Public Management

Leaderships and Entrepreneurship Wednesday, April 19, 2023

Hun Myoung Park, Ph.D.

Public Management & Policy Analysis ProgramGraduate School of International Relations

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Leaderships 1

• Capacity of someone to direct and energize people to achieve goals.

• Bass (1997:17) states – Focus of group processes, as a matter of personality, – Matter of inducing compliance, as the exercise of

influence, – Particular behaviors, as a form of persuasion, – Power relation, as an instrument to achieve goals, – Effect of interaction, as a differentiated role, – Initiation of structure, – Many combinations of these definitions

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Leaderships 2

• Leadership styles vary among individuals, countries, and cultures

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Functions of General Management

• Allison (1983)– Strategy: establishing objectives and priorities;

devising operational plans – Managing internal components: organizing and

staffing; directing personnel and the personnel management system; controlling performance

– Managing external constituencies: dealing with external units subject to some common authority; with independent organizations; with the press and the public

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Executive Roles

• Mintzberg (1972)

Interpersonal Informational Decisional

Figurehead

Leader

Liaison

Monitor

Disseminator

Spokesperson

Entrepreneur

Disturbance handler

Resource allocator

Negotiator

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Management Skill Topics

• Whetton and Cameron (2002)– Self awareness– Managing personal stress– Creative problem solving– Managing conflicts– Improving employee performance, motivating others – Effective delegation and joint decision making– Gaining power and influence– Establishing supportive communication– Improving group decision making

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Benchmarks Scales

• McCauley, Lombardo, and Usher (1989)– Resourcefulness; doing whatever it takes; being a

quick study– Building and mending relationships; leading

subordinates; compassion and sensitivity– Straightforwardness and composure; setting a

developmental climate; confronting problem subordinates team orientation; balance between personal life and work

– Decisiveness; self-awareness; hiring talented staff; putting people at easy; acting with flexibility

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Types of Leadership 1

• Burns (1978) • Transactional Leaders

– Motivate followers by recognizing their needs and providing rewards in exchange for their performance and support.

• Transformational Leaders– Rely on power but not in a controlling centralized way. – Raise followers goals to a higher plane, to a focus on

transcendental, higher-level goals (self-actualization) – Have talent for coupling visions of success to

empowerment and motivation

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Types of Leadership 2

• Bass (1995, 1998) • Transformational behaviors

– Idealized influence– Intellectual stimulation– Individual consideration– Inspirational motivation

• Transactional behaviors– Contingent rewards – Management by expectation – Active management by exception

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Types of Leadership 3

• Bennis and Nanus (1985)– “Leading” (guiding directions, actions or

opinions to “do the right thing”) – “Managing” (accomplishing things efficiently

or “doing things right”)

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Charismatic Leadership 1

• Extension of work on transformational leadership

• Charisma is treated as a matter of the characteristics that followers attribute to their leaders.

• Two strains– The attribution theory of charismatic

leadership– The self-concept theory of charismatic

leadership

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Charismatic Leadership 2

• In attribution theory, leaders who:– Advocate a vision that is highly discrepant

from status quo– Act in unconventional ways– Demonstrate self-sacrifices– Have confidence– Use persuasive appeals rather than authority

or participative decision process– Use capacity to access context and locate

opportunities

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Charismatic Leadership 3

• Self-Concept theory emphasizes observable characteristics of leaders and followers

– Personal identification– Social identification and self-esteem– Internalization of leader’s beliefs

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Sources of Power

• Legitimate: procedural legitimacy • Reword: tangible and intangible rewards• Coercive: punishment and sanction• Expert: knowledge, skills, expertise• Referent power: subordinates’ respect,

admiration, and loyalty

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Leadership Theories & Studies

• Trait theories• Ohio State leadership studies• The Blake and Moulton managerial grid• Fiedler’s theory of leadership• The Path-Goal theory of leadership• Vroom-Yetton normative model• Life Cycle theory• Attribuition models• Leader-Member Exchange theory• Operant Conditioning and Social Learning models• Cognitive Resource Utilization Theory

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Trait Models of Leadership

• Certain personality leadership traits constituting their leadership capacity.

• Intelligence; knowledge and expertise; dominance; self-confidence; high energy; tolerance for stress; integrity and honesty; maturity

• Attempts to isolate specific traits led to the conclusion that no single characteristic distinguishes leaders from non-leaders.

• What is the best? Does that always work?

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OSU Behavior Theory

• Developed questionnaires asking people to report on the behaviors of their supervisors

• Findings indicated leaders fell into 2 categories– Consideration: leaders’ concern for the relationships

with their subordinates– Initiating structure: leaders’ emphasis on setting

standards, assigning roles, and pressing for productivity and performance

• Criticisms– Measures questioned– Are 2 dimensions really enough for full picture?

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Managerial Grid

• Blake and Mouton (1984)

• Concern for people and production– Authority-obedience management– Country club management – Impoverished management – Team management

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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

• Relationship between leader style, organizational setting and effectiveness

• Two types of leaders – High LPC: relationship-oriented – Low LPC: task-oriented

• Three contingencies (situations)– Leader-member relations– Task structure– Position power of the leader

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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

• High LPC leaders are relationship oriented. – Gave favorable ratings to LPC.– High LPC leaders perform best when the

contingencies are mixed in regard to favorability, that is, when conditions are relatively ordered.

– The emphasis on relationships helps to mitigate the negative effect of unfavorable contingencies.

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Fiedler’s Contingency Theory

• Low LPC are task-oriented– Rated more unfavorably– Low LPC leaders perform best when the three

contingencies are unfavorable (disorder) or all three are favorable (order).

– In short, task-oriented leadership is preferred in very favorable or least favorable situation

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House’s Path-Goal Theory

• Based on the expectancy theory of motivation and emphasizes the three motivational variables– Valences– Instrumentalities– Expectancies

• Leader’s primary purpose is to motivate followers by clarifying goals and identifying the best paths to achieve those goals.

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House’s Path-Goal Theory

• Leader is to manipulate these 3 motivational variables in desirable ways considering a variety of leadership styles, characteristics of subordinates, and situational factors

• Leadership (behavioral) styles: – Directive, – Supportive, – Participative, and– Achievement-oriented

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Leader-Member Exchange Theory

• Leader-member exchange theory maintains that the leader and each individual member of a work group have a unique "dyadic" relationship.

• Each dyad is seen as a social exchange or negotiated transaction of leader-member.

• The basic assumption is that leaders develop a separate exchange relationship with each individual subordinate.

• Exchange relationships can take two different forms.– High-exchange relationship – Low-exchange relationship

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Communication of Culture

• Symbols: Physical objects, settings, and certain roles within an organization convey information about its values and basic assumptions.

• Language: Slang, songs, slogans, and jargons can all carry the messages of a culture.

• Narratives: The people in an organization often repeat stories, legends, sagas, and myths that convey information about the organization’s history and practices.

• Practices and Events: Repeated practices and special events can transmit important assumptions and values. They may include rites and ceremonies

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Contingencies and Variations

• Many variations in context and in the individual officials surveyed account for the different views about managerial roles of public managers. – The level of the manger and the institutional context

varies. – Public mangers must balance managerial tasks with

policymaking and with handling the political and institutional environment (oversight agencies, legislative and other executive authorities, clients and constituents, and the media).

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Lessons from Leaderships

• No single leadership works in all circumstances and contexts.

• Leadership is to be built, not fixed or given. • Zone of acceptance (cooperation) & rationality• Need to be exposed to many leadership cases, for

example, from history in the East and West• Learn different styles and leadership skills;

examine circumstances (subordinate, task, culture, etc.); and choose the most likely style

• “Chameleon leaderships”