthetotaleffect).
Theseresultsmaybeinterpretedinthelightoftherelationshipbetweenadaptiveandmaladaptiveemotion‐regulationstrategiestopsy‐chopathology.Researchhasrepeatedlyindicatedthatmaladaptiveemo‐tionregulationstrategiesaremorestronglyrelatedtopathologicalreac‐tionsthanadaptivestrategies(Aldao&Nolen‐Hoeksema,2012;Aldao&Nolen‐Hoeksema, 2010; Aldao, Nolen‐Hoeksema& Schweitzer, 2010),sincetheuseofdysfunctionalstrategiesmaynarrowtheindividual’sat‐tentional focus, thus hindering his/her ability to select and usemoreadaptive strategies. The finding regarding the relatively weakmedia‐tionalvalueofadaptivestrategiesisalsoimportantespeciallywhenin‐dividuals receive recommendations of how and when to use specificemotionregulationstrategies(Roemer,Orsillo&Salters‐Pedneault,2008).
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Asanoverallobservation,evenifsocialfactorsaremoreintuitiveandeasiertoidentifyintheformofsocialcategories(gender/educationgroups),behindthesecategoriesstanddifferentpsychologicalprofiles,generated by differences in using psychological mechanisms such asemotion‐regulationstrategies.Ourstudypointsouttheneedtoidentifysuchsubtlemechanismsthatcanexplaintheunequaldistributionofdis‐tressinpopulation.
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STUDIAUBBPSYCHOL.‐PAED.,LXIII,1,2018,p.27‐48(RecommendedCitation)DOI:10.24193/subbpsyped.2018.1.02
TEACHINGLEGALENGLISHTOLAWSCHOOLSTUDENTSTHROUGHVOCABULARY
PRACTICETASKS
CRISTINAPIELMUŞ1
ABSTRACT.ThepaperaimstodemonstratethatstudentscanlearnandreinforceLegalEnglishvocabulary throughpractical tasksdevelopedbasedonauthenticmaterials.Theargumentstosupportsuchademon‐strationconsistinshowcasingavarietyofexamplesofpracticalvocab‐ularytasksthatwehavedevelopedandusedinclasswithourstudents.Yet,beforeshiftingtothepractical facetsofteachingLegalEnglishtolawschoolstudents,thearticledebutswithaclarificationofsomecon‐cepts related to English language teaching, aswell aswith languageteachingapproaches,whichisfurtherfollowedbyabriefanalysisoftheteachingresourcesavailableforLegalEnglishandtheiradvantages.Aspreviouslymentioned,the finalsectionofthepaperisdevotedtotheextensiveexemplificationofthepossibilitiesalanguageinstructorcanuseinaLegalEnglishclassbasedonthepracticaltaskshe/shemayde‐signanddevelopstartingfromauthenticmaterials.Theteachingprac‐tice,however,hasrevealedthat,thoughstudentscanaswellacquirele‐galEnglishterminologywhilebeingengagedinandasaresultofvocab‐ulary‐basedpracticaltasks,thedegreeofeffectivenessoftheirlearningofEnglishlegalconceptsishigheriflearningiscontextualized.
Keywords:EnglishforSpecificPurposes,EnglishforLegalPurposes,CBI,CLIL,LegalEnglishteachingresources,LEvocabulary
1ForeignLanguagesDepartment,“Al.I.Cuza”PoliceAcademy,Bucharest,Romania.E‐mail:[email protected].
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ZUSAMMENFASSUNG.Das Papier zielt darauf ab, zu demonstrieren,dassStudentenLegalEnglishVokabulardurchpraktischeAufgaben,dieaufauthentischenMaterialienbasieren,lernenundverstärkenkönnen.DieArgumente,diefüreinesolcheDemonstrationsprechen,bestehendarin,dasswireineVielzahlvonBeispielenpraktischerWortschatzauf‐gaben zeigen, diewir imUnterrichtmit unseren Schülern entwickeltundangewendethaben.BevorjedochaufdiepraktischenFacettendesjuristischenEnglischunterrichtsfürJurastudentenübergegangenwird,beginntderArtikelmiteinerErläuterungeinigerKonzepte,diesichaufdenEnglischunterrichtbeziehen,sowieaufSprachunterrichtsansätze,aufdieeinekurzeAnalysefolgtUnterrichtsmaterialienfürLegalEnglishundihreVorteile.Wiebereitserwähnt,widmetsichderletzteTeilderArbeit der extensiven Veranschaulichung der Möglichkeiten, die einSprachlehrer ineinemLegalEnglish‐Kursnutzenkann,basierendaufdenpraktischenAufgaben,dieer/ sieausauthentischenMaterialienentwerfenundentwickelnkann.DieUnterrichtspraxishat jedochge‐zeigt,dass,obwohldieSchülersowohllegaleenglischeTerminologieer‐werbenkönnenals auch als Ergebnis vokabularbasierterpraktischerAufgaben,derGradderEffektivitätihresErlernensenglischerRechts‐konzeptehöherist,wennLernenstattfindetkontextualisiert.Schlüsselwörter:EnglischfürspezifischeZwecke,EnglischfürjuristischeZwecke,CBI,CLIL,Rechtsenglischunterricht,LE‐Vokabular1.IntroductionAsarule,lawschoolstudentswhohaveLegalEnglishincludedin
theirsyllabushavetheadvantageofpossessingtheknowledgeofthele‐galfield,whichusuallyallowsthemtoacquireabetterunderstandingofthe English counterparts of the legal concepts they regularly operatewithintheirchosenprofession,providedthattheyareproficientinEng‐lishaswell.
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Theaimofthepresentpaper istoshowcasea facetof teachingLegal English to Law School students by the use of vocabulary‐basedpracticaltasks.Weareusingforexemplificationtasksthatwehavede‐veloped starting from authenticmaterials, which have been adminis‐teredinourLegalEnglishlanguageclasses,wherethestudentshaveaB2toC1levelofproficiencyinEnglish.Intheend,weshalldrawconclusionsontheeffectivenessoftheteachingandlearningapproachemployedthathasbeenbasedonvocabularypracticetasks.
2.ConceptsinEnglishlanguageteaching:ESP,EAP,ELP/EALP/ELAP
ESP(EnglishforSpecificPurposes)involvesCBIinvariousdisci‐
plinessuchaseconomics,medicine,technology,lawetc.Thus,LegalEng‐lishasaformofESPhasitsspecificvocabularywhichisdistinguishablefrombothGE(GeneralEnglish)andotherbranchesofESP,suchasBE(BusinessEnglish),EAP(EnglishforAcademicPurposes),EOP(EnglishforOccupational Purposes), EMP (English forMedical Purposes), EVP(EnglishforVocationalPurposes)andsuch.
SomewordsarecommontoBEandLE(e.g.case,sentence,trialetc.),whichmaycauseconfusionamongL2learners,whereassomeotherbelongtoLEonlyandtheirmeaningshavetobecarefullylookedupinlegal dictionaries (e.g.attorney/lawyer,defendant, caselaw,prosecutor,verdict,judge,witnessetc.).
TheInternetmaybeusedtoteachLEterminologyasitisasourceofauthentictextsandapathwaytolanguageplatforms(onlinelegaldic‐tionaries, interactive legal vocabulary exercises). Eastman (1996:34)statesthatthewebwillbecomemoreandmoreimportantgivenitseaseofuseandwideaccessibility.
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LegalEnglishasEAPEnglishforGeneralPurposes(EGP)orTENOR(TeachingEnglish
forNoObviousReason)isfoundedontheprincipleofachievingahighstandard of everyday English communication skills (such as reading,writing, listeningandspeaking).Usually, theGeneralEnglish languagecoursesyllabusisbasedonaconceptionofthekindofrealitystudentshavetodealwithinEnglish(Holme,1996).
Incontrast,ESPinvolves“education,trainingandpractice,anditdrawsuponthreemajorrealmsofknowledge:language,pedagogy,andstudents’specialistareasofinterest”(Robinson,2001).Asitsnamesug‐gests,ESPisanextensionofwhatislearntinEGPanditfocusesonspe‐cificknowledge.
TherearetwomainstrandsofESP,whichareEOPandEAP.EOPinvolvesthepreparationfortheprofessionaloccupationsstudentsarelikelytogointowhentheygraduate(Flowerdew&Peacock,2001:11).EAPreferstoEnglishteachingthatrelatestoastudypurpose,whichistaughtgenerallywithineducationalinstitutionstostudentsneedingEng‐lishfortheiracademiccourses(Dudley‐Evans&St.John,1998).
EnglishforLegalPurposes(ELP)isalsoknownasEnglishforLe‐galAcademicPurposes(ELAP)orEnglishforAcademicLegalPurposes(EALP)andis“anestablishedsub‐sectionofEAP”(Dudley‐Evans&St.John,1998:48). Ithasitsspecific jargonandcomplexlanguage,whicharemostoftenfamiliaronlyforthespecialistcommunity.
3.LanguageteachingapproachesinteachingLegalEnglishContent‐basedinstruction(CBI)
CBIisanintegratedpedagogicalapproachinlanguageeducation,whichadoublefocusonlanguageskillsandcontentmastery.
TEACHINGLEGALENGLISHTOLAWSCHOOLSTUDENTSTHROUGH…
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IntheESPliteraturetherearevariousdefinitionsofCBI.Forin‐stance, Mohan (1986) argues that language and content should belearnedsimultaneously,whileBritonetal.(1989)viewsCBIasthe“inte‐grationofparticularcontentwithlanguage‐teachingaims”,wherecon‐tentrefersto“regularsubjectmatterthatstudentsarecurrentlylearningsuchasmathematics, geography,andhistoryetc.”.On theotherhand,Williams(1995)statesthatanintegratedapproachprovidesabasisforlanguageteachingandincreasesthechancesofL2acquisitionsuccess.
CBIreferstocontextualizedlearning,whichmeansthatstudentsarethoughtusefullanguageingivendiscoursecontexts,notinisolatedlanguagesequences,whichmaykeepstudentsmotivatedandinterested.
Englishforlegalpurposesrunsinparallelwithlawcourses,whichallowsstudentstoassociatethelegalknowledgewiththelegalEnglishcontextsandlanguage.Usually,LegalEnglishisincludedinthecurricu‐lum of students enrolled in law studies,whose evaluation consists offormativeandsummativetestsadministeredattheendofeachsemester.
TeachingEnglishforLegalPurposescanbecenteredonteachingspecializedterminologyinlegalcontextsbyintegratingallfourlanguageskills:listening,reading,writingandspeaking.Thus,teachersmightuseauthenticmaterialsasteachingresourcesasthetargetstudents’profi‐ciencyisadequateenough(usuallyB2toC1level).
Contentandlanguageintegratedlearning(CLIL)CLILisamethodologysimilarto,butdistinctfromCBIorlanguage
immersion,whichreferstolearningcontextthroughasecondforeignlan‐guage,thusteachingboththesubjectandthelanguage.
Languageimmersionisamethodisamethodofteachingasecondlanguageinwhichthelearners’secondlanguage(L2)isthemediumofclassroominstruction.Thus learnersstudyschoolsubjects throughL2(suchasmathematics,geography,science,lawetc.).
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Thepurposeofsuchanapproachistofosterbilingualismbyoffer‐ing learners the opportunity to develop their communicative compe‐tenceorlanguageproficiencyinL2.
AccordingtoD.Marsh(2002),CLILhasadualfocusasit“referstosituationswheresubjects,orpartsofsubjects,aretaughtthroughaforeignlanguagewithdual‐focusedaims,namelythelearningofcontent,andthesimultaneouslearningofaforeignlanguage”.
InteachinglegalEnglishitisimportanttotakeintoaccountthelearners’levelofL2skillsandtheirlanguagecompetence.TeachinglegalEnglishasasecondlanguagebringsaboutsomechallengessuchasthepeculiaritiesandparticularitiesoflegalvocabularyandtheculturaldif‐ferencesbetweenthenationalandtheL2legalsystems.
Usually, thepurposeof teaching legalEnglish is topreparestu‐dentstopracticelawininternationalcontexts,tofacilitatetheiracquisi‐tionofspecializedterminologyandpreparethemtomeettherequire‐mentsofalawdegreeprogram.
DavidMellinkoff(1963:11‐29)arguesthatlegalEnglishlexisin‐cludes Latin, French andAnglo‐Saxonwords and phrases, rarewordsfrom Old andMiddle English, professional jargon and formal expres‐sions,whichmakesitdifficulttounderstandnotonlytoforeignlearnersorL2learners,butalsotonativespeakers.
TheaimoflegalEnglishteachingwillbetotrainstudentsinprac‐ticingspecificskillssoastobeabletouse itwithease inprofessionallegalcontexts.Therefore,agoodteacherof legalEnglishmustpossesstherequiredqualificationsandexperience inteachingEnglish forspe‐cificpurposesandsufficientknowledgeofrelevantlegaltopics.TeachingmaterialsandresourcesusedinlegalEnglishclassesaremainlybasedonauthentictextsdisplayinglegalmatters,contextsandsystemsoftheUSandtheUK.ThatiswhyinstructorsteachinglegalEnglishtoL2studentsshould primarily focus on the cultural differences that arise from thelearners’L1cultureandtheL2 legalcontexts theyarestudying.Thus,teachersshouldbeawareofthisspecificityandbeabletoprovideacul‐
TEACHINGLEGALENGLISHTOLAWSCHOOLSTUDENTSTHROUGH…
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turalbalanceandcross‐culturalcomparisons(forinstance,whenteach‐ingtopicssuchas“thelegalprofession”,“sourcesoflaw”or“branchesoflaw”,teachersofEnglishforlawmayresorttocomparisonsbetweenL1andL2legalsystemssoastomakethelegalnotionsmoreaccessibleandcomprehensible).
InlegalEnglishclassesstudentsareusuallyexposedtolegalcon‐textsortopicsinthetargetlanguage(L2).Suchexposurecanbeprovidedbyaskingstudentstocarryoutcertaindocumentationorresearchonacertainlegalissue,whichimpliesthestudents’availabilitytoworkinde‐pendentlyandtocarryoutindividualinformationgathering,aswellastheircompetenceincomputing.Inaddition,studentsshouldpossessanadequatecommunicativeabilitywhichisensuredbyanadvancedlevelofL2andadeepknowledgeoflegalmattersinL1.SuchcompetenceandknowledgewillallowstudentstodrawcomparisonsbetweenL1andL2legalsystemsandthusextractthepropermeaningofL2legalvocabularyitemsorlegalconcepts.
Anotheralternativetoenhancestudents’acquisitionofthelegalterminology is to assign translation exercises from L1 to L2, and theotherwayaround.Translationoflegalterminologyisnotmerelyapro‐cessof finding theequivalent inL1 (mother tongue),but it requiresagreat deal of cognitive effort and a deep understanding and solidknowledgeofthelegalmatters,doubledbyanutterawarenessofthecul‐turaldifferencesbetweenL1andL2legalsystems.InsupportofthisideaWalker(2001)arguedthat“alegalconceptisanabstractgeneralnotionorideawhichservesasacategoryoflegalthoughtorclassification,thetitlegiventoasetoffactsandcircumstanceswhichsatisfiescertainlegalrequirementsandhascertainlegalconsequences”.
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4.LegalEnglishteachingresources:textbooks,authenticle‐galtexts/resources
LegalEnglishTextbooksLegalEnglishtextbooksusuallycontainreading,listeningtextson
variouslegalissuesandtheiraimistomakestudentsfamiliarwithlan‐guageandstructureofthe legaltexts.Theyalso includepracticetasksfocused on specific vocabulary, grammatical structures and functionallanguage.Theadditionalpurposeofsuchtasksistopreparestudentsforreal‐lifesituations.
The textbooks are also centered on oral communication skillsthrough activities such as discussions, oral debates,making presenta‐tions, delivering arguments, communicatingwith clients,moot courts,representingaclientetc.
OneofthemostimportantissuesthatariseinteachingLegalEng‐lishisthatthelanguagespecialisthastobeabletounderstandandex‐plainthemattersoflawsoastoappropriatelyteachstudentslegalter‐minology.Forthisreason,thelanguageteachershavetokeepincontactwithspecialistsinthelegalfieldtoinformthemonvariouslegalissuesthatneedclarificationandcanonlybeunderstoodwithinthewholelegalsystem.Thissortofcollaborationismostoftennecessaryas therearemajordifferencesintheorganizationofthejudicialsysteminUKandRo‐mania,forinstance.
Usually,thebestapproachinteaching,forinstance,thestructureofthecourts,thelegalprofession,thebranchesorsourcesof lawistoresorttoacomparativeapproachbetweenthelegalsystemsinL1andL2cultures.Thus,besidesbeingabletomoreeasilyunderstandthelegalis‐suesbyresortingtocomparisons,thestudentsalsobecomeawareoftheculturaldifferencesbetweenL1andL2contexts.
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AdvantagesoflegaltextbooksIndisputably,textbooksareanessentialtoolforbothteachersand
studentsinteachingandlearningalanguage,ingeneral,andlegalEng‐lish,inparticular.AccordingtoA.A.Samad(Noorlen,Samad2011:1)text‐booksrepresentamajorsourceofcontactthestudentshavewithalan‐guageexceptfortheinformationprovidedbytheteachers.
Theadvantagesoftextbooksconsistinthefactthattheyprovidea clear structure and organization of the subjectmatter into units ofstudy,sectionsandsubsections.Furthermore,eachunitusuallyincludesinputsthatallowstudentstopracticethefourlanguageskillsandtasksdesignedtofacilitatethepracticeandacquisitionofspecializedlegalvo‐cabulary.Theyarealsoaresourceforstudents’developmentoflanguagecompetencesandskillsbyprovidingavarietyoftaskssuchas:matchingexercises, gap‐fill activities, cross‐word puzzles, matching terms withdefinitions, translation of specialized contexts, legal expressions etc.Moreover,textbooksallowcontinuityandcoherenceinthestudyofLegalEnglishandalsoanintegratedlearningasitintroducesvariouslegaltop‐icsandcontexts.
TheuseofauthenticlegaltextsasalternativeteachingresourcesThereisawiderangeofauthenticlegaltextsthatcanbeextracted
frompiecesoflegislation,statues,legalcontracts,legaljournalsorarti‐cles,inlegalcasesorwebsites,wherelegalglossariescanalsobefound.
TheInternetisthemostvaluablesourceofauthenticlegaltexts,whichoffersagreatvarietyofmaterialsforteachersofLegalEnglish.Ascomparedtotheprintedsources(suchas journals,newspapers,scien‐tificmagazinesetc.)offeringalimitedamountof legalmaterialswhichdateswiftly,theInternetmakesavailableresourcesthatare“continuallyupdated,morevisuallystimulatingandinteractive”,thus“promotingamoreactiveapproachtoreading”(Berardo,2006:62).
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TheauthenticlegalresourcesontheInternethavetheadvantageofofferingstudentstheopportunityofusingcomputersandfindingthislearningmethodmotivatingandattractive.StudentshaveaccesstocasesoftheEuropeanCourtsofHumanRightsortheEuropeanCourtofJusticeetc., lawschoolwebsites, legislativeacts, lawprofessionalswebpages,legaldocuments–contracts,courtproceedings, judgments,EU legisla‐tion,legislativemattersetc.
5.DesigningeffectiveLegalEnglishvocabularypracticetasks
forlawstudentsAccordingtoKrois‐Lindner(2008:57)theInternetcanofferthe
possibilitytodevelopcoherentandfullyintegratedauthenticmaterials.Thus,inordertofacilitatethestudents’acquisitionoflegalterminology,avarietyoftaskscanbedevelopedbytheteachersstartingfromauthen‐tictextsorresourcessuchas:gap‐fillexercises,matchingactivities,col‐locationexercises,matchingwordwithdefinition,wordformation,wordpuzzlesorcrosswords,exerciseswithoppositesorsynonyms, transla‐tiontasks,exerciseswithlegalidiomsetc.ExamplesofsuchLegalEnglishlanguage activities that we have developed for our law students areshowninthetablesbelow.Weshallbrieflydiscussthepurposeofeachtypeoftaskwehaveexemplified.Forinstance,theaimoftheexerciseswith legal collocations and legal idioms (tables 1 and 2 – Pielmuş,2013:42‐44,97‐98,104‐105)istoteachthestudentslearnhowtoasso‐ciatevarioustermsaroundalegalwordorphrase,thusfacilitatingtheacquisitionofnewvocabularyintheformofcollocationsandidioms.
BothtypesoftaskscanbeusedtoencouragestudentstofindthebestequivalentofthelegalwordsandphrasesinL1astheyalreadyhavea legal background in their mother tongue, which can allow them toequate the English and Romanian versions of those terms. The tasksmentionedcanalsobealead‐intofurthervocabularyexercisessuchas
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Table1.Collocations
1.Fillineachboxbelowwiththemissingwordthatcollocateswiththeonesalreadygiven.Thengivethecorrecttranslationofeachcollocation.
grandbox
hungtrial
2.Herearesomewordsthatcollocatewiththeadjective“legal”.Findthebesttransla‐tionforeachcollocationandthenusesomeofthemtocompletethesentencesbelow.
1.Acareerinthe…legalprofession....canbeintellectuallychallenging,personallyfulfillingandfinanciallyrewarding.2.Everylawyercanprovideprobono....legalservices....tovictims.3.Undercivil law,apersonwhohasbeen injuredor suffereda financial loss canseek….legalremedies....
gap‐fillinthesentencesorinlargertexts(table3‐Pielmuş,2013:50‐51).Usually,thepurposeofagap‐fillexerciseistotestthestudents’under‐standingoftheoverallcontextthelegalwordsareusedinandtheirabil‐ityto fit theappropriatewords intherightblanksdependingontheirmeaningorthegrammaticalcategorythatismissing.Next,theword‐for‐mationtasks(table4‐Pielmuş,2013:52‐53)representbothanoppor‐tunitytoexerciseandlearnnewvocabularyandtorevisegrammaticalcategories,aswellaswordderivationwithprefixesandsuffixes.Suchataskmayefollowedbyafill‐inexercise,whichmayallowtheuseofthenewlyacquiredterminologyinshortcontextssuchassentences.
jury
feesrepresentativeadviceactionsystemservicesright(s)proceedingsframework
aidrulesprofessionadviser
processissuespositionassistanceprotectionproblemsremedies
LEGAL
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Table2.Legalidioms
Lookatthediagrambelow.Itcontainsidiomswiththeword“law”.Matcheachidiomwithitsappropriatetranslationfromthelistbelow.
a)ainterpretaolegeg)apromulga/puneînvigoareolegeb)apracticaavocaturah)aamendaolegec)avotaolegei)aaplicalegead)aabrogaolegej)aîncălcalegeae)arespectalegeak)aaprobalegeaf)aadoptaolegel)aanulaolege
Table3.Gap‐fill
Usethewordsintheboxtofillintheblanksinthetextbelow.
(the/a) LAW
enforce
uphold
obey
observe
break
violate
abide by
amend
adopt
enact
pass
annul
repeal
interpret
practise
adjudicationlegislaturesguiltyparty
enforcedconstitutionlawsuits
jurisdictionslitigantcodifies
legalremedyprecedents
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WhatIsLaw?Lawisasystemofrulesandguidelineswhichare(0)enforcedthroughsocialin‐
stitutions to govern behavior. Laws are made by governments, specifically by their(1)__legislatures__.Theformationoflawsthemselvesmaybeinfluencedbya(2)__consti‐tution__(writtenorunwritten)andtherightsencodedtherein.
Ageneraldistinctioncanbemadebetweencivillaw(3)_jurisdictions__,inwhichthelegislatureorothercentralbody(4)__codifies__andconsolidatestheirlaws,andcom‐monlawsystems,wherejudge‐madebinding(5)_precedents__areaccepted.
The(6)__adjudication__ofthelawisgenerallydividedintotwomainareas.Crim‐inal lawdealswithconductthat isconsideredharmfultosocialorderandinwhichthe(7)__guiltyparty__maybeimprisonedorfined.Civillaw(nottobeconfusedwithcivillawjurisdictions)dealswiththeresolutionof(8)__lawsuits__betweenindividualsororgani‐zations.Theseresolutionsseektoprovidea(9)__legalremedy__(oftenmonetarydamages)tothewinning(10)_litigant__.
Table4.Word‐formation
Completethechart,wherepossible,withcorrespondingverbs,nouns,adjectivesandad‐verbsasintheexamplebelow.
Verb Noun Adjective Adverbtodefend defense
defendantdefender
defenselessdefensivedefendable
defenselessly
tolegalize …………… ……………… ………………..
AnothertaskthatcanbeusedinaLegalEnglishclassinordertocheckthecomprehensionofvariouslegaltermsismatchingwordswiththeir definitions ormatchingwordswith their L1 equivalent, or evenmatchingwordsinordertobuildupcollocationsorverbphrases.Table5(Pielmuş,2013:91‐92)exemplifiesamatchingactivitywhichhasasaimtomatchthelegalconceptswiththeirdefinitions.Suchataskrequirestu‐dentstorelyontheirL1legalknowledgeinordertobeabletoinferwhatthelegaltermreferredtoisandmaketherightassociationbetweenthe
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termsandtheirdefinitions.However,thistaskmightposeacertainde‐greeofdifficultyifitisnotafollow‐upofalargercontextualdiscussionabouta legal issue,astheL2legalconceptsmayhardlyindicateanL1correspondent.
Table5.Matching
Match the legal idioms (a‐l) in the rightcolumnwith their correctdefinitions (1‐12)
intheleftone.
1‐aneventoraccidentduetonaturalcausesforwhich
nohumanisresponsibleandwhichcouldnothavebeen
avoidedbyplanningahead(astorm,anearthquake,a
volcanoetc.)
2‐causingadisturbance,violentordisorderlybehavior
3‐thenecessitytoproveadisputedfactasrequiredby
thelawsofevidence
4‐acasewhereyouincorrectlyidentifysomeone
5‐thebreakingofapromisewhichmayalsobeabreach
ofcontract
6‐alawsuitthatismadeonbehalfofagroupofpersons
inasimilarsituationorwhohavesufferedasimilarwrong
7‐propertybelongingjointlytoamarriedcoupleorac‐
quiredduringtheirmarriage
8‐acauseorreasonforlegalactionsuchasalawsuit
9‐disobedienceoftheordersandauthorityofthecourt,
disrespectforthecourtprocess
10 ‐ an oral examination that is taken under oath in
whicheachsidetoalawsuithastherighttoexaminethe
otherside'switnessesbeforeatrialorhearing
11 ‐ a section in a contract specifying an amount of
moneytobepaidifthecontractisnotfulfilled
12‐alegaldocumentgrantingauthorityforoneperson
toactasanother'srepresentative
a)burdenofproof
b)examinationfordiscovery
c)powerofattorney
d)contemptofcourt
e)abreachofpromise
f)penaltyclause
g)abreachofthepeace
h)caseofmistakenidentity
i)groundsfor(something)
j)anactofGod
k)communityproperty
l)classactionlawsuit
Key:1j,2g,3a,4h5e,6l,7k,8I,9d,10b,11f,12c
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A different and effective approach to learning legal vocabularyconsistsintasksthatallowlearnerstopracticeandlearnlegaltermsbyassociatingtheminpairsofoppositesandsynonyms(tables6and7‐Pielmuş,2013:62‐65).Notonly is sucha taskeffective in termsof thegeneralgoalofourLegalEnglishclass,whichistofacilitatethestudents’acquisitionoflegalterminologyandencouragethemtouseitconfidentlyinlegalcontexts,butitisalsoanopportunitytorevisepartsofspeech,byassociatingwordsaroundgrammaticalcategories,suchasnouns,ad‐jectives,verbs,adverbs.
Table6.Opposites
Arrangethewordsintheboxbelowinoppositepairs.
lawful‐unlawfulinnocence‐guiltpeaceful‐violentdangerous‐safe
punishment‐rewardlegality‐unlawfulnessrelease‐imprisonmentindictment‐acquittal
encouragement‐deterrencecapture–escape
lawfulpeacefulunlawfulcaptureinnocenceguiltdangeroussafeacquittalescapedeterrencepunishmentlegalityreleaseimprisonmentrewardunlawfulnessindictmentencouragementviolent
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Table7.Synonyms
Arrangethewordsintheboxbelowinpairsofsynonyms.
leniency‐clemencypunishment‐penaltyguilty‐culpablecriminal‐unlawfullegality‐legitimacyabominable‐dreadfulcharge‐accusationexoneration‐acquittalirresponsibility‐recklessnessrestriction–constraint
Inaddition,taskssuchasword‐puzzlesandmultiplechoiceques‐
tionsmightalsobeusedinlegalEnglishclassestoimprovelearners’vo‐cabulary(tables8and9‐Pielmuş,2013:23‐26,74‐78).Multiplechoicequestionsisbasedbothonthestudents’comprehensionofthecontextandthelegalterminology.Thistypeoftaskmaychecktheknowledgeofcertainlegalcollocations,asinthefirstexampleintable8,ortheunder‐standingofthecontextasinthesecondexampleinthesametable.This
punishmentconstraintguiltyirresponsibilityunlawfulexonerationlegalitydreadfulclemencypenaltychargeacquittalrestrictionculpableabominablerecklessnesslegitimacycriminalaccusationleniency
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exerciseformatmightbeappealingtothestudentsasitdoesnotinvolvea lot of creative effort on their part, similarly to cross‐word puzzles,whichrequirethemtodiscoverthelegaltermthatcorrespondstoacer‐taindefinition,whilehavingan indicationofthenumberof letters thetermtheyarelookingforhas.Awordpuzzlemaytesthowwellthestu‐dentshaveassimilatedthelegalconceptsfrompreviouscontent‐basedclasses.
Table8.Multiplechoicequestions
Choosethecorrectanswer.
1.Ajurythatcannotreachamajorityverdictisknownasa____________jury.
a)incongruent
b)hung
c)divided
d)nonunanimous
2.Theaccusedmanprovedhisinnocenceincourtandhewas____________.
a)pardoned
b)acquitted
c)exempted
d)absolved
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Table9.Wordpuzzles
Fillinthepuzzlewiththecorrectlegaltermsthatcorrespondtothefollowingdefinitions.
1.anopinionbyamemberofacourtthatagreeswiththeresultreachedinacasebutoffersitsownrationaleforthedecision(2words)
2.writtenquestionssentbyonepartyinalawsuittoanopposingpartyaspartofpretrialdiscoveryincivilcases;thepartyreceivingtheinterrogatoriesisrequiredtoanswertheminwritingunderoath
3.theformalwrittenstatementbyadefendantrespondingtoacivilcomplaintandsettingforththegroundsforhisorherdefense
4.asuitbroughtbypersonshavingsimilargrievancesagainstacommonentity(2words)
5.agroupofcitizenswhoheartheevidencepresentedbybothsidesattrialanddeterminethefactsindispute(2words)
6.anopportunityforthelawyerstosummarizetheirpositionbeforethecourtandtoanswerthejudges’questions(2words)
7.alowerleveljudicialofficialtowhomtheaccusedisbroughtafterthearrest,whohastheobligationofinformingtheaccusedofthechargesagainsthim/herandofhis/herlegalrights
8.therelationshipthatindividualshavewiththestateasasovereignentity,forexamplethetaxcodeorthecriminallaws(2words)
9.punishmentforacrimethatallowstheoffendertoremaininthecommunityandoutofjailsolongashe/shefollowscourt‐orderedguidelinesabouthis/herbehav‐ior
10.anopinionbyamemberofacourtthatdisagreeswiththeresultreachedinthecasebythecourt(2words)
11.theprocessbywhichlawyerslearnabouttheiropponent’scaseinpreparationfortrialbydepositions,interrogatoriesandrequestsfordocuments
12.acourtthatishigherthananordinarytrialcourtandhasthefunctionofre‐viewingorcorrectingthedecisionsoftrialjudges(3words)
13.theauthorityofacourttohearanddecidelegaldisputesandenforceitsrulings14. it is issuedafteracomplaint, filedbyonepersonagainstanother,hasbeen
presentedandreviewedbyamagistratewhohasfoundprobablecauseforthearrest15.asumofmoneyputupwiththecourtbythedefendanttoensurethatheor
shewillappearatthetimeoftrial16.thetypeoflawenactedbyalegislativebody(2words)
TEACHINGLEGALENGLISHTOLAWSCHOOLSTUDENTSTHROUGH…
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1
C
2 I N T E R R O G A T O R I E S
3 A N S W E R
4 C L A S S A C T I O N
5 T R I A L J U R Y
6 O R A L A R G U M E N T
7 M A G I S T R A T E
8 P U B L I C L A W
9 P R O B A T I O N
1
0
D I S S E N T I N G O P I N I O N
1
1
D I S C O V E R Y
1
2
C O U R T O F A P P E A L S
1
3
J U R I S D I C T I O N
1
4
W A R R A N T
1
5
B A I L
1
6
S T A T U T O R Y L A W
N
Lastbutnotleast,translations(table10‐Pielmuş,2013:111)can
beusedinLegalEnglishclasseswithaviewtoenhancetheknowledgeofvocabularyandalsofindcorrespondencebetweenL1andL2legalconcepts.
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Translationsstillremainahandymethodofpracticingvocabulary,byal‐lowingstudents tocheckboth theiracquisitionandcomprehensionofthelegalterms.ThiswaytheymightalsoreinforcethecorrespondencebetweenL1andL2legalconcepts.
Table10.Translation
UsethevocabularygivenbelowtotranslatethesentencesintoEnglish:
defendant∗trial∗criminaltrial∗defence∗prosecution∗theaccused∗
totestify∗courtoflawcustodialsentence∗hearing∗witness
1.Niciopersoanăacuzatănuesteobligatăsărăspundăîntrebărilorpoliţieiînainte
deproces.
2. Într‐unprocespenalse iau toatemăsurilepentruarespingeoriceavantajal
acuzăriiasupraapărării.
3.Inculpatulnuesteobligatsădepunămărturieîntr‐unprocespenal.
4.Instanţapoateimpuneinculpatuluiosentinţăprivativădelibertate.
5.Într‐unprocespenalestefoarteimportantăaudiereamartoriloracuzării.
6.ConclusionsThepaperhasprovidedanextensiveillustrationofthepossibili‐
tiesalanguageinstructorcanuseinaLegalEnglishclassbasedonthepracticaltaskshe/shemaydesignanddevelopstartingfromauthenticmaterials.ThesetaskshavebeenadministeredinourLegalEnglishlan‐guageclasses,wherethestudentshaveaB2toC1levelofproficiencyinEnglish. Furthermore, the students present the advantage of being inpossessionofthelegalknowledgeinL1,whichisusuallyconsideredaprerequisiteforthemtobeabletoattainabetterunderstandingofthelegalEnglishterminologytheywillbeusinginprofessionalcontexts.
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Although the results of the classroompractice in Legal Englishbasedontheuseofvocabularytasks,astheyhavebeenreflectedinthestudents’finaltestgrades,havebeenmorethansatisfactory,duetothefactthatthestudentsarebothhighlyproficientinEnglishandintheirlegalfield.However,ourlong‐lastingteachingpracticehasrevealedthat,thoughstudentscanaswellacquirelegalEnglishterminologyasaresultofpracticingvocabulary‐basedtasks,thedegreeofeffectivenessoftheirlearningofEnglishlegalterminologyisconsiderablyhigherifthelegalEnglishlearningisintegratedincontextsrelatedtothelegalprofession.Thismeans that the legalEnglishvocabulary taskscanworkbetter intermsofhelpingstudentsacquire legalterminologyinthesecondlan‐guageifthesetasksareintroducedintothelessonasadditional,comple‐mentaryresourcestoacontent‐basedinstruction.
Aswehaveanalyzedatthebeginningofthispaper,Englishteach‐ing ingeneral,aswellasEnglish forLegalPurposes inparticular,asavariantofEnglishforSpecificPurposes,hastobecircumscribedtoacer‐tainteachingapproach,whichtheESPinstructorfindsmostappropriateforhis/herclasses.Wehavedescribed twosuch teachingapproaches,suchasCBIandCLIL,inrelationtoteachingLegalEnglish,whichprovidethelanguageinstructorwiththeopportunitiestofocusbothoncontentandlanguageinthelanguageclass.Thus,studentscanmoreeffectivelyreinforce theEnglish legal terminology,as theycan link the legalcon‐cepts to a certain professional content (such as legal profession, thebranchesoflaw,thesourcesoflaw,theorganizationoflawcourtsetc.),whichtheyalreadypossessknowledgeofinL1.Assuch,additionalvo‐cabularypractice that complements the content‐based lessonwill fur‐therbuildonthestudents’languagecompetenceinthelegalfield.
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REFERENCES
Berardo,S.A.(2006).TheUseofAuthenticMaterialsintheTeachingofReading,TheReadingMatrix6(2):62.
Briton,D.M.,Snow,M.A.,Wesche,M.B.(1989).Content‐basedsecondlanguageinstruction.NY:NewburyHouse.
Dudley‐Evans,T.&St.John,M.(1998).DevelopmentsinESP:Amultidisciplinaryapproach.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Eastman,D.(2000).TheInternetandELT.TheImpactoftheInternetonELT.TheBritishCouncilEnglish.
Flowerdew,J.&Peacock,M.(2001).ResearchPerspectivesonEnglishforAca‐demicPurposes.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Holme,R.(1996).ESPIdeas.London:Longman.Krois‐Lindner,A.(2008).UsingAuthenticTextsforAuthenticDiscourseintheLE
Classroom.Retrievedon15September,2010fromhttp://tvnlingua.onet.pl/1,4,1490700
Marsh,D.(2002).ContentandLanguageIntegratedLearning,TheEuropeanDi‐mension–Actions,TrendsandForesightPotential.
Mellinkoff,D.(1963).Thelanguageofthelaw.Boston:LittleBrownandCompany.Mohan,B.(1986).LanguageandContentReading.Addison‐WesleyPublishing
Company.Noordin,N.&Samad,A.A. (2011).Examining the ImportanceofESTandESL
TextbooksandMaterials:Objectives,ContentandForm.Retrievedon14September,2011fromAFnfhWYJ:www.scribd.com/walido_william/d/65908526‐RMeurant‐UCMA‐EFLtextbookSelectionKEA+Noordin,+N.,+Samad,+A.+A.+Exam‐ining+the+Importance+of+EST+and+ESL+Textbooks+and+Materi‐als:+Objectives,+Content+and+Form&cd=1&hl=lt&ct=clnk&gl=lt&cli‐ent=firefox‐a.
Pielmuş,C.(2013).PractiseYourLegalEnglish.AVocabularyWorkbookforLawStudents.Craiova:UniversitariaPublishingHouse.(Romanian)
Robinson,P.(2001).ESPToday.APractitioner’sGuide.Hertfordshire:Prentice‐Hall.Walker,D.M.(2001).TheScottishLegalSystem.AnintroductiontotheStudyof
Scots.Edinburgh:W.Green/Sweet&Maxwell.
STUDIAUBBPSYCHOL.‐PAED.,LXIII,1,2018,p.49‐78(RecommendedCitation)DOI:10.24193/subbpsyped.2018.1.03
THEVALIDATIONOFPERFORMANCEFAILUREAPPRAISALINVENTORYFORTHEEDUCATIONAL
CONTEXTOFHIGHSCHOOLSTUDENTSINROMANIA
ROXANAI.HOLIC1
ABSTRACT. Fear of failure is a concept that has been studied since1969,butovertheyearsthatfolloweditsconceptualizationhasunder‐gonevariouschanges.Evenifthefearoffailureiscurrentlybeingstud‐iedextensivelyamongstathletes,weconsideredthatresearchisneededinotherfields,suchaseducation.Thus,theobjectiveofourstudywastovalidatethePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventoryamongtheRo‐manianpopulation,referringtotheeducationalcontextofadolescentsparticipating in national competitions. Therefore, the internal con‐sistency,thefactorialstructure,theexternalvalidityaswellasthegen‐derdiscriminatingpowerofthequestionnairewereanalysed.Thesam‐pleofourstudyconsistedof541teenagers,9th‐12thgradepupilsfrom41districtsinRomania,participatinginnationalOlympiadsinvariousschool subjects (RomanianLiterature, English, French, Italian, Portu‐guese,Spanish,ReadingasLifeSkills,Socio‐HumanSciences,Religion,Geography, History, Mathematics, Biology, Informatics, Physics, andChemistry).Theresultsobtainedsupportthefactorialstructurerepre‐sentedbythefivefactors(Fearofexperiencingshameandembarrass‐ment,Fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,Fearofhavinganuncertainfuture,Fearof importantotherslosinginterest,andFearofupsetting
1AlexandruIoanCuzaUniversity,FacultyofPsychologyandEducationSciences,Iași,Ro‐mania.Email:[email protected]
ROXANAI.HOLIC
50
importantothers).Also,theresultsobtainedwithregardtothepsycho‐metricpropertiesofthequestionnairesupportthatitcanbesuccess‐fullyusedintheeducationalfield.ThroughthevalidationofthePerfor‐manceFailureAppraisalInventorywehopetopromotemoreintenseresearchintheeducationaldomainoffearoffailure,whichinthelastyearssuffersfromalackofstudiesinthisdirection.Keywords: fearof failure,educationalcontext, factorialstructure,psy‐chometricproperties
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG.DieValidierungdesLeistungsausfallBewer‐tungInventarsfürdenBildungskontextderGymnasiasteninRumä‐nien.AngstvordemScheiternisteinKonzept,dasseit1969untersuchtwurde,aberindenfolgendenJahrenhatseineKonzeptualisierungver‐schiedene Veränderungen erfahren. Auch wenn die Angst vor demScheiternderzeitbeiSportlernintensivuntersuchtwird,warenwirderMeinung,dassForschunginanderenBereichenwiederBildungbenö‐tigtwird.ZielunsererStudiewaresdaher,dasInventarderBewertungvonLeistungsausfall bei der rumänischenBevölkerung zu validieren,wobei auf den Bildungskontext von Jugendlichen, die an nationalenWettbewerbenteilnehmen,Bezuggenommenwird.DaherwurdendieinterneKonsistenz,diefaktorielleStruktur,dieexterneValiditätsowiediegeschlechterdiskriminierendeAussagekraftdesFragebogensanaly‐siert.DieStichprobeunsererStudiebestandaus541Jugendlichender9.‐12.Klasseaus41BezirkenRumäniens,dieannationalenOlympiadeninverschiedenenSchulfächern(rumänischeLiteratur,Englisch,Franzö‐sisch,Italienisch,Portugiesisch,Spanisch,LesenalsLebensfähigkeiten,Soziohumanwissenschaften, Religion, Geographie, Geschichte, Mathe‐matik,Biologie,Informatik,PhysikundChemie)teilnehmen.Dieerziel‐tenErgebnissestützendiefaktorielleStruktur,diedurchdiefünfFak‐torendargestelltwird(Angstdavor,SchamundPeinlichkeitzuerleben,Angstdavor,dieeigeneEinschätzungzuentwerten,Angstdavor,eineungewisseZukunftzuhaben,AngstvordemVerlustvonInteressedenwichtigenanderenPersonenundAngstdavor,anderezuärgern).Auch
THEVALIDATIONOFPERFORMANCEFAILUREAPPRAISALINVENTORY…
51
dieimHinblickaufdiepsychometrischenEigenschaftendesFragebo‐genserzieltenErgebnissebestätigen,dasserimBildungsbereicherfolg‐reicheingesetztwerdenkann.DurchdieValidierungdesLeistungsaus‐fallBewertungInventarswollenwireineintensivereForschungimBe‐reichderAngstvordemScheiternfördern,dieindenletztenJahrenaneinemMangelanStudienindieserRichtungleidet.Schlüsselwörter:AngstvordemScheitern,Bildungskontext, faktorielleStruktur,psychometrischeEigenschaften1. Introduction Fearoffailurecanbeinterpretedasaself‐evaluativeframework
that influenceshowthe individualdefines,orientates,andexperiencesfailure in assessment situations (Heckhausen, 1991). The underlyingresearchontheoriginsoffearoffailureseemstosuggestthatithasitsfoundation in social relationships with parents and parent‐childrelationships.Teevan(1983)indicatesthatchildrenwithahighleveloffear of failure hadmotherswho punished the failure, and respondedneutral tosuccess.Smith (1969)showed thatmotherswithboyswithhighlevelsoffearoffailurehadsethighstandardsfortheirsonsbutdidnot perceive their children as having the ability to achieve thesestandards.Schmalt(1982)examinedintimetheexpectationsofparentsregarding the academic behaviors and independence of their childrenand identified a positive relationship between early expectations andfearoffailure.Maternalirritabilityandaddiction(Singh,1992)andthepaternal absenceof the family (Greenfeld&Teevan,1986)havebeenshowntobepositivelyassociatedwiththechild’sfearoffailure.
Ingeneral,existingdataindicatesthatpeoplewithhighlevelsoffearoffailureseemtohavelearnedtodefinefailureasanunacceptableevent that has negative implications for its own value and relationalsecurity,whichurgesthemtoorientvigilantlyandseektoavoidfailureinsituationsofachievement.
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Atkinson (1957) defines the concept of fear of failure as thedispositional tendency of an individual to focus on avoiding failure inassessmentcontexts,fornotexperiencingthefeelingofshameincaseoffailure.Itisnotthefailureinitselfthattriggersfear,buttheshamethataccompaniesfailure(Atkinson,1957).Giventheacutedisappointmentofexperiencing a failure, in contexts of achievement, the individual isperceptivelyandcognitivelyoriented towards information relevant tofailure. He/she experiences anxiety before and during work tasks, inwhichhe/sheengagesandseekstoprotecthis/herselffromfailurebyeitherphysically(quitting)ormentally(retreatingeffort),orbyforcinghimself hard to achieve success with the aim of avoiding failure(Covington,1992;Elliot&Church,1997).
In the past, the fear of failure was measured by the scales ofanxiety, but Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory by Conroy andcollaborators(2002)iscurrentlybeingused.Sinceithasbeenrealized,therehasbeenagrowinginterestinitsusebyvarioussportsresearchers.Thus, we identified studies whose objective was the validation ofPerformanceFailureAppraisalInventoryinotherlanguagesorcountries,suchasTurkey(Kahraman&Sungur,2016),Portugal(Correia,Rosado&Serpa, 2016) and UK (Sagar & Jowett, 2010). In these studies, weidentified that the factorialstructureof the inventorywasretainedbyexploratoryand confirmatory factorial analyzes, andeach scaleof thequestionnaireobtainedasatisfactoryinternalconsistency.
This questionnairewasdesigned tomeasure the fear of failureamongstathletesandisoftenusedforthispurposeamongvarioussportsandisvalidatedinotherlanguages,butthisquestionnairehasneverbeenused (at least we did not identify studies existing to date) in othercontexts than sports. For this reason, the objective of our study is tovalidatethisquestionnaireamonghighschoolstudentsparticipatinginnational competitions in Romania to identifywhether itmaintains itsfactorialstructureandpsychometricpropertiessothatitcanbeausefultoolinresearchinthefieldofeducation.
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Inrecentyears,withthePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventory(Conroyetal.,2002),amultitudeofstudies insportshave focusedoninvestigatingtherelationshipbetweenfearoffailureandothervariablessuchas competitiveanxiety (Conroy,2004;Wilt,2016),perfectionism(Sagar&Stoeber,2009),achievementgoals(Conroy&Elliot,2004),be‐haviour(Sagar,Boardley,&Kavussanu,2010),etc.,butintheeducationalfieldnoresearchhasbeenfoundtousethisinventory.
Ina studyonavoidingsportsexercises,Ellis (1994) found thatmanyoftheathletesavoideddoingphysicalexercisesbecauseofthefearofexperiencingafailureinfrontofthepublic;thusavoidingthemisba‐sicallyastrategytoavoidshame.Foranathlete,thethreatofapossiblefailureandtheassociatedshamemayalsocauseanxietybythefearofexperiencingshame(Spielberger,1966apudElison&Partridge,2012).
Tangney(2002)arguesthatperfectionismandemotionssuchasshame,embarrassmentandguiltmixtogetherbecausetheseemotionsareoften causedby self‐evaluation, anessential componentofperfec‐tionism.Perfectionists cansethighstandards for themselvesoradopthighstandardssetbyothers,butalso focusontheirself‐evaluation inrelationtothesestandards,andanyimperfectionwillgenerateshameorembarrassment. For example,Hewitt andFlett (1991) have identifiedtheexistenceofmoderatepositivecorrelationsbetweenperfectionismandshame.Similarly,Tangneyexploredtherelationshipbetweenshameandperfectionisminthreerecentstudies,andfocusingonsociallypre‐scribedperfectionism,amaladaptivedimension,identifiedcorrelationsfrom.15to.33.
Insports,Conroy,KayeandFifer(2007)alsoexaminedthelinkbetweenperfectionismandthefearoffailureamongstudentsenrolledinphysicaleducation.Their findingssupportthe linkbetweensociallyprescribedperfectionismandbeliefsthatfailurewillleadtoexperiencenegativeconsequencessuchasthedisappointmentofimportantpeople.Sagar andStoeber (2009) also identified that the fearof experiencingshameandembarrassmentisthecentrallinkintherelationshipbetween
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fearof failureandperfectionism,butalso in the relationshipbetweencertain forms of perfectionism and negative emotional states experi‐encedafterafailure.
Thereisalsoapossibilitythatindividualswithahighlevelofper‐fectionism‐becausetheyhaveexcessivelyhighstandardsandaretooself‐critical‐areparticularlyvulnerabletofailureandreactnegativelyafterexperiencingafailureinperformancecomparedtothosewithalowlevelofperfectionism(Besser,Flett,&Hewitt,2004).
Frost and Henderson (1991) investigated the relationship be‐tweenperfectionismandtheorientationtosuccessandfailureamongfe‐male athletes. Perfectionismwasmeasured using Frost'sMultidimen‐sionalPerfectionismScale(FMPS,Frostetal.,1990).Twodimensionsofperfectionismwereused‐personalstandardsandconcernovermistakes‐whichwereidentifiedasrepresentingtheadaptiveandmaladaptiveper‐fectionism(Stoeber&Otto,2006).FrostandHendersonindicatedthatperfectionismasageneralscorecorrelatedstronglywithbothorienta‐tiontosuccessandfailure,supportingtheparadoxicalnatureofperfec‐tionisminathletes(Flett&Hewitt,2005).However,foreachdimensionoftheanalysis,correlationsweremuchmoredifferent:whilepersonalstandards correlated bothwith orientation to success and failure, thecorrelationwith theorientation tosuccesswassignificantlyhigher. Intermsofconcernovermistakes,itcorrelatedsignificantlymorestronglywiththeorientationtofailure,indicatingthatthenegativeaspectsofper‐fectionisminathletesaremorecloselyrelatedtothefearoffailurethantothehopeofsuccess,whilethepositivedimensionofperfectionismismorecloselyrelatedtothehopeforsuccessratherthanthefearoffailure(Flett&Hewitt,2005).
Therelationshipbetweenperfectionisminsportandfearoffail‐ureishighlightedbyfindingssuggestingthataspectsofbothdimensionsofperfectionism‐adaptiveandmaladaptiveperfectionism‐indicatepos‐itivecorrelationswiththefearoffailure,suggestingthatfearoffailureisassociated with all aspects of perfectionism (Kaye, Conroy, & Fifer,
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2008).However, inamoredetailedanalysis,thescalesofmaladaptiveperfectionismarethosethatmainlycorrelatepositivelywiththefearoffailure.
Intheirstudy,SagarandStoeber(2009),whichaimedtoinvesti‐gatehowperfectionismandfearoffailurepredictedthepositiveandneg‐ative affect resulting from scenarios illustrating success and failure insportscompetitions,theywerealsointerestedinhowthescalesofper‐fectionismandthoseof fearof failurewererelatedinasampleof388athletes.The resultsof the studyhave shown thatpersonal standards(theadaptiveperfectionism)haveanegativerelationshipwiththefearofexperiencingshameandembarrassmentandapositiverelationshipwiththepositiveaffectresultingfromsuccess,whileconcernovermis‐takes and parents' pressure (the maladaptive perfectionism) haveshownapositiverelationshipwiththefearofexperiencingshameandembarrassmentandwiththenegativeaffectresultingfromfailure.More‐over,thefearofexperiencingshameandembarrassmentfullymediatedtherelationshipbetweenconcernovermistakesandnegativeaffectandbetweenperceivedpressurefromthecoachandnegativeaffectalso.
Sagar,BoardleyandKavussanu(2010)conductedastudyamong331athleticstudentswhoseaimwastoverifytheextenttowhichfearoffailure and sport experience predict antisocial behaviour in academicandsportscontextsandwhetherthispredictionisthesameformenandwomen.Asecondobjectiveofthestudywastotesttheexistenceofpos‐siblegenderdifferencesinthemanifestationofantisocialbehaviourandfearoffailure.Theresultsofthestudyindicatethatthefearoffailureandsports experience predicts antisocial behaviour in the university andsport,andthepowerofthesepredictionswasnotdifferentbetweenmenandwomen.Also,femalesubjectsreportedhigherlevelsoffearofself‐devaluationcompared tomales,who in turnreportedhigher levelsoffearoflosingsocialinfluence.Similarly,theresultsshowedthatmaleen‐gagedmoreoftenthanwomeninantisocialbehaviourinbothcontexts.
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Inathletics,fearoffailureoccurswhenbeliefsaboutthenegativeconsequencesoffailurearetriggeredbysituationswherethisispossible(forexample,inacompetition,Conroy,2004).Thisfearofexperiencingafailurehasbeenshowntocausefeelingsofbothcognitiveandsomaticanxiety, cognitive disorders and worry (Conroy, 2001; Conroy et al.,2002).
InastudybyWilt(2016),onasampleof77femaleparticipantsintherunway,therelationshipbetweenanxietymanifestedinthecompet‐itivecontextandthefivetypesoffearoffailurewasanalysed,inaccord‐ancewithConroy'smodel(2001).Theresultsofthestudyshowedthatthetotalscoresofthefearoffailurescalecorrelatedsignificantlywithconcern(cognitiveanxiety),butdidnotsupportanyrelationshipwithsomaticanxiety,arguedby the fact that thescaleof the fearof failuredoesnot include items referring tophysiological symptoms.The rela‐tionshipbetweenfearoffailureandcognitiveanxietycansuggestthatsubjectswhoarethinkingaboutfailurehavemorenegativethoughtsbe‐forethecompetition,whichcontributestotheirlevelofcognitiveanxiety.Thisstudyincludedtwofactors(ageandexperience,thatis,thenumberofcompetitions)consideredtohaveaninfluenceonthelevelofanxietyexperienced.Theinitialassumptionwasthatwiththeincreaseinageandexperience,anxietyandfearoffailurewilldecrease.However,ageandyearsofexperiencedidnotsignificantlypredictcognitiveanxietyorfearoffailurescores,althoughpreviousstudiescorrelatedthemwithanxietyand fear of failure. Hanton, Neil, Mellalieu and Fletcher (2008) haveshownthateliteathleteswithhighlevelsofexperiencehavereportedin‐creasedlevelsofself‐confidenceandlowerlevelsofanxiety.
ConroyandElliot(2004)inastudyusingasampleof356studentsenrolledinsportactivitiesshowedthatfearoffailurehaspositiverela‐tionshipswithperformance‐avoidancegoals,performance‐approachgoalsandmastery‐avoidancegoals.
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2.MeasuringthefearoffailureInthepast,researchersconsideredfearoffailureasaone‐dimen‐
sionalconstructbecausemanyaspectsofthereasonswhypeoplewor‐riedandwhytheyfearthattheycouldnotbesuccessfulwerenotknown(Conroy,2001).Tounderstandbetterthisconstruct,Birney,BurdickandTeevan(1969apudJackaway&Teevan,1976)proposedathree‐dimen‐sionalmodelinaddressingthefearoffailure.Modeldimensionsinclude:a)fearofself‐devaluation,b)fearofpunishment,andc)fearofreducingsocial value.Moreover, Conroy, Poczwardowski andHenschen (2001)haveimprovedthismodelanddefinedfiveaversiveconsequencesoffail‐ure:a)experiencingshameandembarrassment,b)self‐devaluation,c)thepossibilityofhavinganuncertainfuture,d)thepossibilityoflosingthesocialinterest,ande)thepossibilityofdisappointingtheothers.
The firstdimensionof fearof failure is theoneofexperiencingshameasaresultoffailure,andreferstothenegativeself‐evaluationsofthepeoplethemselves,orinotherwords,theybelievethatfailurebringsthemshameandembarrassment,andforthisreasontheytrytoavoidfailure.Theseconddimensionreferstoself‐devaluation,andtothefactthatsomepeoplecanblamethemselves forexperiencinga failureandthismay lead toadecrease in self‐confidence.A thirdpossible conse‐quenceoffailureisthefearofhavinganuncertainfuture.Somepeoplebelievetheirfutureplansmustchangeafterexperiencingafailure,andthesechangesmakethemseethefutureambiguous.Anotherreasonwhypeopleareafraidoffailureisthepossibilitythatothersarelosinginter‐estintheirperson.Peoplewhofearlosinginterestthinktheirvaluede‐pendson their successand they think that if they fail, theirvaluewilldropforsomepeople.Accordingtothem,failurehasanegativeimpactthat leads toa lossof social influence.The lastdimension,asaconse‐quenceofexperiencingafailureisthepossibilitytodisappointtheim‐portantpeople,suchasparentsorteachers(Conroy,2001;Conroy,Wil‐low&Metzler,2002).
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Inlinewiththisrevisedmodel,Conroyandcollaborators(Conroyetal.,2001)havedevelopedthePerformanceFailureAppraisal Inven‐tory(PFAI)toassesspeople'sbeliefsabouttheconsequencesoffailure.Theyexplainthefearoffailurethroughfivesub‐scales:fearofexperienc‐ingshameandembarrassment,fearofself‐devaluation,fearofhavinganuncertainfuture,fearoflosingsocialinfluence,andfinallyfearofdisap‐pointingtheimportantothers.
PFAI (Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory, Conroy, 2001)wasdesignedtobeausefulclinicaltoolinassessinganindividual'smo‐tivation to fear failure. Lazarus (1991) stated that an individual's ap‐praisalaboutaperceived(realorimaginary)changeinhisrelationshipwiththeenvironmentleadstotheoccurrenceofanemotion.Inthecaseoffearandanxiety,thecentreofappreciationhighlightsthethreateningoraversiveconsequencesassociatedwithfailure.Thesefivetypesofap‐preciationareinterconnectedmoderatelyandstronglywitheachother,andtherelationshipsbetweenthemcanbeeffectivelysummedupbyasingletotalscore,whichisageneralfearoffailure(thebeliefthatfailureisassociatedwiththreateningoraversiveconsequences).
Inhisfinaldevelopment,theauthormadethreepreliminarystud‐ies.Thefirstonewasaqualitativestudyconductedtoidentifytheaver‐siveconsequencesoffailurethatprovidesthebasisforassessmentsas‐sociatedwiththefearoffailure.AsecondstudythatdescribeshowPFAIwasdevelopedand it includeda firstattempt to test itspsychometricpropertiesalso.AndathirdstudyanalysingtheinstrumentaswellastheissuesthatledtoachangeinPFAI.Conroyandcollaborators(Conroyetal.,2002)didbothaversionofthe25‐itemtool(namedbythemasthelongversion)andashortversionof5items.
Inhisapproachtofearoffailure,Conroy(inhisfirstqualitativestudy)conductedtheanalysisofthethemesfoundininterviewsonhowrespondents see the failure and its consequences. Among the issueslistedbytheinterviewedsubjectsaboutwhatdeterminesanindividualtoassertthathehasexperiencedafailureweretheunfulfilledpersonalgoals,thelossofopportunities,thelostcontrolofaspectsthatcouldbe
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controlled,insufficientorinefficientadaptation,inefficientcommunica‐tion,theperspectiveontheindividualroleplayedinachievingperfor‐mance,theinefficiencyofthecontrolmanifestedincertainaspects,thecreationofsituationsthathaveledotherstodoubt,thedisappointmentofothers,self‐devaluation,self‐orientedskepticism.WithregardtotheconsequencesofthefailurefoundbyConroyintheinterviews,thesub‐jectsreferredtomaterialloss(things,jobs,opportunities,etc.),repeatedfailures(failureattractotherfailures),blockedaspirations,improvedper‐formance(useoffailureasacatalystexperience)byincreasingmotivationand efficiency of activities, inhibiting motivation by refusing to engageagain,usingcopingstrategies,theinfluenceoffailureonpersonallifeorre‐lationshipswiththoseclosesttothem,experiencingnegativeemotions.
Duringhisdevelopment,Conroy(2001)testedtheoriginalques‐tionnaire among 396 high school students and college students (167womenand229men)throughaseriesoffactorialconfirmatoryanalyses.Since theoriginalquestionnairecontained toomany items(41 items),Conroy,WillowandMetzler (2002) revised thePFAIanddevelopedasecondversionbyremovingitemsfromtheoriginal.Therevisedversionconsistsof25 items,according to theoriginalversion ‐placedon fivesubscales,asfollows:fearofshameandembarrassment(7items),fearofself‐devaluation(4items),fearofhavinganuncertainfuture(4items),fear of losing social influence (5 items), and fear of disappointing im‐portantothers(5items).Thetypeofresponseusedisona5‐stepLikertscale,where“‐2”means“Idonotbelieveatall”,“0”‐“Ithink50%”and“+2”–“Itotallybelieve”.Inordertoreviewtheinventory,researcherscon‐ductedavalidationstudywith438students(234femaleand204male).Theinternalconsistencyobtainedforeachofthescaleswas:.80fortheshameandembarrassmentscale,.74forthescaleofself‐devaluation,.80forthefearofhavinganuncertainfuture,.81forthescaleoflosingsocialinfluence,and.78forthefearofdisappointingtheimportantothersscale.Theauthorsalsoconductedaconfirmatoryfactorialanalysis,obtainingthenecessarydatasupportingtheexistenceofarelevantmodel(GFI=.98,CFI=.95,RMSEA=.04,SRMR=.09).
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3.TranslationofthePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventoryThetranslationofthequestionnaireintoRomanianwasdoneby
3peopleindividually,andthethreeversionsresultedwerecomparedtosetthefinalversion.ThefinalversionhasbeenbacktranslatedintoEng‐lishsothatcanbecomparedtotheoriginalversion.Becausetherewerenodifferencesinthecontentoftheitemsbetweenthetwoversionsofthequestionnaire, theRomanianversionwasusedamonghighschoolstudentstocarryoutthevalidationprocess.InthePFAIvalidationpro‐cess,wewillusetheexploratoryandconfirmatoryfactorialanalyses,theinternalconsistencycoefficientsofeachscale,thegenderdifferences,aswellastheconvergentexternalvalidity.Accordingtotheauthorofthequestionnaire,thefearoffailureisassociatedwithhighlevelsofworry,anxiety,intrusivethoughtsandsportsanxiety;andwithlowlevelsofop‐timism(Conroy,Willow,&Metzler,2002).
4.Method
4.1.Participants
Theselectedgroupof subjectsconsistedof541 teenagers (357girlsand184boys),9th‐12thgradestudents,agedbetween15and19years(M=16.71,SD=1.17)whoparticipatedinvariousnationalOlympi‐ads.Distributionbygendervariablewasasfollows:66%girlsand34%boys.Inthestudywereselectedstudentsparticipatinginvariouscom‐petitionstargetingthefollowingsubjects:RomanianLiterature,English,French,Italian,Portuguese,Spanish,ReadingasLifeSkills,Socio‐HumanSciences,Religion,Geography,History,Mathematics,Biology,Informat‐ics,Physics,andChemistry.TheywereselectedfromthepubliclistsontheofficialOlympicswebsitesandcontactedonlinetocompleteasetof2questionnaires.
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4.2.MeasuresPerformance Failure Appraisal Inventory (Conroy et al., 2002)
madeupof5scalesthatrefertotheaversiveconsequencesassociatedwithfailure:fearofshameandembarrassment(7items),fearofself‐de‐valuation(4items),fearofuncertainfuture(4items),fearoflosingsocialinfluence(5items),andfearofdisappointingimportantothers(5items).Thetypeofresponseusedisona5‐stepLikertscalewhere“‐2”means“Idonotbelieveatall”,“0”‐“Ithink50%”and“+2”‐“Itotallybelieve”.Generalfearoffailureiscalculatedbyaveragingthe5subscales.Thein‐ternalconsistencyreportedbytheauthorsforeachofthescalesofthequestionnaireis:fearofshameandembarrassment(.80),fearofself‐de‐valuation(.74),fearofuncertainfuture(.80),fearoflosingsocialinflu‐ence(.81), fearofdisappointing importantothers(.78),and forentireinventory(.78).Thescoreforeachofthefivescalesiscalculatedbyav‐eragingtheitemsofeachscale.Andthescoreforgeneralfearoffailureiscalculatedbyaveragingthefivescales.Highscoresrepresentthatthepersonhasahighleveloffearoffailure.
Developed by Spielberger (1980), the Test Anxiety Inventory(TAI)isaccordingtoChapellandcollaborators(Chapelletal.,2005),themostimportantandoftenusedtoolinmeasuringtestanxietyamonghighschoolstudentsanduniversitystudents.
TheTestAnxietyInventorytranslatedandadaptedforaneduca‐tional competition context (Olympiads and Interdisciplinary Competi‐tions)(Holic,2018)consistingof20items,groupedintothreedistinctdimensions(Worry,EmotionalityandTotalAnxiety).
TestAnxietyInventoryisascaleofresponsesthatismeasuredbythe4steps(Likertscale),therespondents’optionsforchoosingthean‐swerareasfollows:“1”–“Almostnever”,“2”‐“Sometimes”,“3”–“Often”,and“4”–“Almostalways”.
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4.3.ResultsExploratoryfactorialanalysisFortheexploratoryfactorialanalysis,theSPSS(StatisticalPack‐
ageforSocialSciences)version20wasused.Theextractionmethodusedinthiscase isPrincipalaxis factoring, throughwhichwewillmakeaninitialestimateofthecommonvarianceinwhichcommunalitieshavethelowervalueof1.Obliminrotationwasusedbecauseitisageneralformtoobtaintheobliquerotationswhenfactorsareexpectedtocorrelate,theaspectconsideredbyperformingthisanalysis. Inthiscase, theex‐ploratoryfactorialanalysisperformedbytheextractionmethodgener‐atedastructurerepresentedbyfivefactors,usingK1Method(Kaiser),bywhichweretainedthefactorswhoseeigenvaluewere≥1.
Followingtheanalysis,thedistributionofthe25itemswasdeter‐minedbyfivefactors,thusconfirmingthefivequestionnairescales,butoneitem(item16)wasdistributeddifferentlyfromtheoriginalversion,migratingfromfactor2tofactor3.Thus,onFactor1wereloadeditemsno.19,14,3,6,8;onFactor2items4,7,1;onFactor3items24,16,18,15,20,25,10,22;onFactor4,items8,5,2,12;andonFactor5,items21,17,13,23,11.
Table1containstheloadsofeachitemofthefivefactors.TheAp‐pendixpresentstheRomanianitemsforeachscaleoftheinventory.
Table1.TheExploratoryfactorialanalysis–distributionofitems
ItemsFactor
1 2 3 4 5
Item19 .909
Item14 .721
Item3 .622
Item6 .472
Item9 .443
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ItemsFactor
1 2 3 4 5
Item4
‐
.809
Item7
‐
.705
Item1
‐
.680
Item24 .772
Item16 .686
Item18 .650
Item15 .592
Item20 .584
Item25 .482
Item10 .387
Item22 .340
Item8 ‐.771
Item5 ‐.759
Item2 ‐.644
Item12 ‐.471
Item21 .876
Item17 .612
Item13 .557
Item23 .522
Item11 .467
ConfirmatoryfactorialanalysisInperformingtheconfirmatoryfactorialanalysis,theAMOSver‐
sion20programwasusedtoanalysethefivefactors.Also,wehaveusedidentifieddataonvalidatedversionsinothercountriestoillustratetheresultsobtainedbyus.ThefitindicesobtainedarepresentedinTable2.
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Wementionthatinsomeadaptedversionswehavenotidentifiedallthedataanalysedbyusandforthisreasontherearemissingdatainthetablebelow.
Table2.ThefitindicesforPerformanceFailureAppraisalInventory(Conroy,2002)‐Romanianversion
Subscales df ᵪ2/df RMSEA CI CFI TLI
PFAI(Romanianversion) 265 3.05 .06 .05‐.06 .93 .92
PFAI(originalversion) .05 .92
PFAI(UKversion) 265 2.96 .06 .05‐.06
PFAI(Turkeyversion) .08 .95
PFAI(Portugalversion) 134 .04 .96
RMSEA‐RootMeanSquareErrorofApproximation;CIA–ConfidenceintervalforRMSEA;CFI–TheComparativefitIndex.
PsychometricpropertiesoftheinstrumentThe Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (Conroy et al.,
2002)Romanianversioniscomprisedoffivesubscalesasfollows:Fearofexperiencingshameandembarrassment,Fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,Fearofhavinganuncertain future,Fearof importantotherslosinginterest,andFearofupsettingimportantothers.
As required, the mean, standard deviation and internal con‐sistencycoefficientwerecalculatedforboththewholequestionnaireandeachsubscale.
InTable3wepresentthemean,thestandarddeviationandtheinternalconsistencyofthequestionnairePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventory(Conroyetal.,2002)Romanianversion.
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InTable4wepresentthemean,thestandarddeviationandtheinternalconsistencycoefficientsforeachsubscaleofthequestionnaire.
Table3.Themean,thestandarddeviationandtheinternal
consistencyofthequestionnairePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventory(Conroy,2002),Romanianversion
Mean Standarddeviation AlphaCronbachcoefficient
‐13.30 20.63 .85
Table4.Themean,standarddeviationandtheinternalconsistencycoefficientsforeachsubscaleofthequestionnaire
Subscale Mean Standard
deviation
AlphaCronbach
coefficient
Fearofexperiencingshameandembar‐
rassment
‐1.7 8.4 .88
Fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate ‐1.33 3.26 .82
Fearofhavinganuncertainfuture ‐1.99 3.08 .81
Fearofimportantotherslosinginterest ‐4.47 4.97 .88
Fearofupsettingimportantothers ‐2.52 4.17 .86
ExternalValidityInordertoachieveexternalvalidity,authorsfindingswereused,
whichclaimedthatfearoffailurewasassociatedwithhighlevelsofanxiety,intrusivethoughtsandsportsanxiety;andwithlowlevelsofoptimism(Conroy,Willow,&Metzler,2002). Inordertoachievetheconvergentexternalvalidity,wechosetoexaminetherelationshipbetweenfearoffailureandtestanxiety(whichisaformofstateanxiety),measuredbyTestAnxietyInventory(Spielberger,1980).
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Thus,thehypothesisfromwhichwestartedreferstothefactthatthereisapositivecorrelationbetweentestanxietyandthescoresofthePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventory,meaningthatsubjectswhoob‐tainedhighscoresatthetestanxietyscalewillachievehighscoresonmeasuringscalesoffearoffailure.
Regarding the examination of the relationship between fear offailureandtestanxietysubscales,thecorrelationsbetweenthemwerecalculated.TheidentifiedcorrelationsareshowninTable5.
Table5.Thecorrelationsbetweenfearofexperiencingshameandembarrass‐ment,fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,fearofhavinganuncertainfuture,fearofimportantotherslosinginterest,fearofupsettingimportantothers,cognitivetestanxiety,emotionalitytestanxiety,generaltestanxiety,
andgeneralfearoffailure.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9(1)Shameandembarrass‐ment
‐ .598** .582** .674** .624** .560** .493** .584** .916**
(2)Devaluingone’sself‐esti‐mate
‐ .552** .419** .554** .428** .367** .436** .714**
(3)Uncertainfuture
‐ .490** .755** .418** .392** .441** .720**
(4)Losingin‐terest
‐ .545** .385** .289** .371** .830**
(5)Upsettingimportantoth‐ers
‐ .430** .403** .457** .719**
(6)Cognitiveanxiety
‐ .678** .885** .553**
(7)Emotional‐ityanxiety
‐ .923** .465**
(8)Generaltestanxiety
‐ .562**
(9)Generalfearoffailure
‐
**p<.01
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Thus,inthecaseofcognitivetestanxietyandallfivefearoffailuresubscales theresultsobtainedshowthat there isasignificantpositivecorrelationbetweenthem,meaningthatsubjectswithahighleveloftestanxietyhaveahighleveloffearofexperiencingshameandembarrassment,fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,fearofhavinganuncertainfuture,fearofimportantotherslosinginterest,fearofupsettingimportantothers.
Also,thecorrelationsbetweenemotionalitytestanxietyandallfivefearoffailuresubscalestheresultsobtainedshowthatthereisasignifi‐cantpositivecorrelationbetweenthem,meaningthatsubjectswithahighleveloftestanxietyhaveahighleveloffearofexperiencingshameandembarrassment,fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,fearofhavinganun‐certainfuture, fearof importantothers losinginterest, fearofupsettingimportantothers.Whatcanbenoticed is that thecorrelationsbetweencognitivetestanxietyandfearoffailuresubscalesarehigherthanthoseexistingbetweenemotionalitytestanxietyandfearoffailuresubscales.
Inthecaseofgeneraltestanxietyandgeneralfearoffailurescores,theresultsshowthatthereisasignificantpositivecorrelationbetweenthem,meaningthatsubjectswithahighleveloftestanxietyhaveahighleveloffearoffailure(r=‐.56,df=539,p<.01).
GenderdifferencesTo identify the gender differences in the fear of failure among
Olympichighschoolstudents,weusedamultivariatevarianceanalysis(MANOVA).Thedependentvariableswererepresentedbythefivesub‐scalesofthequestionnaire(fearofexperiencingshameandembarrass‐ment,fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,fearofhavinganuncertainfuture, fear of important others losing interest, fear of upsetting im‐portantothers).Theobtainedresultssupportedtheexistenceofsignifi‐cantdifferencesbetweenfemaleandmalesubjectsintermsofdepend‐entvariables(PillaiF₅,₅₃₅=4.3,p<.01,ƞ²=.04).
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EachdependentvariablewassubjectedtoanANOVAanalysistodemonstratewhetherthistrendissimilartoeachofthedependentvari‐ablestakenseparately.Whenmeasuringthedifferencebetweenfemaleandmalesubjectsintermsoffearofshameandembarrassment,ANOVAanalysisdemonstratedthatoveralltherewasasignificantdifferencebe‐tweenmeans(F₁,₅₃₉=10.28,p<.01,ƞ²=.02),andalso,inthecaseofthefearofanuncertainfuture(F₁,₅₃₉=4.6,p<.05,ƞ²=.008).
Asforthefearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,fearofimportantotherslosinginterest,andfearofupsettingimportantotherstherewerenosignificantdifferencesbetweenthetwogroups.
Regardingthedifferencesinthetwoscales,ttestsforindepend‐entsampleswereusedtoidentifydifferencesbetweenfemaleandmalesubjects.Thus, in the caseof fearof shameandembarrassmentmeanscoresformalesubjects(M=‐3.29,SD=7.92)aresignificantlylower(t=‐3.2,df=539,p<.01)thanthoseoffemalesubjects(M=‐.86,SD=8.53).
Inthecaseofthefearofanuncertainfuture,themeanscoresofthemalesubjects(M=‐2.38,SD=2.93)aresignificantlylower(t=‐2.14,df=539,p<.05)thanthoseoffemalesubjects(M=‐1.78,SD=3.14).
5.DiscussionsThe current study investigated the validity of the Performance
FailureAppraisal Inventory in aRomanian sampleof high school stu‐dentswhotakepart todifferenteducationalcompetitions.Weconsid‐eredthatthecompetitivecontextisrelevanttoassessthefearoffailureofthevariousOlympicsparticipants,giventhatthistypeofcompetitionisahighlyimportantoneforthestudents.SowewereconcernedwithtranslatingthePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventory(Conroyetal.,2002) and investigatingboth internal and convergent validity, and itspowerofdiscrimination.
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Translationandadaptationstudieshavebeenconductedinotherlanguages,demonstratingbothitsfactorialstructureanditspsychomet‐ricproperties(Sagar&Jowett,2010;Kahraman&Sungur,2016;Correia,Rosado&Serpa, 2016). In the studies aboutPFAI validationonotherpopulations,thefollowingresultswereobtainedwithregardtointernalconsistencycoefficients:inTurkey(Kahraman&Sungur,2016)inafirststudy,thecoefficientsrangedfrom.64to.85,andinasecondstudyfrom.70to.86;inPortugal(Correia,Rosado&Serpa,2016)aftertheremovalofsomeoftheitems,theinternalconsistencycoefficientsforFearofex‐periencing shame and embarrassment was .78, for Fear of devaluingone’sself‐estimate.75,Fearofhavinganuncertainfuture.76,Fearofim‐portantotherslosinginterest.76,andFearofupsettingimportantothers.77;andinUnitedKingdom(Sagar&Jowett,2010)theresultsobtainedwere.81,.70,.71,.81,and.77.Thesameprocedurewefollowedinthiscase,butweusedthescaleinthecontextofeducationalcompetitions.Basedontheexploratoryfactorialanalysis,wefound,takingintoaccountthedataanalysisandguidingusbytheresultsofthecommunalitiesoftheitems,thatitwasnotnecessarytogiveupanyofthem.Onlyoneitemhasmigratedfromonefactortoanother,andmoreprecisely,fromtheFearofdevaluingone's self‐estimatescale to theFearofexperiencingshameandembarrassmentscale.Theresultingscalewithallfivefactorsis identicalwith theoriginalversion (Fearof experiencing shameandembarrassment,Fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,Fearofhavinganuncertainfuture,Fearofimportantotherslosinginterest,andFearofup‐settingimportantothers).Andinthecaseofconfirmatoryfactorialanal‐ysis,thefitindiceswereappropriatecomparedwiththeotheridentifiedversionssowepreservedtheinitialformthatresultedfromexploratoryfactorialanalyzes.
Wealsocomparedtheresultsobtainedwithregardtotheinternalconsistencyandthefitindicesoftheconfirmatoryanalysisinthecaseofseveralversionstranslatedandfoundintheresearches(Sagar&Jowett,2010;Kahraman&Sungur,2016;Correia,Rosado&Serpa,2016)carried
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outonthevalidationofthePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventoryanditwasobservedthattheyaresimilartothoseobtainedbyusfortheRo‐manianversion.
Regardingtheconvergentvalidity,wedecidedthat itshouldbecarriedoutbyinvestigatingfearoffailurerelationswithotherconstructslikeanxiety,andmorespecificallywithasituationalanxiety,proceedingthesuggestionsmadebytheauthorofthequestionnaire,Conroy,whofoundthatfearoffailureisassociatedwithhighlevelsofworry,anxiety,intrusivethoughtsandsportsanxiety;andwithlowlevelsofoptimism(Conroy,Willow,&Metzler,2002).InthiswaywechosetheTestAnxietyInventory(Spielberger,1980)inordertoverifythehypothesisthatthereisapositiverelationshipbetween fearof failureand testanxiety (andtheirscales).Asexpected,relationshipsbetweentheRomanianversionofPerformanceFailureAppraisalInventoryandtestanxietyweresignif‐icantandintheexpecteddirection.ThePerformanceFailureAppraisalInventorydemonstrated significant positive relationshipwith the twocomponentsoftestanxiety(cognitivetestanxietyandemotionalitytestanxiety).Thus,subjectswithahighleveloffearoffailure(Fearofexperi‐encingshameandembarrassment,Fearofdevaluingone’sself‐estimate,Fearofhavinganuncertainfuture,Fearofimportantotherslosinginter‐est,andFearofupsettingimportantothers)showedhighlevelsofcogni‐tivetestanxietyandemotionalitytestanxiety.Whatcanbenoticed,how‐ever,isthattherelationshipsbetweenthefivetypesofaversiveconse‐quencesoffailureandcognitivetestanxietyarestrongerthanthosewiththeemotionalitycomponentoftestanxiety.Thisputsintoquestionthefactthattheitemsofthisinventoryevaluatethefearoftheaversivecon‐sequencesof failurebyreferring to the intrusive thoughts that fearoffailuregeneratesandthisaspectissimilartothecognitivescaleoftestanxietythatmeasurestheconcernthatastudentfacesduringatest.Thesame aspectwasmentioned by the authors of the questionnairewhostatedthatfearoffailurewasassociatedwithhighlevelsofanxiety,in‐trusive thoughts and sports anxiety; andwith low levels of optimism(Conroy,Willow,&Metzler,2002).
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ThesameresultswereobtainedbyWilt(2016)whoinvestigatedhow competitive anxiety is associatedwith fear of failure. His resultsshowedthatthecognitivecomponentofthecompetitiveanxietyshowedverystrongrelationshipswiththefearoffailure,butdidnotsupportanyrelationshipwithsomaticanxiety,arguedbythefactthatthescaleofthefearof failuredoesnot include items referring tophysiological symp‐toms.Theauthorexplainedthisstrongrelationshipbetweenfearoffail‐ureandcognitiveanxietybythefactthatsubjectswhoarethinkingaboutfailurehavemorenegativethoughtsbeforethecompetition,whichcon‐tributestotheirlevelofcognitiveanxiety.
TheresultsobtainedalsorevealedthatthePerformanceFailureAppraisal Inventory presents a gender‐specific discrimination power.ConcerningFearofexperiencingshameandembarrassmentandFearofan uncertain future, it has been observed thatmale participants havemuchlowerlevelsthanfemalesintermsoftheseaversiveconsequences.Theexistingdifferencesbetweenboysandgirls regarding thescaleoffearofhavinganuncertainfuturewerenotverybig,butthesamecan’tbesaidaboutthefearofexperiencingshameandembarrassment.Inthiscase,thegirlsobtainedmuchhigherscoresthantheboys.Thesamere‐sultswereobtainedbyKahramanandSungur(2016)whoidentifiedanexistingdifferencebetweengirlsandboysonthisscale,buttheydidnotanalysewhichofthesubjectsachievedhigherscores.Inthecaseoftheotherthreescales, therewerenosignificantdifferencesbetweengirls’andboys' scores.This resultscanbeconsidered tobeconsistentwithpreviousfindingsindicatingthatthereisnodifferencebetweengirlsandboys in termsof fearof failure(Carawayetal.,2003;Conroy,Elliot,&Pincus,2009).
Inconclusion,thefindingsofthecurrentstudyareconsistentwithprevious research supporting the five‐factor new conceptualization offearof failure.Throughtheanalyseswhichwehaveconductedweob‐tained the necessary results to support that Performance Failure Ap‐praisalInventoryusedinaneducationalcompetitioncontexthasasolidstructureandinternalconsistency,anditcanrepresentausefultoolto
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assess the aversive consequences of experiencing failure in an educa‐tionalcontexttooandnotjustinsports.Theuseofthistoolcouldbringgreatbenefitstoeducationalpractice,thusencouragingschoolcounsel‐lorsandteacherstoidentifythenecessarymeasurestoimprovethewell‐beingofstudentsparticipatingineducationalcompetitions.
Thistoolcanbeusefulbothinknowingtheoriginofthefearoffailureamongstudents,byaddressingthefiveaversiveconsequencesas‐sociatedwithfailure,andbyputtingitinrelationwithotherconstructssuchaspersonalityfactors,achievementgoals,orwiththesymptomsofsomevariouspathologiessuchasanxietyordepression.Onereasonwhythistoolcanbeusedinexchangeforothers(suchasanxietymeasure‐ments)referstothefactthatknowingtheoriginofthefearoffailurecanrepresentastartingpointinunderstandingthemanifestationsofpathol‐ogiessuchasanxiety.PFAIcanalsobeusedinexaminingtherolethatparents,teachers,orotherpeopleinthestudentenvironmenthaveinthedevelopmentoffearoffailureinchildren(forexample,inparent‐child,teacher‐students,coaches/mentors‐studentsrelationships,etc.).Itcanalsobehelpfulintestingvarioustreatmentsframeworks(e.g.,cognitivebehaviouraltherapy,rational‐emotivetherapy;Sagaretal.,2009).Fromaclinicalpointofview,byusingthisinventory,fearoffailurecanbeiden‐tified,treatedorpreventedbydiscoveringthewrongthinkingpatternsassociated with failure and in this way specialists can propose sometypesofprogramsinaccordancewiththeneedsoftheaffectedperson.Whatisrecommendedforthefuturewithregardtothestudyofthiscon‐structreferstoitsrelationshipwithschoolperformance.Passer(1988)drawsattentiontothefactthatconcernsaboutperformancefailureandnegativesocialevaluationarethemostprevalentsourcesofcompetitivestressandworryforyouth.
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Covington,M.V.(1992).Makingthegrade:Aself‐worthperspectiveonmotiva‐tionandschoolreform.NewYork:CambridgeUniv.Press.
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Tangney, J.P. (2002).Perfectionismandtheself‐consciousemotions:Shame,guilt,embarrassment,andpride.In.G.L.Flett,&P.L.Hewitt(Eds.),Per‐fectionism:Theory,research,andtreatment(199‐215).Washington,DC:APA.
Teevan,R.C. (1983).Childhooddevelopmentof fearof failuremotivation:Areplication.PsychologicalReports,53(2),506.
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AppendixThe itemsforeachscaleofthePerformanceFailureAppraisalIn‐
ventory(Conroyetal.,2002),translatedintoRomanian
ScalaTeamadeaexperimentarușinea
10.Atuncicândnuamsucces,suntmaipuținvaloros(oasă)decâtatuncicândreușesc.
15. Atunci când nu am succes, acest lucruparesămăcopleșeascărepede.
18.Atuncicândnureușesc,estejenantdacăalțiisuntacolocasăvadăacestlucru.
20.Atuncicândnureușesc,credcătoatălu‐meaștiecăacestlucruseîntâmplă.
22. Atunci când nu reușesc, cred că acelepersoane care nu aveau încredere înminesimtcăaveaudreptateînprivințamea.
24.Atuncicândnureușesc,măîngrijoreazăcecredalțiidespremine.
25.Atuncicândnureușesc,îmifacgrijicăal‐țiiarputeacredecănuîncerc.
16.Atuncicândnureușesc,urăscfaptulcănuamcontrolulasuprarezultatului.
ScalaTeamadeauto‐devalorizare
1.Atuncicândnureușesc,seîntâmplăade‐sea pentru că nu sunt suficient de inteli‐gent(ă)pentruaefectuacusuccesaceaacti‐vitate.
4.Atuncicândnureușesc,dauvinapelipsameadeabilitate.
7. Atunci când nu reușesc,mă tem că esteposibilsănudeținsuficientăcapacitate/abi‐litate.
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ScalaTeamadeunviitorincert
2.Atuncicândnureușesc,viitorulmeupareincert.
5.Atuncicândnureușesc,credcăplanurilemeleviitoaresevorschimba.
8. Atunci când nu reușesc, mi se perturbă,,planul”ceurma.
12.Atunci cândnu reușesc, numă îngrijo‐reazăcăacestlucruvaafectaplanurilemeleviitoare.
ScalaTeamadeapierdeinfluențasocială
11.Atuncicândnuamsucces,oameniisuntmaipuțininteresațidemine.
13.Atuncicândnuamsucces,oameniiparsăvreasămăajutemaipuțin.
17.Atuncicândnuamsucces,oameniitindsămălasesingur(ă).
21. Atunci când nu am succes, unele per‐soanenumaisuntinteresatedeminedeloc.
23.Atuncicândnuamsucces,valoareameascadepentruuniioameni.
ScalaTeamadeadezamăgipersoaneleapropiate
3.Atuncicândnureușesc,acestlucruîisu‐părăpeceilalți.
6.Atuncicândnureușesc,măașteptsă fiucriticat(ă)depersoaneleimportante.
9.Atuncicândnureușesc,pierdîncredereaunor oameni care sunt importanți pentrumine.
14.Atuncicândnureușesc,persoaneleim‐portantenusuntfericite.
19.Atuncicândnureușesc,persoaneleim‐portantesuntdezamăgite.
STUDIAUBBPSYCHOL.‐PAED.,LXIII,1,2018,p.79‐90(RecommendedCitation)DOI:10.24193/subbpsyped.2018.1.04
EDUCATIONINTHESPIRITOFECUMENICALVALUES
ELENAANCUȚASANTI1,COSMINSANTI2,GABRIELGORGHIU3*
ABSTRACT.Theeducationofthe21stcenturyshouldrespondtosocietalchanges,aswellastochallengesoccurringinlinewiththeunprecedenteddevelopmentof technology,massmigrationandglobalisation.Theprinciplesunderlyingthecurrenteducationalpoliciessupporttheneedtopromoteanaxiologicaleducation,inharmonywithhuman and social valueswhich should lead to agoodco‐existence,acceptanceandrespectbetweendifferentciv‐ilisationsandcultures.Inthisrespect,theecumenicaleducationpromotespro‐socialattitudes,opennesstopeople,peaceandso‐cialjustice.Nearthefamily,themainagentsshapingthechildrenmoralcharacterareschoolandchurch.ThereligiouseducationintheRomanianschoolsaimsattheholisticdevelopmentofthein‐dividuals,theirspiritualityandmorality,butalsoatformingahar‐moniouspersonalityofapersoncapabletocohabit,communicateandpositivelyrelatetohisorherpeers.Thispaperfocusesonre‐vealingtheformativeaspectsofthereligiouseducationprovidedtosecondaryschool students, theway theyrelate to thevaluesandprinciplesofecumenicaleducationandhowspecificelementstoecumenicaleducationareappliedinparticularcontexts.
1TeacherTrainingDepartment,ValahiaUniversityTargoviste,Romania.2ValahiaUniversityTargoviste,Romania.3TeacherTrainingDepartment,ValahiaUniversityTargoviste,Romania.*Corresponding author:[email protected].
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Keywords:ecumenicaleducation,religiouseducation,ecumeni‐calprinciplesandvalues.ZUSAMMENFASSUNG. Bildung im Geist der ökumenischenWerte.DieBildungdes21.Jahrhundertssolltesowohlaufgesell‐schaftlicheVeränderungen,alsauchaufHerausforderungenrea‐gieren, die zusammen mit der ohnegleichen Entwicklung vonTechnologie, Massenmigration und Globalisierung stattfinden.DiePrinzipien,diedergegenwärtigenBildungspolitikzugrundeliegen,unterstützendieNotwendigkeit,eineaxiologischeErzie‐hungimEinklangmitmenschlichenundsozialenWertenzuför‐dern,diezueinergutenKoexistenz,AkzeptanzundRespektzwi‐schenverschiedenenZivilisationenundKulturenführensollte.Indieser Hinsicht fördert die ökumenische Erziehung prosozialeEinstellungen, Offenheit fürMenschen, Frieden und soziale Ge‐rechtigkeit.InderNähederFamiliesinddieHauptagenten,SchuleundKirche, die denmoralischenCharakter der Kinder formen.DiereligiöseErziehungindenrumänischenSchulenzieltaufdieganzheitlicheEntwicklungderIndividuen,ihrerSpiritualitätundMoralab,aberauchaufdieBildungeinerharmonischenPersön‐lichkeiteinerPerson,dieinderLageist,mitGleichaltrigenzusam‐menzuleben, zu kommunizieren und sich positiv zu verhalten.DieserBeitragkonzentriert sichdarauf,die formativenAspektedes Religionsunterrichts für Sekundarschüler aufzuzeigen, wiesiemitdenWertenundPrinzipienderökumenischenBildunginBeziehung stehen und wie spezifische Elemente der ökumeni‐schenBildunginbestimmtenKontextenangewandtwerden.
Schlüsselwörter: ökumenische Erziehung, religiöse Erziehung,ökumenischePrinzipienundWerte.
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IntroductionThe evolution of the human society entails some significant
changesbothat social, collective level,butalsoatpersonal, individuallevel. Those changes are characterized, among others, by a profoundneedtosearchtheownidentityandsense,asapsychological,social,cul‐tural,spiritualandnationalexistence.Theidentityconstructionrepre‐sentsapsychologicalprocess,closelyinterdependentonseveralfactorssuch:heredity,environment,education,aswellastheindividuallifeex‐periences.Today,almosteverybodycanhaveaccesstoworldwideinfor‐mationanytime,canreachanyplace, cancommunicateusingmultipletechnologicalmeans.Peopletodaylivearealitywhichisdifferentfromwhattwoorthreegenerationsinthepastusedtolive.Inthiscontext,theconstruction of the individual’s personality starts considerably earlierandhasaunique,different,difficult itinerary,astheselectionof infor‐mation,thevarietyofstimuli,thelivedexperiences,theeducationalandsocial context, irremediablymarkcertainstructuraldimensionsof thepsychicalandsocialself.
InRomania,educationhasalwayshadareligiouscomponent,be‐ingstronglyshapedwithanimportantChristianvalence.AsearlyasthefirstschoolsemergedunderthewingsoftheChurch,thefirstwritings,religiousprintings,traditions,ethos,culture‐allhaveastrongreligiousnature.Comingtotheactualdays,thesocietywitnessesalossofauthen‐ticvalues,havingastrongfeelingofdisorientation,sothatthosewhotrytofindlandmarksandlifemodelsappealtomanyelementsmetinthepast,whenthefirstsevenyearsofearlychildhoodmeantthefoundationofthelife,thebasisonwhichabeautifulharmoniouscharacterwasbuilt.Thetraditionalfamilyusedtoconveythespiritualendowmentortreas‐uretotheirsuccessors,whiletheschoolcarriedonworkinginfertilelandand therefore embeddedgenuineand real valuesofmankind into thechildrenmind.Butformoreandmorepeople,thematerialvaluescomefirstinline,havingbecomesmoreimportantthanbeing,theindifference
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andtheselfishnessreplacethegoodco‐existencewhichreliesonrespectandacceptance.Inthiscontext,educationmaybethesolutionforasoci‐etyinwhichauthenticvaluesshouldbekeptaliveandfunctional.
EducationandGlobalization
Globalizationshouldbeunderstoodasalargephenomenonthatrequiresmajorchangesintheactualeducation,beingdefinedasapara‐digmthatimposesthere‐thinkingofbeliefsandstructuresintraditionalconsciousness (Misra,2012). Inconcrete terms,educationredefines itsfrontiers,directionsofaction,objectives,goalsandactors,instrongrela‐tiontosocialdemandsandchanges.Thechallengefacedupbytheedu‐cationistolayemphasismainlyondevelopingofinternationallyrecog‐nizedkey‐skillswhichhelptheindividualstosucceedintheirfieldofac‐tion.Amongthosepossibilitiesandchallenges,temptationsandmirages,eachpersonhastoremainuniqueandthereforedifferentfromtherest,asglobalizationmayhavecertainconsequencesatpersonallevel,suchasdepersonalizationorlossofidentityanduniqueness.
Inadditiontoitsgeneralandordinaryelements,theeducationhasaseriesofexceptionalfeaturesthatarelinkedtothenationalandcul‐turalspecificity,tothelocalandreligious/spiritualethosandtotheper‐ennialvaluescomingfromgenerations.Eachcountryisdefinedbyathe‐saurusofparticularelements.Thephenomenonofglobalizationhasim‐posedtherestructuringofphysicalcountrybordersandtheestablish‐mentofanuniversalstandardmadeupofsetsofvalueswhichacquiresuchintensitythattendstogobeyondthenationalboundariesandbethereforerecognizedonalargerscale(Niculescu&Norel,2013).
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EcumenicalEducationandReligiousEducation
Tounderstandtheecumenicaleducation,itisnecessarytoexplainthemeaningof theword:ecumenism.Theecumenismcomes fromtheGreekword oikoumenē, ofwhich basis are the terms oikéō and oikía,meaningintheancientGreek:landonearthinhabitedbyhumans,ascom‐paredtotheuninhabitedregionsoftheearth.Consequently,inageneralsense,itmeanstheentireworld,but,inareligioussense,itreferstotheChristianworld,unitedunderasinglechurch.
AftertheGreatSchism(1054),thedivisionwhichdestroyedtheChristian world, the term ecumenism designated everything and any‐thingthatbroughtChristiansofallchurchestogether,inanincreasinglybiggerunityoffaith,worship,missionandaction,towardsbuildingtheKingdomofGod(Kunuba,2015).Atpresent,ecumenismmeansworkingin cooperation andmutual understanding between different churchesandChristiandenominations.
Theeducationinthespiritofecumenicalvaluesprovidespeoplewithvastopportunitiestoexpresstheirmodelofthinking,whichmaybeachievedinthecontextofexplorationandmutualopennessaswellaslistening to others. Ecumenical education is the educationwhich sup‐ports a dialogue‐oriented environment, mutual respect, exchange ofideasasenrichingtheco‐existence.Oneoftheprinciplesoftheecumen‐icaleducationrefers to interconnectionofknowledgeandunityof thediversityofknowledge.Ecumenicaleducationalpromoteseducationforpeacebycreatingsomeopportunitiestoovercomereligiousandethnicalprejudices,inanenvironmentofauthenticdialogue,opennessandatti‐tudeswhicharefavorabletointeraction.
Among the ecumenical education principles, one may find(Kunuba,2015):(a)tolerance;(b)loveforothers;(c)acceptanceofdif‐ferentthinkingandopinions;(d)collaboration;(e)promotingmoralval‐ues;(f)peaceandrespectfortheenvironment;(g)promotingsocialjus‐ticeandpeopledevelopment.
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Through itsvalues,attitudesandparadigms,ecumenicaleduca‐tiontriestoshapetheindividual,whoshouldco‐existinabalancedandpeacefulmannerwithhis/herpeers,acceptandrespectvarious ideas,expressions,customsandtraditions.Ecumenicaleducationcontributestoformattitudesoftoleranceforpeopleofdifferentreligionsandethnic‐ities, encourages co‐existence in diversity, harmony between culturesandpeople,dialogueandcommunicationbetweenpeople.Inthespiritoftheecumenicalvalues,thereligiouseducationdevelopsaseriesofskills,asfollows(Niculescu&Norel,2013):(a)understandingandfurtherac‐ceptanceofspecificaspectsofdifferentreligionsandformsofworship;(b)positivelyanalyzing,comparingandvalorizingbasicconcepts,rulesandtraditionsofdifferentreligions;(c)tolerantattitude;(d)realcapac‐itytolovethehumanbeing;(e)positivelyvalorizingtheculturalvaluesbasedondifferentreligionsorformsofworships.
Allthosevalues,specifictoecumenicaleducation,arepromotedwiththehelpofreligiouseducation,inreferencetowhichCucoș(2009)statedthatitisfundamentalandnecessaryforthemodernperson.Infact,thereligiouseducationwasreintroducedasadistinguishdiscipline intheRomaniannationalcurriculum(partofthecommoncore)in1990,afteralongperiodwhentheeducationwasdeprivedofthisdimension.TheChristian‐orthodoxreligionistaughtinprimaryandsecondaryedu‐cation,andalso inhighschoolsandvocationalschools,althoughthereare18religiousformsofworshiprecognizedacrossthecountry.
MethodologyTheageofadolescenceis,bydefinition,adifficultperiod,charac‐
terizedbysignificantpsychologicalandphysicalchanges,byexistentialquestions that contribute to the crystallization of the self, and to thebuildingoftheteen‐ageridentity,includingtheexplorationofthereli‐giousdimensionseenaspartoftheindividual’sspirituality.
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Inthisrespect,wetriedtohighlightontheformativeinfluenceofreligiouseducation‐concerningitsprinciplesandecumenicalvalues‐intheprocessof formationoftheethicalandmoraldimensionofhumanpersonality, byperforming a researchwhichwas conducted involvinghigh‐schoolstudents,whoareatthedelicateageofadolescence,intheperiod of their psychological and social development stage, generallycharacterized by the appearance of different problems. The researchmethodologywasbasedontheadministrationofaquestionnairewithopenitems,fromwhichseveralitemshavebeenselectedtobeillustratedinthispaper.200students from9th to12thgradesparticipatedtothisresearch (questioned students). Out of the participating students, 50were enrolled in the Theological Seminar, and 150 in the “IenăchiţăVăcărescu”NationalCollege.AllofthemattendedspecificclassesofRe‐ligiousEducation.
Thedesignedquestionnaireisjustaninstrumentofabroaderre‐searchthataimstoexploremoredimensionsofthestudents’religiouslife:theirperceptions,emotions,feelingsandattitudes,religiousrepre‐sentations,butalsothespecificityconcerningtheunderstandingofreli‐giousdimensionattheageofadolescence,togetherwiththeindividualand social implicationsof religiousmanifestations.The selected itemsconsideredinthispaperrelatebothdimensionsofreligiosity(internalandexternal),thelastonebeingappliedinsocialcontexts.
ResultsandDiscussionOneofthefirstissueunderresearchwasdefinedbytheindividual
perceptions of the students concerningwhat represents being a goodChristian, more precisely, the way students internalise and mentallybuildthepsychologicalportraitofarealChristian.Figure1illustratestheresults,inwhichthemajoroptions‐lovefortheothers(26%),helpingtheothers(21%)andselflessness/altruism(19%)‐refer to thesocialdimensionofbeingreligious,intherespectofScripturalteachings(the
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commandmentonlove‐loveyourneighborasyouloveyourself),oneofthebasicChristianprecepts,alsopromotedbytheecumenicaleducation.Otheroptionswere:praying(12%)‐namelythediscussionbetweenthehuman and God, proof of religious practice; respect (11%); kindness(9%);andothers(2%).Thestudentsassociatereligionanditsteachingstointerhuman,pro‐socialbehaviors,consideringthataChristian(abe‐liever)hastohavebehaviorsforthebenefitoftheothers.
Fig.1.Students’individualperceptionsconcerning
themeaningofbeingagoodChristian
Figure2 illustrates the students’ emotions, feelingsandexperi‐
encesinrelationtotheirattendanceoftheHolyServicesoftheChurch(DivineLiturgy).Thus, love (32%)andpeace (30%)are themost fre‐quentemotionalstatesofthestudents,whogotoreligiousservicesandpinpointthetherapeuticeffectsatemotionallevel.Otherfeelingswerehope(18%)andjoy(14%),6%mentionedadmiration,fear,findingone‐self,amazement,communion,confidence(groupedasotheranswers).Itisimportanttorecognizetheemotionsgeneratedbyattendingthereli‐giousservices,becausereligion,similartolife,meansexperiences,emo‐tions, feelings. It is worthmentioning that all emotions that studentsspokeaboutarepositive,whichleadstotheconclusionthatparticipation
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tothereligiouslifeofthecommunitymayrepresentfortheyounggen‐erationahealthyalternativetothechaoticlifestyle,sedentaryandexces‐sivelytechnologizedlife.Youngpeopleshouldbemoreinvolvedinthelifeoftheirparishes,becausetheeffects‐atpsychologicallevel–canbebeneficialfortheirharmoniousdevelopment.
Fig.2.Students’emotionsandfeelingsrelatedtotheirparticipationintheChurchHolyService
Figure3illustratesstudents’perceptionsinrelationtothemoral
qualitiesofagoodChristian.Kindness isagainpresenttoaverygreatextent(37%),whichindicatestheawarenessofbeinggoodandkindtootherpeople.Forgiveness(20%)representsanothermoralfeaturethatagoodChristianshouldhave,followedbyrespect(15%)andtolerance(9%).Allthosearevaluespromotedandsupportedbytheeducationintheecumenicalspirit.
Tohighlightthemoralandsocialvaluespromotedanddevelopedbythereligiouseducationintermsofstudents’personality,thepartici‐pantscompletedtheresponsestotheenunciationDuetothereligioused‐ucation,...,synthesizedinFigure4.Here,itcanbeseenthatthestudentsare aware of being tolerant (14%), being better andwithmore faith(13%),more open to others (11%),more optimistic (8%),more em‐phatic(7%)andkinder(6%)‐allthosebeingfoundintheprinciplesand
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valuesoftheecumenicaleducation,whichbalanceshumanrelationsandfacilitates the intercultural dialogue, conditionswhich are essential inthecurrentsocialcontext.Inaddition,thestudentsappreciatethatreli‐giouseducationhaspositiveeffectsonhowtheyperceivelife:theyarehappieraboutthemselves,acceptthemselvesandconsidereasiertofindthescopeoftheirlife,aspectswhichareveryimportantatthisage,whenteen‐agers go through the age crisis. Other given answerswere: I amwise,responsible,free,Ifindeasiertomakedecisions,Igrow.Nonega‐tiveresponseswereofferedandnostudentavoidedtoanswer.
Fig.3.Students'individualperceptionsconcerning
themainmoralqualityofagoodChristian
Fig.4.Students'individualconsiderationsconcerningthecharactertraitsdevelopedbythereligiouseducation
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The final results may constitute the solution to the issue thatmanyteachersandparentsarestrugglingtosolve:Howcanonehelpad‐olescentstoovercomethiscriticalperiodoftheirlife?Thereligiouseduca‐tionishighlyimportantfortheshapingofeachmoralcharacter,tobe‐comingtolerant,pro‐social,moralandtohavinganethicalbehavior,tobeingopentodialogue,startingwithearlyagesandespeciallythrough‐outtheadolescenceperiod.
ConclusionTheresultsoftheresearchhighlightthatstudentsunderstandthe
impactofreligiouseducationontheirpersonalityandacknowledgetheimportanceofsuchimpactforlivingintheactualsociety,pleadingforagoodco‐existence.Theresulteddatapresentagladdeningcharacter,butnevertheless,thisresearchhasalimit:theparticipantstudentsarecom‐ingfromschoolsconsideredbythecommunityasofhighquality,schoolswhereteachersareclearlydevotedtotheir job.However,anotherele‐mentwhichindicateshowimportantthereligiouseducationis forthedevelopment of the students’ conscience of local traditions is repre‐sentedbytheReligiondisciplineitself.Despitethefactthat,inorderforthedisciplinetobeattendedbythestudents,awrittenexpressionofin‐terestissuedbythestudents’parentsisrequired,atthenationallevel,outofatotalofover2millionstudents(in2015),apercentageof91.39%madeawrittenrequestforReligiontobestudiedinschool. Inthisre‐spect,astudyconductedinDâmbovițaCounty(in2014)illustratesthattoaverygreatextent(morethan95%),theparentsofpre‐primarystu‐dentswantedexpresslytheintroductionofReligiouseducationinkinder‐gartens(Santi&Santi,2014),beingawareofitseducativesignificanceinrelationtoshapetheirchildrenpersonality.
ItisclearthatReligiouseducationinschoolsoffersanintegratingofthespiritualhorizon,abondwhichrelatesandintegratestheknowledgeacquiredinotherdisciplines,towardsbuildingaspirituallandmarkwhich
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isbrightandprobativeforlife,livingsointhecommunionofloveandco‐responsibilityforthecommonwelfare(MessageofHisBeatitudeDaniel,PatriarchoftheRomanianOrthodoxChurch,March2015).
In conclusion,we canmention theopinionof aChristianpeda‐gogue‐ProfessorConstantinCucoș(2009)‐whoexpressedthenecessityofareligiouseducationfromearlyages,takingintoaccountthecharac‐teristicsofthoseages,andfurtheron,duringtheperiodofyoungerde‐velopmentstages,asthebenefitsofthiseducationarefoundinthede‐velopmentoftheauthenticvalues,inthestructuringofone’sownper‐sonalandsocialidentity,inthesettingofsomelandmarksandlifemod‐els,inthepersonaldevelopmentandintheprocessofbuildingofrela‐tionsbasedonsolidarity,communionandresponsibility.
REFERENCES
Cucoș,C.(2009).Educațiareligioasă.Repereteoreticeșimetodice.Iași:Polirom.Kunuba,AC.(2015).TheRelevanceofPhilosophicalandEcumenicalEducation
intheNigerianEducationalSystem.TheInternationalJournalofHuman‐itiesandSocialStudies,3(6),240‐243.
Misra,S.(2012).ImplicationsofGlobalizationonEducation.RomanianJournalforMultidimensionalEducation,4(2),69‐82.
Niculescu,RM.,&Norel,M.(2013).ReligiousEducationanImportantDimen‐sionofHuman’sEducation.ProcediaSocialandBehavioralSciences,93,338‐342.
Santi,C.,Santi,EA.(2014).Elementedeeducațiereligioasăîngrădiniță.Teorieșiaplicațiipractice.București:Basilica.
*** ‐ Message of His Beatitude Daniel, Patriarch of the Romanian OrthodoxChurch,expressedatthenationalmeetingofthe“ParentsforReligionClass”Association.Availableat:http://basilica.ro/cooperare‐benefica‐intre‐familie‐scoala‐si‐biserica‐in‐domeniul‐educatiei/.
STUDIAUBBPSYCHOL.‐PAED.,LXIII,1,2018,p.91‐101(RecommendedCitation)DOI:10.24193/subbpsyped.2018.1.05
EFFECTOFINTENSIVETACTINSTRUCTIONONSPONTANEOUSVERBALBEHAVIORINTHREECHILDRENWITHDEVELOPMENTALDISABILITY
ADELECARPITELLI1*,CLAUDIALORIA2,ROBERTATRERE3,VALENTINAPETRINI4
ABSTRACT.Thepresentstudyisapartialreplicationoftheintensivetactinstructiontactic,inthreestudentswithdevelopmentaldisability.ThedependentvariablewastactsemittedinNonInstructionalSettings(NIS)priorandafterthemasteryofsetsof5differentstimuli.TheNISincludedthetoyareaoftheclassroom,lunchtime,andgroupactivity.Allprobe sessionswere conducted daily for a cumulative 15minutes, 5minutesineachNISforthreedifferentdays.Intensivetactinstructioninvolvedincreasingthetactinstructionsto100‐tactlearnunitsabovethedailylearnunitsstudentswerereceivingdaily.Theresultsshowedasignificantimprovementofvocalverbaloperants(tactsandmands)emittedbythestudentsinnaturalenvironment.
Keywords: IntensiveTact Instruction,Tact,Mand,Disability,VerbalBe‐havior
1AllenamenteLearningCenter,Scandicci(Fi),Italy&TiceliveandLearn,Piacenza(PC),Italy.
2AllenamenteLearningCenter,Scandicci(Fi),Italy.3AllenamenteLearningCenter,Scandicci(Fi),Italy.4AllenamenteLearningCenter,Scandicci(Fi),Italy.*Correspondingauthor:[email protected].
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ZUSAMMENFASSUNG.Wirkung von intensiv Tact Anweisung aufspontanesVerbalverhaltenbeidreiKindernmitEntwicklungsbehin‐derung.DievorliegendeStudieisteineteilweiseReplikationvon“in‐tensive tact Instruction Tactic”, in drei Studenten mit evolutionärerBehinderung.DieabhängigeVariablewardieNummervonTacts,dieinunstrukturiertenKontextenvorundnachdemErwerbvonSets5ver‐schiedener Stimuli produziert werden. Die unstrukturierte KontexteschlossendenSpielberichderKlasse,dasEssenundGruppenaktivitätenein.AlleProbe‐Sitzungenwurdentäglich,fürinsgesamt15Minuten,5MinuteninjedemKontextan3verschiedenenTagen,durchgeführt.“In‐tensive Tact Instruction” umfasste die tägliche Zunahme von 100Lernmöglichkeitenvon“Tact”fürjedenSchüler.DieErgebnissezeigeneine signifikante Zunahme der verbalen Stimmoperanten (Tacts undMands),diedieSchülerinnatürlicherUmgebungproduzierten.
Schlüsselwörter:IntensiveTactInstruction,Tact,Mand,Behinderung,SpracheINTRODUCTIONTheacquisitionof languagetypicallyoccursinthefirstyearsof
life,quicklyandspontaneously,asaresultoftheopportunitiesforsocial‐isingamongchildrenwith thecaregivers (Greenwood,Hart,Walker&Risley,1994)andtheentityofwordsrepertoirepresentinchildrenwithtypicaldevelopmentisnotattributabletolearningthroughdirectteach‐ing(Greer&Ross,2008).Themajorityofchildrenwithautismspectrumdisordershaveadelay in languagedevelopment (Stevensetal.,2000;Tager‐Flusberg,1988;Tager‐Flusberg&Sullivan,1998),theonsetandfrequencywiththeyreachthedifferentstagesoflinguisticdevelopmentareoftendelayedwhencomparedtochildrenwithtypicaldevelopment(AmericanPsychiatricAssociation,2013).
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Differentstudiesinliterature(Delagado&Oblak,2007;Greer&Du,2010)triedtoidentifythemostefficientstrategiestostimulatethespontaneous languageof childrenwithdisabilities and the analysis ofverbalBehaviorofSkinner(1957)formstheconceptualbasisformanyeffectivelanguagetrainingthatreceivedattentionbothinliteratureandinpractice(Leaf&McEachin,1999;Sundberg&Michael,2001;Sundberg&Partington,1998).Skinner(1957)definesverbalBehaviorasaBehaviorreinforcedthroughthemediationofanotherperson'sBehavior. In thetextVerbalBehavior,Skinner(1957)identifiedsixtypesofverbaloper‐antsbasedontheirfunction:Echoic,Mand,Tact,Intraverbal,Textualre‐spondingandTranscription.Amongtheseverbaloperants,MandsandTactsareparticularlyrelevantforthepresentstudy.
Mandisaverbaloperantinwhichtheresponseisreinforcedbyaspecific consequence and is functionally controlled by relevant condi‐tionsofdeprivationoradversestimulation(Greer,2002;Greer&Ross,2008;Skinner,1957).Tactisaverbaloperantcontrolledbyanonverbalantecedentstimulusthatfunctionasdiscriminativestimulus(Sundberg,Juan,Dawdy&Arguelles,1990),andisreinforcedbygeneralizedrein‐forcements(Greer&Ross,2008;Tsiouri&Greer,2003).Severalstudies(Greer&Du,2010;Greer&Ross,2008;Pistoljevic&Greer,2006;)suggestthattactrepertoireiscriticalforverbaldevelopmentofchildren,asitisthebasis for the acquisitionofmore complexverbalBehaviors, like naming(Greeretal.,2005;Loweetal.,2002),conversationalunits(Lodhi&Greer,1989)andreading(Greer&Ross,2008).
Manystudies(Delgado&Oblak,2007;Pistoljevic&Greer,2006;Schauffler&Greer,2006)suggestthattheIntensiveTactInstructionpro‐tocolhelpspreschoolandschoolagechildrenwithtypicalandatypicaldevelopment,toincreasethenumberofverbaloperants,PureTactsandPureMands,innaturalenvironments.MostofTactsthatparticipantsindifferentresearches(Delgado&Oblak,2007;Pistoljevic&Greer,2006;Schauffler&Greer,2006)emittedinnon‐educationalsituationswerenotlimited toTacts taught in the IntensiveTact Instructionprotocol.This
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seemstosuggest,aspointedoutbyPistoljevicandGreer(2006),thatstu‐dentshavelearnedtoemitTactstogetgeneralizedreinforcementintheformofattentionfromteachers.
ThepresentstudyaimstoevaluatetheeffectivenessofIntensiveTactInstructionprocedure(Pistoljevic&Greer,2006;Delgado&Oblak,2007)onthenumberofPureTactsandPureMandsemitted,innon‐ed‐ucationalcontests,bytwostudentswithAutismSpectrumDisorderandastudentwithdifficultiesinverbalandnon‐verbalcommunicationstillindiagnosticassessmentphase.
METHODOLOGY
ResearchObjective
The objective behind the development of this researchwas toelaborateandinvestigatethebenefits,intermofeffectivenessandeffi‐ciencyofanIntensiveTactInstructionintwochildrenwithAutismSpec‐trumDisorderandinastudentwithdifficultiesinverbalandnon‐verbalcommunicationstillindiagnosticassessmentphase.
Researchhypothesis
TheapplicationinstudentswithAutismSpectrumDisorderanddisabilityofanintensivetactprotocolproducedanincreasednumberofverbaloperants innaturalsettings. Inthisresearchwefocusedonthecoordinatedescribedasaspecifichypothesis:increasingthetactinstruc‐tionsto100‐tactlearnunitsabovethedailylearnunitsstudentsimprove‐menttheemissionofpuretactsandpuremandsinnon‐istructionalsetting.
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ResearchvariablesThedependentvariablesmeasuredinthisstudywasthenumbers
ofpuretactsandpuremandsemittedduringthe5‐minuteprobesacrossthreenon‐instructionalsettings.
TheindependentvariablesinthisstudywastheIntensiveTactIn‐structionProcedure.During the intervention thepresentationofaddi‐tional100tactlearnunitsweredeliveredthroughouttheday(Albers&Greer,1991;Greer&McDonough,1999;Greer,2002).
Foursetsofmultimediadigitalpictureofstimulidepictingvariousobjectswereused.Fivecategorieswithfourtargetstimuliineachcate‐gorywere included in each set. The five categories targeted includedfood,animals,partsofhumanbody,houseobjectsandcommunityhelp‐ers.Thereweremultipleexemplarsofeachstimuli(atleastthree)andtheywereallinterspersedinallteachingconditions.Twentylearnunitswerepresentedforeachofthefivecategorieswithinaspecificsetonadailybasis.Thetargetsetswererotateduntil100tactlearnunitswerepresentedtotheparticipant.Thesamesetsofstimuliwererepeatedlypresenteduntiltheparticipantachievedmasteryforallfoursetsofstim‐uliwithinthetargetedfivecategories.
Procedure
During the initialprobe, and following themasteryof each set,data were collected during 5‐minute observation probes conductedacross3differentnon‐instructionalsettings;thelunchtable,thegroupactivityandtheplayareaoftheclassroom.Weusedeventrecordingtorecordthenumbersoftactsandmandsemittedbythestudentsduringtheprobes.Wecountedeachtactandmandemitted inthethreenon‐instructionalsettings,bywritingalltheutterancesstudentsemitteddur‐ingthedesignatedtimeperiod.
During the tact intervention, a correct response was recordedwhentheparticipantvocallylabelledthetargetiteminthepictureaccu‐rately and independentlywithin 3 seconds of the presentation of the
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stimuli.Theantecedentforapuretactoperantisnon‐verbalandconsistsinamultimediadigitalpicture.Positivereinforcementintheformofgen‐eralizedsocialpraise(i.e.verbalpraisesuchas“Welldone”,“Goodjob”ortickles)wasthenpresentedimmediatelycontingentonacorrectre‐sponse.Responsesthatdeviatedfromthecorrectresponsewereomit‐ted, or those that occurred outside of the three‐second intraresponsetime resulted in the delivery of a simple correction procedure by theteacher.Inthesimplecorrection,thetargetantecedent(picture)wasre‐presentedandaccompaniedbyanechoicprompt.
Werecordedaplus(+)onadatacollectionsheetwhenthestu‐dentemittedacorrectresponsetoalearnunit,andaminus(‐)wasrec‐ordedifastudentemittedanincorrectresponseornoresponse.Eachintensivetactinstructionalsessionconsistedof20‐learnunitsdeliveredpercategory;therefore,fivelearnunitsweredeliveredpertargetstimuliinasinglecategory.Criterionwasdefinedasrespondingcorrectlywithatleast90%accuracyacross2consecutivesessions.Afterachievingcri‐terionononeofthetrainingsets,anewsetoftactswasimplemented.Students mastered a single set, all five categories, before they weretaughtthenextset.
Results
ThisstudyinvestigatingtheeffectivenessandefficiencyofInten‐siveTact Instructionprocedure (Pistoljevic&Greer, 2006;Delgado&Oblak,2007)onthenumberofPureTactsandPureMandsemitted,innon‐educationalcontests,bytwostudentswithAutismSpectrumDisor‐derandastudentwithdifficultiesinverbalandnon‐verbalcommunica‐tion still in diagnostic assessment phase. Figure 1 shows the delayedmultipleprobedesignusedinthestudy.
StudentA emitted a total of 1 tact, in the secondprobe, and 4mandsacross3‐probessessionsrespectively0inthefirst,1inthesec‐ond,and3inthethird.FollowingmasteryofSet1,StudentAemittedatotalof16tactsand12mandsinasinglesession.FollowingthemasteryofSet2StudentAemittedatotalof22tactsand15mandsinasingle
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session.After themasteryofSet3,StudentAemitted27 tactsand19mandsinasinglesession.FollowingthemasteryofSet4,mandsinasin‐glesession.FollowingthemasteryofSet2StudentBemittedatotalof15tactsand10mandsinasinglesession.AfterthemasteryofSet3,Stu‐dentBemitted21tactsand10mandsinasinglesession.Followingthemastery of Set 4, StudentB emitted a total of 24 tacts and 12mandsacrossallthreeprobes.
StudentAemittedatotalof30tactsand25mandsacrossallthreeprobes.StudentBemittedatotalof8tacts,respectively3inthefirst,3inthesecondand2inthethird,and7mandsacross3‐probessessionsrespectively2inthefirst,2inthesecond,and3inthethird.FollowingmasteryofSet1,StudentBemittedatotalof10tactsand8
StudentCemittednotactandnomandacross3‐probessessions.FollowingmasteryofSet1, StudentCemitteda totalof2 tactsand3mandsinasinglesession.FollowingthemasteryofSet2StudentCemit‐tedatotalof7tactsand4mandsinasinglesession.AfterthemasteryofSet3,StudentCemitted9tactsand7mandsinasinglesession.FollowingthemasteryofSet4,StudentCemittedatotalof12tactsand8mandsacrossallthreeprobes.
This procedure did demonstrate a functional relationship be‐tween IntensiveTact Instructionand the frequencyofPureTactsandPure Mands emitted by the students in the non‐instructional setting.ThesefindingsaconsistentwiththeresultsofPistoljevic&Greer(2006)andPereira‐Delgado&Oblak(2007)inthattheIntensiveTactInstruc‐tionfacilitatedtheacquisitionofmandsandtacts.Inseveraloccasionthetactsemittedbythestudentsduringpostprobeswasdifferentfromthetactlearnedduringthetraining,thatcansupportthethesisofTsiouri&Greer(2003)andPistoljevic&Greer(2006)thatIntensiveTactInstruc‐tionenhancedtheacquisitionofreinforcementforsocialattention.
Futurestudiesmaytargetthelong‐termeffectsthattheintensivetactprotocolhasonstudentswithandwithoutthistypeoftraining.Fur‐therresearchisnecessarytotestotherpositiveeffectsthattheintensivetactprotocolmayhaveotherverbaloperantswithotherpopulationsoflearners.
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Figure1.StudentA,B,andC’sfrequencyoftactsandmandsemittedacrossallnon‐instructionalsettings,blockedinto15‐minutesession.
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Conclusion
Our data suggest that increasing the number of pure tacts andmandschildrenaretaughtcouldleadtoagreaternumberofverbalBe‐haviorandinteractionwithothers.Bylearningtoemitmoretactsandmands, young children whit autism can recruit more attention fromadultsandpeersintheirenvironment,therebycreatingmoreopportu‐nitiesforverbalexchanges.
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STUDIAUBBPSYCHOL.‐PAED.,LXIII,1,2018,p.103‐113(RecommendedCitation)DOI:10.24193/subbpsyped.2018.1.06
ACTIVELEARNING‐THECONDITIONOFOBTAININGQUANTIFIABLESCHOOLRESULTS
INNATIONALEVALUATIONTESTS
IOANA‐MARIACÂMPEAN1*,OLGACHIȘ2
ABSTRACT.Ourresearchanalysesindetailsignificantaspectsthatarespecifictoactivelearningwiththepurposeofoptimizingschoolperfor‐manceinprimaryschool.Inthisrespect,thescientificapproachfollowsthecurrentmethodologicaldirectionsthemainfocusofthespecialist’sbeingtheinterestinactivationandparticipatorystrategies.Theworkdepicts learning aspects in the following subjects: Romanian,Mathe‐matics and Science, following a heuristic approach, a discovery‐ andproblem‐basedlearning,inteachingandintheacquiringofthespecificcontent.ThemainfocuswastoobservetowhatdegreetheuseoftheseteachingstrategiescanleadtoobtainingsuperiorschoolresultsthatarequantifiableinNationalTesting.
Keywords:activelearning,discovery‐basedlearning,heuristicapproach,problem‐basedlearning,NationalTests.
ZUSAMMENFASSUNG.AktivesLernen‐VoraussetzungfürdasErhaltenQuantifizierbarerSchulergebnisseinnationalenEvaluationstests.Das aktive Lernen stellt eine Herausforderung und einen Aufruf zurSelbsreflexionaufseitenderInteressiertendar,dieAnteilandieInno‐vationundEffizientisierungdesdidaktischenVorgehensnehmen.DasSyntagmaaktiveBelehrungwurdesichdurchdieStärkungderpositiven
1"NicolaeBălcescu"Highschool,Cluj‐Napoca,Romania.*Correspondingauthor.Email:[email protected],FacultyofPsychologyandEducationalSciences,Babeș‐BolyaiUniversity,Cluj‐Napoca,Romania.
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RollevondersozialenDimensionimFallevomLernenverschrieben.InderTheorieundPraxisderheutigenDidaktikkenntdasProblemderaktivenBelehrungneue,komplexe,interdisziplinärewissenschaftlicheAnsätze,dievonArgumentenunterstütztwerden,dieeineaktiveundnachdenklicheTeilnahmevondemSchüler anLern‐undBewertung‐sverfahrenserfordern.Schlüsselwörter:aktivesLernen,entdeckendesLernen,dasheuristischeVerfahren,problemorientiertesLernen,NationalePrüfungen.1.IntroductionIn the theory and practice of the contemporary Didactics, the
problemofactive teaching followsnew,complexand interdisciplinaryscientificapproachesthatrequireanactiveandreflectiveparticipationofthepupilinthelearningandevaluationprocess.Fromthisperspectivethepupilsbecomeactiveparticipantsintheirowntraining,exceeding,throughtheirpersonaleffortthelevelofempirical,partial, incompleteknowledgethatislimitativeandsometimesevenwrong,succeedinginbuildingandmodellingtheirownpersonalityinafavourabledirectionandinapositiveway(M.Bocoș,2013).Theroleoftheteacheristomakethepupilsresponsible,tohelpthemintheirdevelopment,helpthemde‐veloptheirpersonalityandtrusttheirownstrengths.Educatorsadapttheireducationalspeechonthebasisofcultivatinganewunderstandingintheirpupils,onethatisbasedontheirownlifeexperiencesthatpushesthemtotakeanactivepartinthesuggestedactivities,withthepurposeofreachingthestatededucationalobjectives.
Cognitiveandconstructivetheoriesareconsideredfundamentalintheprocessofactivelearning.Thetrainingprocessisverywellcarriedoutwhenthelearningexperiencesstartfromthepupils’basicneedsandexpectations.Aslongasthepupilsgetthechancetoreflectupontheir
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ownexperiences,theydiscoverthatideasdevelopfurtherintermsofin‐fluenceandcomplexityandtheylearntoacquiresuperiorabilitieswiththepurposeof integratingnewpiecesof information.Oneof themostimportantrolesofateacheristoencouragethislearningandself‐reflec‐tionprocess.
ThecontemporarydirectionoftheRomanianschoolisguidedbysomelandmarkssuchas:"decentralization/autonomy,accessibility,cre‐ativity,flexibility,qualityandperformance"(V.Chiș,2005).Themodernschoolimperativelyrequiresthedevelopmentofactiveandefficiented‐ucationalstructuresthatcouldberenderedpermanent,offeringthein‐dividualthenecessarysupportinlearningthroughouttheirentirelife.
Theeducationlawinforceclearlysetsuptheeducationalfinality:"shapingcompetence,viewedasafunctionalandtransferableensembleofknowledge,skills/abilitiesandaptitudes",allbeingnecessaryinone’sonedevelopmentandfulfilment,intheabilitytointegrateinthesociety,to develop interpersonal communication skills, to form conceptionsabouttheworldandlifebasedonhumanisticandscientificknowledgeandonthenationalaswellastheuniversalculture.
Thecurricularreformbeguninthe90’s,proposesarethinkingoftheeducationalplans,oftheschoolprogrammersandcoursebooks,in‐citesthereorganizationofthenationalcurriculumfromaEuropeanper‐spectiveandtheintegrationoflearningexperiencesintocomplexcogni‐tivestructures(M.Bocoș,D.Jucan,2008).Startingfromthispremise,theprocessnaturallyledtothenecessityofcontentcorrelationasaresultofthe intersectionofdifferentdisciplinaryareas.Asaresult theprimaryschoolcurriculumsetsasagoalthephysical,socio‐emotionalandcogni‐tivedevelopmentoflanguageandcommunication,aswellasthedevel‐opmentoflearningcapacitiesandattitudes,providingbridgesforthede‐velopmentoftheeightkeycompetencies.Startingwith1998,withinthespaceofthenewcurriculathetermof"integratedteaching”isimposed.Learningandteachingareviewedinaholisticapproach,havingaspur‐posethereflectionofrealityandmoreprecisely,aninteractivereality.
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Integratedteachingdoesn’thaveasareferencejustasinglesub‐jectofstudy,butahomogenousthemethatiscommontoseveraldisci‐plines.Thesuccessofsuchanactivitydependsonthestructuringdegreeoftheprojectedcontent,alwaysfollowingthedesiredfinalities,aswellasontheresultofcombiningthenaturalprocessoftransmittingandac‐quiringinformationwiththerigorousmentalstructuresofthelearningprocess.Integratedteachingtargetstheactivationthatleadstothepu‐pils’articulationof"thereflective,logical,critical,imaginative,evaluativeandcreativethinkingprocesses"(M.Bocoș,2013).
2.GeneralResearchCoordinatesTheaimofthepresentpedagogicalexperimentistostudythead‐
vantagesandthelimitsoftheheuristicapproach,ofthediscovery‐andproblem‐basedlearninginachievinghighquantifiableschoolresultsinNationalTesting,inprimaryschools.
Thegeneralobjectivesoftheresearchare:
1. AchievinghighquantifiableschoolresultsinNationalTesting:2. OptimizationofthelearningprocessinRomanianlanguageand
MathematicsandSciencesubjects;3. Increase the pupils’ active and conscious involvement in the
processofacquiringnewknowledge;
Inordertobeabletopostulatetheresearchhypothesis,ourstart‐ingpointwasthefollowingresearchedquestion:
Whicharethecoordinatesoftheheuristicapproach,ofthediscov‐ery‐andproblem‐basedlearninginachievingquantifiableschoolresultsinNationalTesting,inprimaryschools?
Lookingforanswerstothesequestions,theresearchhypothesiswasidentified:
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Achieving active learning bypromoting the heuristic approach,discovery‐andproblem‐basedlearningwhenstudyingforthesubjectsofRomanian,MathematicsandScienceinthe3rdand4thgrade,con‐tributes toasignificant improvementofquantifiableschool results inNationalTesting.
Thus,theresearchvariablescanbeidentifiedasfollows: Theindependentvalue:‐thevalorisationofactivelearningby
promotingtheheuristicapproach,discovery‐andproblem‐basedlearn‐ingwhenstudyingforthesubjectsofRomanian,MathematicsandSci‐enceinthe3rdand4thgrade.
The dependent variable: ‐ the quality of the quantifiableschoolresultsinNationalTesting.
Theresearchtookplaceoveraperiodof2schoolyears,onanex‐perimentalgroupof90pupils,partof"NicolaeBălcescu"Highschool,inCluj‐Napoca,andonacontrolgroupthatincluded132attendingthefol‐lowingschoolsfromCluj‐Napoca:"AvramIancu"TheoreticalHighschool,"EmilRacoviţă"TheoreticalHighschool, "Gheorghe Şincai"TheoreticalHighschooland"IoanBob"SecondarySchool.
Theselectionofthecontrolgroupwascarriedoutstartingfromthepotentialoftheseindicestovalorisetheinteractiveconnectionsofthedidacticalmethodsandstrategies(primarilytheheuristicapproach,thediscovery‐andproblem‐basedlearning).Theresearchmethodsap‐pliedintheinvestigation,aswellastheinstrumentsthathavebeenused,arepresentedinthetableno.1.
Table1.Researchmethodsandinstrumentsused
ResearchMethod ResearchinstrumentDidacticalexperiment DidacticalactivitiesThemethodofsystematicobservation Observationsheet
PsychpedagogicalcharacterizationsheetTheQuizMethod Myowndrawn‐upquizThe method of analysing the activity re‐sults
Theresultsofthepupils’activities
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Thestatisticalanalysisofdata MicrosoftOfficeExcelIBMSPSSSoftware
Themethodofcurricularandlegislationre‐search
Legaldocumentscurrentlyinforce
Themethodoftestingandwrittentry‐outsStandardizedtestsMyowndrawn‐upquiz
Methodsofmeasuringresearchdata DiagramsTStudentTesting
Themethodoforganizing,presentingandresearchdataprocessing
TablesDiagrams
The method of verifying the statistical hy‐pothesis
IBMSPSSSoftware
Thepedagogicalexperimentwentthrough4differentstages:
thepreparationstage‐inwhichthespecificconditionsofthecarryingoutoftheexperimentarebeingestablishedandthestrategyap‐pliedintheexperimentisbeingindicated.Thisstagehascoincidedwiththe running, evaluation and interpretation of the testswithin theNa‐tionalTestinginMay2015.
theformativestageoftheexperiment‐whichconsistsoftheactualcarryingoutoftheexperiment,thisbeingastagethattakesplaceoveralongerperiodoftime,becausetheissuingofresultsdoesn’trep‐resentanimmediateconsequence.Thepedagogicalresearchwascarriedoutthroughoutaperiodoftwoschoolyears:2015‐2016and2016‐2017.
A relevant group of activitiesweremade through applying theheuristic strategies in the study of Romanian language and literature,mathematicsandsciences,inthethirdandfourthexperimentalclasses
Forexample,inRomanianlanguageandliterature,activitieswerecarriedoutonthematicareassuchastheliterarytext;thelyrics;thebook‐thereadingjournal;theword‐themeaningofthewords;theoralandwritten narrative of fragments; composition based on given words;quotes;suspensionpoints,etc.
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thepost‐teststage‐whichconsistsinregisteringandmeas‐uringtheresultsoftheexperiment.Inthisstagethecontrolgrouppupils,aswellastheonesintheexperimentalgroup,weresubjectedtothefinalexamination.
the retesting or remote verification stage is carried outwithinacertaintimeframe.Inourcasethisstagetookplaceafteronemonthandthedurabilityoftheknowledgeacquiredbyourpupilscon‐firmed,onceagain,theresearchhypothesis.
Thecarryingoutoftheformativeexperimentcompressesthedidactical activities that have taken place in the experimental classes.Theteachingand learningactivitieshavebeen influencedbythe inde‐pendentvariableproposed,whichrepresentedthewholeformativeped‐agogicalassessment.
Thedynamicof the schoolperformance throughout the assess‐menttargetedthepupils’evolution,schoolperformancebeingquantifiedbasedonthecontinuousformativeevaluation.
Thecomparativeanalysis, throughouttheassessment,hasbeencarriedoutbycomparingtheexperimentalandthecontrolgroup,byus‐ingthecriteriaofclassaverage,averticalanalysisbeingdrawn.Atthesametimeahorizontalanalysishasbeenachievedbycomparingschoolperformancetendencieswithintheexperimentalgroup.
Thepost‐teststagecoincidedwiththerunning,evaluationandinterpretationofthetestswithintheNationalTestinginMay2017.Theanalysisofthepost‐teststageanditscomparisonwiththeotherresultsarerelevant for theevolutionof theexperimentalandcontrolgroups.This comparative analysis allowsus to establish the significantdiffer‐encesbetweentheresultsachievedbythetwogroupsandtheirrelationtotheefficiencyofthemethodsusedintheformativeperiod,thereforeconfirmingourhypothesis.
Thereteststageregisteredadifferenceof1.25pointsinfavouroftheresultsachievedbytheexperimentalgroupinRomanian(Fig.1)and0.38pointsinMathematics(Fig.2).
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Fig.1.TheevolutionofschoolperformanceinRomanian(testscores)
Fig.2.TheevolutionofschoolperformanceinMathematics(testscores)
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3.Conclusions
The quantitative and qualitative comparative analysis of theachieved results of the experimental and control group, allows us todrawthefollowingconclusions:
1. Inthepost‐testandreteststagetheaverageoftheexperimentalgroupsissignificantlyhigherincomparisonwiththecontrolgroup.
2. Theperformanceofthepupilsintheexperimentalgroupissu‐periortotheresultsachievedbythepupilsinthecontrolgroup,duetothe heuristic approach, the discovery‐ and problem‐based learning inteachingRomanian,MathematicsandScience.
3. Theresultsachievedbytheexperimentalgroupduringretest‐ing,provethelong‐lastingacquisitionsachievedthroughactivelearning.
4. Teaching the content from the perspective of active learninggivepupils thechancetobecomekeyplayers in theirownintellectualdevelopment,whiletakinguponthemselvesrolesandresponsibilities.
Theformativeexperimentrepresentsthecentralpartofpedagog‐ical research, a stage addressing the experimental intervention, in ac‐cordance with the intervention project. The experiment’s data pro‐cessingandinterpretation,basedontheelaboratedhypothesis,allowustodrawthefollowingconclusions:
1. Systematic use of the heuristic approach, of the discovery‐basedlearningandproblem‐solvinglearning,significantlyinfluencetheformationanddevelopmentofthecompetenciesthatarespecifictotheRomaniansubject,namelytheabilitytoreceiveanoralmessage,theabil‐ity to express oneself orally, the ability to receive a writtenmessage(reading/perusing),theabilitytoexpressoneselfinwriting.
2. Systematic use of the heuristic approach, of the discovery‐basedlearningandproblem‐solvinglearning,significantlyinfluencetheformation and development of the competencies that are specific toMathematics,namelyknowingandusingtheconceptsthatarespecificto
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Mathematicsandthatareapplicabletoevery‐daylifeandthedevelop‐mentofexploration/investigationcapacitiesaswellasproblem‐solvingabilities.
3. Systematic use of the heuristic approach, of the discovery‐basedlearningandproblem‐solvinglearning,significantlyinfluencetheformationanddevelopmentofthecompetenciesthatarespecifictoSci‐ence,namelyunderstandingandusing,whencommunicating,termsandconceptsthatarespecifictoNaturalSciences,developingexperimentingandexploration/investigationcapacitiesandabilities,whileusingspe‐cificinstruments.
4. Systematic use of the heuristic approach, of the discovery‐basedlearningandproblem‐solvinglearning,significantlyinfluencetheefficiencyofthedidacticalactivities’management.
Theresearchthathasbeencarriedoutproved,throughitsregis‐teredresults,thattheheuristicapproach,thediscovery‐basedlearningandproblem‐solving learning, presented in the teaching‐learningpro‐cess,significantlyimprovethequantifiableresultsofpupilsinNationalTesting.Atthesametimeithasbeenshownthatthebenefitsofsuchanapproachhavenotbeen reduced to the cognitive level,buthavebeensensedintermsofmotivationandemotion,behaviourandattitude.Thesuccessofdidacticalactivitieshasbeenmeasuredthroughtheimplica‐tionofthepupilsintheproposedtasksandthroughthedurabilityoftheacquiredknowledge.Thedynamicsoftheclassesledtothesettingofalivelyatmosphereandamotivatingenvironment, thus contributing tothecreationofanefficientlearningstyle,thepupilsdevelopingtheirownactivestyleofintellectualwork.
Thegeneralconclusionsofthisactiveandintegratedteachingandlearningresearchprovewithoutadoubtthattheheuristicapproach,dis‐covery‐andproblem‐basedlearningcontributesignificantlytotheim‐provementofschoolperformance,whilebringingaplusintermsofthemotivational‐affectiveandthebehavioural‐attitudecomponent.
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