RAPPORT FRA HAVFORSKNINGEN - Kystverket - Forside€¦ · PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ......

Experiences from oil spills at the Norwegian coast

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www.imr.no

S. Boitsov, J. Klungsøyr og H. Dolva

A summary of environmental effects

2

ISSN 0071 - 5638

PROJECT REPORT

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Report: Report from IMR (Rapport fra Havforskningen)

Nr. - År 23-2012

Title:

Experiences from oil spills at the Norwegian coast. A summary of environmental effects.

Author(s): S. Boitsov (Institute of Marine Research) J. Klungsøyr (Institute of Marine Research) H. Dolva (Norwegian Coastal Administration)

Summary (English):

Environmental studies were carried out after each of the four largest oil spills from vessels in Norwegian coastal waters: ”Rocknes” in 2004, ”Server” in 2007, ”Full City” in 2009 and ”Godafoss” in 2011. The amount of spilled oil per incident was between 100 and 500 tonnes. The impact of the spills on the environment depended on the affected natural resources, the type and amount of oil spilled, the time of the year and the weather conditions during the incident. The four oil spills consisted mainly of heavy oil, which mixed relatively poorly with the water masses. All the spills occurred close to the coast and led to pollution of the shoreline. Assessments of the consequences for the environment in the littoral zone, seabirds, seafood, sediments and other parameters were carried out. The most detailed studies were carried out after the “Full City” oil spill which contaminated 75 km of the coastline. The report discusses the experience from the incidents and gives some recommendations for how environmental studies should be performed when acute oil spills along the Norwegian coast take place in future. Sammendrag (norsk):

Miljøundersøkelser har blitt gjennomført etter de fire største oljeutslipp fra fartøy i norske kystfarvann: ”Rocknes” i 2004, ”Server” i 2007, ”Full City” i 2009 og ”Godafoss” i 2011. Mengde olje sluppet ut i disse hendelsene har vært 100–500 tonn. Miljøkonsekvenser av utslippene er særlig avhengig av berørte naturressurser, oljetype, oljemengde, årstid og værforhold. Oljeutslippene har hovedsakelig bestått av tungolje som har blandet seg relativt lite i vannmassene. Alle utslippene har skjedd kystnært og ført til stranding av olje. Undersøkelser av konsekvenser for miljøet i strandsonen, sjøfugl, sjømat, sediment og flere andre parametre ble gjennomført. De mest omfattende studiene ble utført etter ”Full City”-forliset som forurenset 75 km strandlinje. Rapporten diskuterer erfaringene fra hendelsene og gir anbefalinger for hvordan miljøundersøkelser i fremtiden bør gjennomføres etter akutte oljeutslipp ved norskekysten.

Distribution: Open

IMR project nr.: 10018-06

Commissioner: Norwegian Coastal Administration

Commissioner reference: Norwegian Coastal Administration contract

Dato: 22.03.2013

IMR Program: Oil-Fish

IMR Research Group: 429 Marine Environment Quality

Total number of pages: 36

Keywords (English): 1. Oil spills 2. Environmental monitoring and impact assessment 3. The Norwegian coast

Emneord (norsk): 1. Oljeutslipp 2. Miljøundersøkelser og konsekvensevurdering 3. Norskekysten

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Contents

1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 5

2 “Rocknes” ....................................................................................................................... 6

2.1 Description of the incident.................................................................................. 6

2.2 Environmental studies ........................................................................................ 7

2.3 Summary of the impact of the “Rocknes” shipwreck ....................................... 10

3 “Server” ........................................................................................................................ 10

3.1 Description of the incident................................................................................ 10

3.2 Environmental studies ...................................................................................... 12

3.3 Summary of the impact of the grounding of the “Server” ...................................... 14

4 “Full City” .................................................................................................................... 15



4.3 Impact on outdoor recreation activities ............................................................ 24

4.4 Tourism ............................................................................................................. 25

4.5 Summary of the impact of the grounding of the “Full City” ............................ 26

5 The “Godafoss” ............................................................................................................ 27



5.3 Summary of the extent of the damage caused by the “Godafoss” accident ........... 29

6 Summary of past experience of oil spills caused by shipwrecks .................................. 29

6.1 General information about the studies performed ............................................ 29

6.2 The properties and drift of the oil ..................................................................... 30

6.3 Seafood ............................................................................................................. 30

6.4 The coastal and sublittoral zones ...................................................................... 31

6.5 Flora on land ..................................................................................................... 32

6.6 Seabirds............................................................................................................. 32

6.7 Sediments .......................................................................................................... 33

6.8 General conclusions .......................................................................................... 33

7 Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 35

7.1 Rocknes............................................................................................................. 35

7.2 Server ................................................................................................................ 35

7.3 Full City ............................................................................................................ 36

7.4 Godafoss ........................................................................................................... 36

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Abbreviations used in the report

Abbreviation Explanation

GC/MS Gas chromatography linked to mass spectroscopy

IMR The Institute of Marine Research

IFO Intermediate fuel oil

IRIS International Research Institute of Stavanger

Klif Climate and Pollution Agency

MS Motor Ship

NIFES National Institute of Nutrition and Seafood Research

NINA Norwegian Institute for Nature Research

NIVA Norwegian Institute for Water Research

NNI Norsk Naturinformasjon

NPD Naphthalene, phenanthrene and dibenzothiophene, and their C1-C3 alkyl homologues

PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

PAH16 Total levels of 16 representative PAH compounds

PNEC Predicted no-effect concentration

RF Rogaland Research Institute

ROV Remotely operated vehicle

SWAN Sea and Wildlife Alert Norway

THC Total hydrocarbon contents

UNIFOB Bergen University Research

ww Wet weight

5

1 Introduction

This report contains a brief description of the environmental monitoring carried out after the

four largest oil spills from vessels in Norwegian waters over the past ten years: the “Rocknes”

in 2004, the “Server” in 2007, the “Full City” in 2009 and the “Godafoss” in 2011. All four

accidents were the subject of government responses led by the Norwegian Coastal

Administration. This report was produced by the Institute of Marine Research commissioned

by, and in collaboration with, the Norwegian Coastal Administration, in accordance with the

wishes of the directors of both agencies.

The Norwegian Coastal Administration is responsible for initiating and implementing all post-

spill environmental monitoring undertaken as part of the government response. Under the

Pollution Control Act, after any incident causing significant pollution, the impact shall be

mapped and documented. The entity that caused the accident is financially liable for the

environmental impact studies, and often there is a court case several years after the incident to

determine the final financial settlement. The environmental studies carried out must be

directly linked to the incident. Briefs for environmental studies are based on the

recommendations of the “Advisory group on the prioritisation of responses and on the

assessment of damage to the natural environmental and natural resources in conjunction with

acute pollution events in marine environments”. The group is made up of relevant authorities

and research institutions. The Institute of Marine Research is the lead partner, and in the most

recent responses it has coordinated the activities of all of the institutions that have participated

in the environmental studies.

Each incident is unique in terms of the sequence of events, volume spilled, type of oil, season,

weather conditions, wave strength, geographical conditions and natural resources affected.

The impact on the environment therefore also varies. The institutes and organisations

involved in studying the environmental impacts of the individual incidents vary, the different

parts of the environment are studied to varying degrees and sometimes different

methodologies are used. Since this makes it difficult to make a general comparison of the

individual incidents, the four incidents have been described one by one. At the end there is a

summary containing some recommendations on what environmental monitoring should be

performed in the event of future oil spills from accidents.

6

2 “Rocknes”

2.1 Description of the incident

On 19 January 2004, the MS “Rocknes” sank at Vatlestraumen, Fjell Municipality in the

county of Hordaland. It was soon clear that a tragedy had occurred, with 18 of the 28 crew

members losing their lives. The ship had grounded just off Revskolten light, and it went down

in less than a minute.

During the first phase of the response, priority was given to rescuing the crew (an operation

led by the police and the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre), and it took a while before the oil

spill from the wreck was reported. With hindsight, it seems likely that a large proportion of

the oil that entered the sea leaked out during the first hours after the ship sank. In total the

ship was carrying 570 tonnes of different grades of oil, including 426 tonnes of IFO 380

(heavy bunker fuel) and 58 tonnes of gas oil (marine diesel). A large proportion of this oil

leaked out into the sea.

The cleanup operation started when the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre had concluded its

rescue mission. Seven oil boom systems towed by ships were used to prevent any further

spread of the oil and to remove oil from the sea. Nevertheless, it was impossible to prevent

some of the oil from reaching the shoreline. Additional booms were therefore used to direct

the oil into bays and inlets that had already been contaminated by the oil. Once the “Rocknes”

had been righted, and no longer represented a risk of further pollution, it was possible to

discontinue the containment activities around the vessel. The coastal cleanup operation, which

started on 19 January, was implemented in several phases, and covered 45 km of coastline,

split between 181 separate locations. Various types of shorelines were contaminated by the

oil spill. The main cleanup operation was concluded on 11 June 2004, although local

authorities continued to perform minor remedial activities over the summer. The oil removed

from the sea, the water-in-oil emulsion and the oil-contaminated waste contained a total of

226 tonnes of oil. The “Rocknes” was towed to Poland, and the amount of oil remaining in the

vessel was not calculated, so the total volume of the oil spill is unknown.

Figure 2.1. The

"Rocknes”. Source:

Norwegian Coastal

Administration.

7

2.2 Environmental studies

2.2.1 SINTEF and Rogaland Research Institute studies of pollution of the marine environment

Oil degradation study

The degradation of the oil was monitored at five stations in the area around the “Rocknes”,

two of which were not covered by the cleanup operation, while three were. The three field

surveys carried out – the final one in August 2004 – found that the oil gradually degraded

over time. For each survey, samples were taken for chemical analysis, and the results showed

a systematic decline in the quantities of the lighter oil components. When the final samples

were taken in August, it was mainly the most persistent oil components that remained.

Water column study

Just after the accident, wild mussel samples were taken at four different locations, and further

samples were taken at the same locations seven months later. Three of the locations were

polluted by oil from the “Rocknes”, while the fourth location was a reference location

unaffected by the oil. The samples were analysed by GC/MS for their oil component content:

naphthalene, phenanthrene, dibenzothiophene including their C1-C3 alkyl homologues

(NPDs); and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs – reported as the sum of 16 representative

compounds, PAH16). The NPD and PAH16 content in the mussels collected at the oil-

contaminated locations shortly after the accident was relatively low. Readings after seven

months revealed a further decline in NPD and PAH16 content.

Figure 2.2. Situation on

23 January 2004: Extent

of oil pollution during

the oil spill cleanup

operation.

Map: Norwegian

Coastal Administration.

8

Biomarker responses were observed in the form of damage to the lysosomal membrane and to

DNA strands. Lysosomal membrane destabilisation is a general health parameter that can

indicate PAH/oil exposure, as can DNA damage (strand breaks) detected by “comet” assay.

These are considered two forms of subcellular damage. After seven months there was a

significant reduction in the biomarker responses, but the mussels at all of the locations still

showed slight signs of them. Since this was also observed in mussels from the reference

location, it is possible that the pollution in the areas studied came from various different

sources.

In addition, salmon smolts from a contaminated farm on the island of Sotra were inspected.

All of the first set of samples had elevated levels of PAH metabolites in their bile, which is a

sign of pollution. PAH components are excreted relatively efficiently via the fish’s bile. When

the second set of samples was taken seven months after the accident, the level of PAH

metabolites had fallen, but it was still above normal background levels. Possibly this was due

to the oil from the “Rocknes”, but it might also have been caused by pollution from other

sources in the area. The potential impact of the oil spill on wild fish was not investigated. The

overall conclusion was that the ecosystem in the area was on the way to recovery, perhaps

with the exception of a few locations.

Coastal zone

Rogaland Research Institute (RF), now IRIS, surveyed the coastal algae and fauna at five

stations in March, April and August 2004. In March, although significant quantities of oil

were found, the distribution of algae and fauna appeared to be unaffected. By the time of the

subsequent surveys, most of the oil pollution was gone from the stations, apart from small

patches of oil in a few places. No significant impacts on the fauna or algae were observed as a

result of the cleanup operation. The analyses carried out were semi-quantitative and limited in

their scope.

2.2.2 Seabird surveys

Impact on seabirds

Given the season, sequence of events and prevalent currents, which together meant that there

was a risk of the oil spreading rapidly, it was thought that a large number of seabirds might

suffer. The County Governor of Hordaland was informed of what had happened shortly after

the incident took place. Since it is essential to start work quickly if you want a realistic

estimate of the magnitude of the impact, by the day after the accident, the County Governor

already had people out in the field studying the situation.

Between 2,000 and 3,000 seabirds were estimated to have died as a result of the oil pollution

from the “Rocknes” in Hjeltefjorden. Nineteen different species were affected, with the

Common Eider, European Herring Gull and Great Cormorant, which are the most common

seabird species along this part of the coast at that time of year, being worst hit. Although this

was a serious incident, the conclusion of the experts was that it was unlikely to have a long-

term impact on the seabird populations in the area. However, the oil pollution was an

9

additional negative factor that came on top of a number of other circumstances that have been

affecting seabirds for a number of decades (loss of food sources, net entanglement, etc.). In

the acute phase, there was a striking absence of seabirds in large parts of the affected area,

apart from birds that had already been injured or killed by the oil.

However, less than a month after the accident, significant numbers of seabirds had returned.

In May, the potential breeding population of Common Eider was only a few per cent lower

than in adjacent areas unaffected by the pollution, although we don’t have any figures for

breeding success. At the same time the density of breeding pairs of the Eurasian Oystercatcher

in the affected area was around half that of a nearby reference area. It is challenging to

document the impact on birds of an incident of this kind, and there are many uncertainty

factors. It is particularly difficult to explain to the general public and to agencies that are not

specialists in the specific field that the impact cannot be estimated purely on the basis of the

number of dead birds found along the shoreline, as the actual number of deaths can be many

times higher. The study also stressed the importance of starting to document the impact as

early as possible, and suggested that there was significant room for improving the current

manuals on preparing the brief for environmental studies. As this incident occurred in a

densely populated coastal area, there was more interest than usual from the media and general

public. A lot of attention was given to the question of whether it was better to put down or

rehabilitate injured seabirds after oil spills.

Seabirds – survival

After the “Rocknes” accident, significant resources were put into catching and rehabilitating

oiled birds, which was the first time this had been done in Norway. The initiative, which was

given the name “Action clean bird” (Norw.: Aksjon Rein Fugl), involved over one hundred

scientists and volunteers for more than one month after the shipwreck and oil spill.

Norsk Naturinformasjon (NNI) embarked on a project to look at the survival rates of oiled and

rehabilitated seabirds and waterbirds. They studied the species that were hardest hit by the oil

spill, i.e. marine ducks and gulls, as well as some Mallards. In the project, oiled birds were the

experimental groups, while non-oiled birds of the same species were used as control groups.

Valid experiments were possible for the Common Gull (28 in each group) and Mallard (13 in

each group), but not for the Common Eider (only 28 oiled birds were studied, without any

control group). The results showed that rehabilitated oiled Common Gulls had just as high a

survival rate as non-oiled birds in the control group. The survival rate was reported for one

year after the accident. Of 131 birds, 80 (i.e. 61%) were fully rehabilitated. The study

demonstrated that results are good if oiled seabirds and water birds are properly rehabilitated;

in the case of the Common Gull, rehabilitated birds did just as well as non-oiled birds in their

first year after rehabilitation. These are important findings, but it was only a small study based

on a single year’s observations and a limited number of birds and species.

10

2.3. Summary of the impact of the “Rocknes” shipwreck

Study Indicator Results Date Reference

Seabirds Losses, estimated 2,185 individuals January 2004 County Governor,

Hordaland

Pollution NPD levels in

mussels

Up to 244 µg/kg dry

weight

Up to 37 µg/kg dry

weight

March 2004

August 2004

SINTEF

Pollution Naphthalene

metabolites in the

bile of farmed

salmon

22.2 μg/ml

12.9 μg/ml

March 2004

August 2004

RF-IRIS

Coastal zone Distribution of algae

and fauna

No changes March-August 2004 RF-IRIS

3 “Server”


The MS “Server” ran aground off Fedje on 12 January 2007, just a few nautical miles north of

the location of the “Rocknes” accident. In total, the boat was carrying 676 tonnes of oil at the

time of the incident. Of this, an estimated 139 tonnes were removed from the sea and coast,

129 tonnes were removed from the vessel and 20 tonnes remained in the wreck. This left 388

tonnes at large in the marine environment. Most of this was IFO 180 bunker fuel, comparable

in toxicity to the oil from the “Rocknes”.

The oil spread quickly across a large area along the west coast of Norway. The areas closest

to the accident suffered the worst oil pollution: Fedje, Øygarden and Austrheim. A number of

oil slicks were also found on the coast of the county of Sogn og Fjordane. Oil slicks were

recorded in 230 locations, and 40 km of shoreline were contaminated in total. The weather

was very bad at the time of the grounding, with a moderate south-westerly gale blowing. It is

therefore reasonable to assume that a significant proportion of the oil components from the

spill were dissolved in the water, due to the large amount of kinetic energy available.

11

Figure 3.2. Map (Norwegian Coastal Administration): Simulated spread of oil. Oil extent on 12/01/2007 (left),

and on 15/01/2007 (right).

Figure 3.1. The

"Server”.

Source: Norwegian


12


3.2.1 Pollution of the marine environment

The Institute of Marine Research collected samples of water, fish, crabs and scallops, which

were analysed for their oil content (total hydrocarbons – THC) and PAH. The bile of the fish

was also tested for PAH metabolites. One week after the incident, slightly elevated PAH

values were found in the surface water in the immediate proximity of Hellesøy. Nevertheless,

the concentrations found were significantly below normal levels in more densely populated

areas. It is likely that the bad weather in the area helped to degrade the oil quickly, and also

led to it spreading across a large area, thus diluting the oil components. The low

concentrations of oil suggested that the grounding of the “Server” didn’t have any long-term

negative impacts on life in the water column.

Around one month later, fish and crabs caught close to the site of the accident were found to

have slightly elevated PAH levels in their livers and guts respectively. In general, very low

levels of PAH metabolites were found in the bile of tusk from east of Fedje, which were

caught in a fyke net at a depth of 350-600 metres. Two cod were tested that had been caught

in a fyke net close to the site of the accident. This enabled scientists to study the effects of oil

exposure on fish that were unable to escape from the spill. These fish had very high PAH

(particularly NPD) levels in their livers, and large quantities of PAH metabolites in their bile.

Some fish caught near the wreck one month after the accident contained slightly elevated

levels of PAH in their livers. This could be because the fish had fed on polluted organisms,

but the matter was not investigated any further.

In 2008, The Institute of Marine Research observed a high mortality rate amongst great

scallops (Pecten maximus) collected in summer 2007 around Solund. As a result, the PAH

levels in scallops from Solund and Radøy were analysed. The PAH profile of the scallops was

clearly dominated by heavy PAHs (≥4 benzene rings). The observed PAH levels were

significantly below the concentrations documented to be harmful to shellfish, but somewhat

above those previously reported for scallops in Norway. Due to the domination of heavy

PAHs in the scallops, and the lack of overlap between the NPD profiles of the scallops and

the oil from the “Server”, it was considered unlikely that oil from the spill was the source of

the PAH in the scallops.

There were several fish farms in the area affected by the oil spill from the “Server”. Salmon at

the farms were found to have low NPD and PAH levels, which showed that the accident had

not had a serious impact on these farmed fish. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority and

NIFES assessed the results of the analyses performed on the salmon, and concluded that the

oil spill from the “Server” had not affected the quality of the fish or food safety.

3.2.2. Impact parameters in fish

Low levels of the CYP1A detoxifying enzymes were found in the livers of cod, pollack and

ballan wrasse caught close to the wreck. One sample showed a slightly elevated level, which

was between the background level and a moderately high level. CYP1A is an enzyme system

13

in fish that responds to PAH/oil exposure, and one of its jobs is to help convert PAH

components into more water-soluble compounds that are easier to excrete through bile and

urine. Some of the products of oil degradation can bond to genetic material as DNA adducts.

All of the liver samples analysed had either undetectable or very low levels of DNA adducts.

Two (of 21) tusk had detectable DNA adduct levels, as did one (of four) cod. All of the other

samples had DNA adduct levels below the detection limit. The number of samples was

limited, and some areas were not covered, such as the area south of Fedje, where oil slicks

were observed in the coastal zone. With that caveat, the conclusion was that fish caught

shortly (weeks) after the grounding of the “Server” showed little or no sign of toxic effects

from the oil spill.

3.2.3. Marine biological survey

After the grounding, UNIFOB carried out a marine biological survey at selected locations in

the municipalities of Fedje, Øygarden and Austrheim. Sediment samples and hydrographic

samples were taken in March 2007, and a survey of the coastal zone was performed in

July/August 2007. The data collected were compared with reference material for the area

going right back to 1985.

The particle-size distribution and organic content of the sediment samples indicated that there

were strong currents in the open sounds, as there was little organic material and a lot of sand.

In the enclosed basins, meanwhile, there were more organic materials and fine particles

(clay/silt). At all of the stations where samples were taken, in March 2007 the oxygen content

of the bottom water was in Class I on the Klif scale (very good).

The coastal zone was analysed using a grid system, in which all of the algae and fauna present

in 0.5 x 0.5 m grid squares were recorded. There were patchy oil slicks in the surveyed area.

During the inspection in March, and the grid-based analysis in August, oil was observed in the

upper part of the coastal zone. Channelled wrack and certain animal species had become less

prevalent in the coastal zone, and particularly in the upper part.

A survey of benthic fauna was also carried out. Samples were taken using a grab, and were

analysed quantitatively for animals bigger than 1 mm. The number of individuals and species

varied from station to station, but no negative impacts attributable to the oil spill were

observed. At the stations with the highest levels of hydrocarbon content in their sediments,

there were no signs of the benthic fauna having suffered.

An equivalent follow-up study was performed in summer 2009, based on some of the stations

used in 2007. It did not uncover any evidence that the oil spill from the “Server” had

significantly affected the flora and fauna in the coastal zone. Quite a lot of channelled wrack

was washed away during the cleanup operation, and in August 2009 the species had still not

returned. However, the species is widely distributed in the area, so it is expected to fully re-

establish itself within a few years.

14

3.2.4 Seabird surveys

Impact on seabirds

The oil from the “Server” spread across a relatively large area from the coast of Hordaland

and north to Sogn og Fjordane. The area exposed to the oil from the “Server” is one of the

most important wintering grounds for seabirds on the west coast of Norway. NINA studied

the impact on seabirds in the area affected by the spill. In total, 1,554 oiled birds of 22

different species were reported. It was estimated that somewhere between 3,200 and 8,000

birds died as a result of the spill. The Common Eider (up to 2,500 individuals) and European

Herring Gull (up to 2,000 individuals) were worst affected, followed by the Long-tailed Duck,

European Shag, Great Black-backed Gull and Great Cormorant. The reports emphasise that

there is a high degree of uncertainty associated with these estimates. The conclusion was that

it was unlikely that the oil spill from the “Server” would, in isolation, have a significant, long-

term impact on the affected seabird populations.

Rehabilitation of oiled birds

After the “Server” accident, the SWAN project worked with NNI to organise a rescue action

for oiled seabirds, which were then rehabilitated. In total, 37 oiled birds were rescued, most of

which were Common Eiders (25), with the rest coming from six different species. Eventually,

65% of the birds (24 individuals, including 16 Common Eiders) were released after

rehabilitation, while the rest died or were put down.

3.2.5 Otter surveys

NINA studied the impact on otters in the area affected by the spill. Although no oiled or dead

otters were reported after the oil spill, a few observations possibly suggested that some otters

had come into contact with the oil. Injured and dying otters try to hide themselves, and they

are rarely found. DNA identification of individual otters based on genetic information

obtained from excrement showed that there were just as many individuals nine months after

the oil spill as 1-4 weeks afterwards. Unfortunately, no data were available on the otter

population in the area before the spill.

3.3 Summary of the impact of the grounding of the “Server”


Pollution of the

marine environment

NPD levels in water

NPD levels in cod

liver

Up to 34 ng/L

Up to 8.2 mg/kg ww in

highly exposed cod in fyke

net

Jan 2007

Jan-Feb 2007

IMR

IMR

Impact parameters

in fish

PAH metabolites

and DNA adducts

Nearly all below the

detectable level

Jan-Feb 2007 IRIS

Seabirds Number of dead

birds

3,200-8,000 individuals Jan-Feb 2007 NINA

Marine biological

survey

Prevalence of

channelled wrack

Down 30-60% in relation to

1991–96 observations

July-Aug 2007 UNIFOB

Otter survey Oiled or dead None found Jan 2007 NINA

Population No changes observed Jan and Sept 2007 NINA

15

4 “Full City”


On 31 July 2009, the Panamanian-registered MS “Full City” ran aground at Såstein,

southwest of Langesund. At the time, the ship was carrying 1,154 tonnes of heavy fuel oil

(IFO 180) and 120 tonnes of marine diesel. Some fuel tanks were damaged during the

grounding, and it was estimated that 293 tonnes of heavy oil leaked out. Initially the oil

spread northeast, with slicks being observed in the bays at Langesund. Later, the oil blew over

towards Vestfold, and when the wind abated it was carried southwest by the coastal current,

with occasional slicks being blown onto the coast of Telemark and southern Norway. During

the emergency response, approximately 860 tonnes of oil were removed from the vessel, 74

tonnes were collected from the coast and 28 tonnes were collected from the sea. This left

approximately 191 tonnes of oil in the natural environment, where it was exposed to further

degradation. The incident was given prominent coverage by the media, and garnered a lot of

public interest, due to the contamination of popular beaches in the area. There were oil slicks

in approximately 200 locations along the shoreline between Larvik Municipality and

Lillesand. In total, 75 km of coastline was contaminated.

Figure 4.1. The “Full City”. Source: Norwegian Coastal Administration.

A number of detailed environmental studies were carried out, which meant that the

environmental monitoring was more thorough than for previous incidents of this kind in

Norway. The Institute of Marine Research was asked by the Norwegian Coastal

Administration to coordinate the various environmental studies performed by various

institutes.

16

Figure 4.2. The map shows the extent of the oil from the “Full City” two days after the spill. Source: Norwegian



4.2.1 Studies looking at pollution of the marine environment

The Institute of Marine Research took samples of sea water, fish and crustaceans in the

affected area, in order to study the oil pollution caused by the “Full City”. Three sets of

samples were taken. The first set was taken during the acute phase, while the second and third

sets were taken four and eight months after the spill respectively. For PAHs and

benzo[a]pyrene, the environmental conditions were classified using Klif’s scale based on

mussels and sea water from coastal areas. The other indicators are not included in Klif’s

classification system, and were therefore only compared with reference areas. Klif’s pollution

classes are shown in Table 4.1.

17

Table 4.1. Pollution classes for the marine environment (mussels: SFT, 1997; sea water: SFT, 2007). The colour

indicates the pollution class.

Class I II III IV V

Mussels

Insignificant –

hardly polluted

Moderately

polluted

Significantly

polluted

Highly

polluted

Very highly

polluted

PAH16 (μg/kg ww) <50 50-200 200-2,000 2,000-5,000 >5000

Benzo[a]pyrene (µg/kg ww) <1 1-3 3-10 10-30 >30

Water Background Good Moderately

polluted

Poor quality Very poor

quality

Naphthalene (µg/l) <0.00066 0.00066-2.4 2.4-80 80-160 >160

Phenanthrene (µg/l) <0.00025 0.00025-1.3 1.3-5.1 5.1-10 >10

The Norwegian Food Safety Authority’s assessment of whether seafood was safe for

consumption was based on the EU limit values for the concentration of certain PAH

components – such as benzo[a]pyrene – in mussels, fish muscle and crab. The limit values

used in the studies reported are shown in Table 4.2. Certain values were adjusted by the EU in

2011-2012.

Table 4.2. Limit values for benzo[a]pyrene in seafood.

Matrix Limit value, µg/kg wet weight

Mussels 10.0*

Fish fillet 2.0**

Crab, brown meat No limit values – just diet recommendations

* Changed in 2011 to 6.0 µg/kg wet weight

** Changed in 2012, and no longer applies to fresh fish.

Acute phase

Sea water, fish and crustacean samples were taken a few days after the oil spill. Near the

wreck, slightly elevated levels of contaminants were found in the livers and bile of ballan

wrasse (NPDs, PAHs, PAH metabolites) and in sea water (NPDs and THCs), but not in fish

muscle (fillet). However, the results for the fish were based on limited data, as there were few

fish in the area. Only wrasse (ballan wrasse and other species) were caught in sufficient

numbers. Mussels from Langesund Bad, which was where the coast was most heavily

contaminated, were found to contain significant levels of pollution (up to Class IV on the Klif

scale in the case of benzo[a]pyrene). There were far more oil-related components (NPDs) in

the samples than other hydrocarbons (PAH16), and levels were highest at the water’s surface,

which is where the oil collects. There was no evidence of oil contamination in fish, crab and

sea water samples taken at some distance from the ship.

Winter 2009-2010

Four months after the accident, the levels of oil contamination and of PAHs in fish and

crustaceans from the area around the “Full City” were measured again. Compared with

August 2009, a significant reduction was observed in the concentration of oil components in

cod liver and mussels, with NPD levels down to a sixth of their previous values. Only very

low levels were observed in all of the shrimp and fish samples. PAH levels in mussels

18

remained slightly elevated, which was probably due both to the oil spill and other sources of

pollution in the area. Levels were particularly high at three locations in the counties of

Telemark and Aust-Agder, including one location outside the oil-affected area: Class III on

the Klif scale for PAH16, and Class IV for benzo[a]pyrene. As a result, it was decided to

continue monitoring PAH levels in mussels.

Spring and autumn 2010

The levels of oil contamination and PAHs in mussels from the area around the “Full City” and

from other areas along the coast of Aust-Agder, Telemark and Vestfold were measured for the

last time in spring 2010, approximately eight months after the accident. A further reduction

was observed in the levels of oil components in mussels, and NPD levels were only a third of

what they had been in winter 2010. There was therefore no longer any significant

contamination of the areas that had previously been affected by the spill. PAH levels in

mussels from Vestfold and most parts of Aust-Agder were also low. The benzo[a]pyrene

values were within the range considered safe for human consumption. The Norwegian Food

Safety Authority could therefore withdraw its recommendation against consuming mussels

from a small area close to the site of the grounding. However, as in the previous study,

elevated PAH levels were found at three locations in Aust-Agder and Telemark. This was

probably due to unknown sources of pollution, and not the oil spill from the “Full City”.

In November 2010, mussel samples were once again taken from two locations in Telemark,

within a reference area where elevated PAH levels had previously been observed, and from

one reference location in Aust-Agder. Although the results for Telemark were still somewhat

higher than for Aust-Agder, they were significantly lower than previously, with PAH16 levels

now in Class I and II on the Klif scale. The conclusion drawn was that there are local PAH

sources in the area which at certain times of the year result in higher PAH levels than are

normal along the Norwegian coast.

Table 4.3. PAH levels in mussels from the “Full City” area in 2009-2010, in µg/kg wet weight. (“FC” = Full

City area; “ref” = reference area).

PAH16 NPD

Sampling date Number of

samples

Min Max Min Max

August 2009 (FC) 2 379 963 4,580 12,334

December 2009 (FC) 5 105 261 565 2,539

December 2009 (ref) 5 99 255 46 307

April 2010 (FC) 7 71 149 123 737

April 2010 (ref) 14 23 355 33 352

November 2010 (ref) 3 22 54 17 73

4.2.2 Oil and PAH levels in sediments

NIVA studied the presence of oil components in sediments collected in October-December

2009 from the coastline in the area affected by the oil spill. The goal was to assess the level of

19

pollution during the recovery phase. Samples were collected from seven main areas: Såstein,

Krogshavn and Rognsfjorden, Vinjestranda and Åbystranda, Fugløyrogn and Helgeroa-

fjorden, Nevlungstranda and Oddane fort, Stråholmen and Jomfruland. The samples were

analysed for total hydrocarbons (THC) (C10-C40), PAHs and NPDs, as well as some secondary

parameters. In the sediments from Såstein, Fugløyrogn, Nevlungstrand, Oddane fort and

Jomfruland, there were only low levels of oil-related hydrocarbons and PAHs. Oil pollution

was observed in parts of Krogshavn and Stråholmen, and possibly in one area of

Nevlungstranda. The contamination in these areas was probably due to the oil spill from the

“Full City”. At a very local level in Krogshavn, this may have been toxic to the benthic fauna.

At Vinjestranda, the sediments at depths of 0.5-1 metres had probably been contaminated by

PAHs prior to the spill from the “Full City”. Sediment samples taken at greater depths (3.6-65

m) showed few or no signs of significant oil pollution. The main conclusion was that the

sediments in the relevant area were not significantly affected by oil from the “Full City”, and

that this was probably in part thanks to the area’s “high energy” status (due to strong currents

and waves).

4.2.3 Oil on the sea floor

Norconsult looked at whether there was any residual oil from the accident on the sea floor in

two locations that had been significantly polluted: Krogshavn (including the bay at Langesund

Bad) and the channel at Såstein. Sediments were examined in November 2009, April 2010

and June 2010. In May 2011, the bay at Langesund Bad was examined again.

Autumn 2009, right after the incident

The ROV survey and the visual inspection of the sea floor in Krogshavn did not find any free-

phase oil. In the area inspected at Såstein, gravel coated in oil was found in a small zone.

Sediment samples were taken in order to analyse the oil (THC) and PAH levels. A visual

inspection of the sediments was also performed using a water telescope and an ROV. No

significantly elevated THC and PAH levels were found in the sediments from Såstein. THC

concentrations were between 20 and 60 mg/kg of sediment. The only PAH found was pyrene.

The contamination of the sediments at Såstein was considered so slight (close to the

background level for the area) that it was deemed unnecessary to investigate further. At

Krogshavn, significant amounts of oil and PAHs were found in the sediments below

Langesund Bad. The PAH and oil concentrations were only below the relevant limit values at

one of the stations. At all of the other stations, the oil and PAH pollution of the sediments was

above the applicable limits (TA-2229/2007 and TA-2553/2009).

Spring 2010

In spring 2010, sediments in the Krogshavn recreation area and the bay by Langesund Bad

were once again tested for THCs and PAHs. The risk to human health from swimming in the

area was assessed on the basis of the results. Since autumn 2009, the PAH concentration had

fallen by 40-70% at a number of stations. Compared with the readings from November 2009,

the overall THC (C10-C40) content had fallen at all of the sampling stations. The risk to human

health from swimming was considered acceptably low at the Krogshavn recreation area. For

the innermost part of the bay at Langesund Bad, the lifetime dose of benzo[a]pyrene from

20

swimming was in excess of the limit value for the protection of human health. It was

recommended that the authorities inform people that swimming a lot in that part of the bay at

Langesund Bad in 2010 could constitute a health hazard. The calculations were based on a

person who swims more than 90 days a year, and more than one hour each day. The oil and

PAH concentrations were expected to fall significantly over the course of the 2010 season.

Spring 2011

Sediment samples from three of the stations in the bay at Langesund Bad were examined, to

monitor changes at sites that had already been inspected. In contrast to when the previous

samples were taken in 2010, no oil was observed on the water surface in 2011. There was

only a film of oil on the surface of one of the sediment samples. THC levels were assessed

against the scale used by the Dutch authorities, since no equivalent Norwegian scale exists.

THC levels were in Class I (“negligible concentrations”) and II (“negligible to maximum

permissible concentrations”). Using the Klif scale, PAH16 levels were in Class II (“good

conditions”) and III (“moderate pollution”), while some individual compounds were in classes

I to IV (“background” to “poor conditions”). In general, PAH levels had fallen since the

previous inspection. Benzo[a]pyrene levels were now in Class II at all of the stations, and

were falling, but they were still above the limit values for the protection of human health for

swimming.

4.2.4 Review of the shoreline cleanup operation, including pressure washing

Norconsult collected information about, and assessed the efficacy of, the pressure washing of

beaches after the “Full City” accident. There was a great deal of variation in the amount of

time spent pressure washing. Using chemical agents increased oil concentrations (THC) in the

flush water by a factor of five to ten. Using fresh water with Arrow Delta (in situ) doubled the

amount of oil in the flush water in comparison with using salt water with Absorrep K212.

Only salt water with Absorrep K212 (in situ) resulted in the flush water being toxic (toxicity

test using Skeletonema costatum). It was concluded that the toxicity tests are a more relevant

guide to the environmental impact in the sea than are the standard PNEC values for THCs.

The results of the toxicity test using Skeletonema show that the amount of flush water that

enters the sea from cleaning one square metre of beach has the potential to affect organisms in

a volume of 0.3-0.5 m3 of sea water. Both of the cleaning agents that were used satisfy Klif’s

rules on toxicity testing.

4.2.5 Impact on phytoplankton, zooplankton and water chemistry

After the accident, The Institute of Marine Research monitored the impact on phytoplankton,

zooplankton and water chemistry. Two surveys were carried out immediately after the

grounding, on 5 August and 15 August 2009, while a follow-up survey was performed in

2010. Extra samples were taken during the acute phase to enable testing for the following

chemical levels: nitrogen, phosphate, silicate, total nitrogen and total phosphate. To assess

biological parameters, samples were taken of phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria. In

2010 the decision was taken to monitor the water chemistry and phytoplankton by taking

samples at one of The Institute of Marine Research’s permanent stations in the area (the

“Langesundsbukta” station). No obvious impact on zooplankton was observed. In the case of

21

phytoplankton, there was no change in the species composition, although the number of cells

in some species did vary with location. For some species the number of cells was lower in the

most sheltered station than in the exposed stations, while in other species this pattern was

reversed. These differences are probably due to natural conditions and differences between

stations in sheltered and open waters. The estimated bacteria concentrations in the Langesund

area were not significantly different from those measured further south along the coast.

Overall, the chemical analyses performed in the area just after the accident did not suggest

that the oil spill had seriously affected conditions. The conclusion was that the “Full City” oil

spill had affected local phytoplankton, zooplankton and bacteria communities very little, and

that there had been no measurable long-term impacts on their abundance or on the species

composition. No changes were found in the water chemistry, neither straight after the accident

nor the following year.

4.2.6 Impact on fish

Beach seine surveys in Åbyfjorden

Each year since 1919, The Institute of Marine Research has monitored a number of locations

using beach seine surveys, which meant that good reference data were available for the period

prior to the accident.

After the grounding of the “Full City”, the Institute of Marine Research established three new

beach seine stations in the affected area. The locations were chosen on the basis of maps of oil

slicks provided by the Norwegian Coastal Administration and information about eelgrass

meadows in the area. These additional stations were visited on 23 September 2009, at the

same time as the permanent stations in the region. The seine that is used is around forty

metres long, and it can catch everything on the sea floor within an area of almost 700 m2. The

differences between the catches at the new stations in Åbyfjorden and those at the permanent

stations were well within expected natural variation, and there was no evidence of pollution

from the “Full City” having had any impact. Moreover, there was no difference attributable to

the accident between the total catches in the local area this year and previous years’ catches.

A follow-up survey in 2010 once again found no evidence of any impact caused by the “Full

City” accident, confirming the conclusions from 2009. This means that the beach seine

surveys were unable to detect any acute impacts resulting from the grounding of the “Full

City”. However, we cannot conclude that the fish definitely suffered no negative impacts; all

we know is that any potential harm was too slight to be picked up by the beach seine surveys.

Anadromous salmonids

NINA studied the abundance of young sea trout in the River Åbyelva and in the River

Herregårdsbekken, which acted as the reference, from 2006 to 2010 inclusive. The results

from 2010 indicate that recruitment in the Åbyelva was lower than in the Herregårdselva in

Porsgrunn. While the number of yearling sea trout in the Åbyelva was in line with previous

years, the number in the Herregårdsbekken was very high. However, it is too early to

determine whether there was a significant impact on the trout population in the Åbyelva. The

recruitment in the Herregårdsbekken was not much higher than has occasionally been

observed in past years. The survival rate of yearling trout was lower in the Åbyelva than in

22

the Herregårdsbekken. This may be related to the fact that the Åbyelva is also home to

salmon, which compete with the trout for feed. Subsequent surveys in 2011 showed that the

“Full City” accident had not had a significant impact on the sea trout population in the

Åbyelva, although a minor negative impact cannot entirely be ruled out.

4.2.7 Impact on marine mammals

There is a colony of harbour seals that lives permanently on the islands around Stråholmen,

which is in the area affected by the “Full City” oil spill. This is one of the largest harbour seal

colonies on the Skagerrak coast. It numbered 45 individuals in 2003, and 44 individuals in

2010, as counted using a standardised monitoring technique. In other words, there was no

significant difference between before and after the oil spill. Furthermore, no acute deaths of

harbour seals were recorded. One fortunate circumstance was that the oil spill occurred just

before the harbour seals’ change of coat. This probably allowed the animals to “self-clean”,

provided they were only moderately or slightly oiled.

4.2.8 Impact on fauna/flora in the coastal zone

Surveys of flora and fauna in the intertidal zone and sublittoral zone

NIVA surveyed the mobile fauna and the flora in the littoral and sublittoral zone after the

grounding of the “Full City”. The potential impact of the oil spill on algae and fauna was

studied at 14 stations during the autumns of 2009 and 2010. The species composition in areas

exposed to the oil was compared with areas with little or no exposure. The surveys carried out

in 2009 revealed a great deal of variation, which made it difficult to extract any clear trends

for the relationship between oil exposure and species composition in the coastal zone. At the

oil-contaminated stations, there were generally fewer taxa and individuals than at the stations

where there was little or no oil, although more bladder wrack was found at the oil-

contaminated stations. However, more algae and animals of the kinds that commonly settle on

kelp were observed at the stations with little or no oil contamination. Barnacles were most

common at the stations with little or no oil, whereas mussels and snails were most frequently

found at cleaned and uncleaned stations that had been contaminated by oil. More snails,

amphipods and mussels were caught in traps at the uncleaned contaminated stations than at

cleaned and uncontaminated ones. Meanwhile, more amphipods and fewer snails were

observed at the stations with little or no oil contamination than at cleaned ones.

There was no evidence of significant harm to organisms in the coastal zone from the oil spill.

At certain stations, cleanup operations had involved using warm water and high-pressure

hoses, which also has the potential to harm organisms in the coastal zone. No similar surveys

had been carried out at the same stations prior to the oil spill. Natural factors, such as

exposure to waves and currents, freshwater inflow and orientation affect the species mix at a

local level. Based on the 2009 survey, it was therefore impossible to conclude with any

certainty whether the differences observed between stations were due to natural variation

between areas, or had been caused by the oil spill or cleanup operations.

A follow-up survey was carried out in 2010. Analysis of the results revealed no clear link

between oil exposure and species composition. There was a weak indication that the high-

23

pressure washing had affected the species composition in the coastal zone. It is impossible to

say with any certainty whether the differences between the stations were due to natural

variation between areas, or were caused by the oil spill or cleanup operations. However, there

is no evidence that the oil spill or cleanup operation had a significant negative impact on the

community of organisms in the intertidal and sublittoral zones.

Surveys of vegetation in the spray zone

NINA studied the impact of the spill on vegetation in the spray zone, and found that, in

general, there was little impact. This is due to the low tidal range, and the fact that the

accident happened prior to a significant proportion of the growing season. Two other

contributing factors were that the vegetation in the lower part of the spray zone is adapted to

powerful disturbances in the shape of wave energy, and that there were no extremely high

tides while the oil was drifting in the sea. One year after the spill, the affected areas in the

spray zone were well on the way to recovery. The amount of wave energy that hits the

relatively exposed beaches affected by the spill probably helped to wash the oil out into the

sea. The rocky outcrops at Krogshavn were worst affected. Overall, recovery was satisfactory,

both from the oil spill itself and from the cleanup operation.

Eelgrass surveys

The Institute of Marine Research used visual surveys (video transects) to assess the state of

the eelgrass communities in Telemark and Vestfold. Their state after the oil spill was

compared with the state of the same eelgrass locations prior to the grounding of the “Full

City”, as well as with reference locations in areas that were not affected by the spill. Minor

variations were observed in terms of the shoot density, shoot length and depth range, but there

was no evidence of any significant change from the situation prior to the oil spill. The

conclusion was that the oil spill from the “Full City” had little impact on eelgrass vegetation

along the coast of Telemark and Vestfold.

4.2.9 Impact on seabirds

NINA was given responsibility for studying the impacts on seabirds. The Common Eider was

the worst-affected species, and it was therefore the focus of their work. The results of the

seabird counts carried out over the weeks following the accident were of little value in terms

of assessing the impact on the birds, as there were flaws in the methodology and because new

birds entered the affected area throughout that period. The oiled birds counted did not give us

any true indication of the total impact, since no systematic records were kept of the nature of

the injuries and the distribution of clean/oiled birds.

Nevertheless, the combined number of oiled and dead Common Eider was estimated. Based

on that, it was concluded that at least 1,300 Common Eider died as a result of the “Full City”

accident. This assumes that all of the oiled birds died as a result of their injuries, regardless of

how badly affected they were. Experience from other oil spills tells us that the Common Eider

is very vulnerable even to small patches of oil, so this is a reasonable assumption. The number

given above was a minimum value, so the actual number of Common Eider that died was

probably slightly higher. In fact it was estimated that the real number of deaths caused by the

24

accident was probably somewhere between 1,500 and 2,000 individuals. Equivalent estimates

for other seabird species suggest that at least 500 other birds died as a result of the “Full City”

accident.

In conjunction with the cleanup operation after the “Full City” accident, a module for

reporting oiled seabirds was added to The Norwegian Biodiversity Information Centre’s

website for reporting species observations. However, it was difficult to use this material for a

scientific analysis, as some of the counts overlapped, and some were not linked to specific

locations. Well over 2,000 sightings of oiled birds were reported during the campaign. Both

post mortem analyses of Common Eider and the analysis of bird ringing results suggest that

only local Common Eider were affected by the oil spill from the “Full City”.

The first few days after the accident, oiled seabirds were put down, but after a while this was

stopped in favour of collecting birds for washing and rehabilitation at a centre set up at

Langesund. In total, 181 birds were received, and 96 were released, giving a survival rate of

53%. Most of the birds that were rehabilitated were Common Eider.

4.3 Impact on outdoor recreation activities

NINA studied the short-term effects of the oil pollution from the “Full City” on outdoor

recreation activities, and found that the accident did have a negative impact in the area

studied. This was particularly true for the first weeks after the accident, as most outdoors

recreation activities came to a complete halt when people found out about what had happened.

The initial reaction patterns were ones of sadness, anger and despair, but these gradually gave

way to optimism and relief, as it became clear that the accident was not catastrophic. In

parallel with the progress of the cleanup operation, people started using the recreation areas

again. Supposedly the use of leisure boats in the whole study area fell noticeably in the first

days after the grounding of the “Full City”, but it quickly recovered. Swimming, sunbathing

and going to the beach, which are some of the most important recreation activities in the

affected area during the summer, were negatively impacted by the oil spill. The biggest

reduction in the number of people staying at cabins and camping sites was at Mølen-

Nevlunghavn. Elsewhere there were only limited negative impacts. The biggest impact on

surfing, windsurfing and kitesurfing was at Saltstein near Mølen, while in the rest of the area

the impact was classified as small. In the acute phase, sea kayaking was seriously affected

throughout the area, but by late summer and autumn 2009, the oil spill was apparently not

considered a major problem with respect to kayaking. Leisure fishing, both from boats and

from the shore, reportedly came to a complete halt during the first days after the accident. On

7 September 2009, the Norwegian Food Safety Authority recommended that fish and seafood

should not be fished/harvested in the polluted area, and that fish and seafood smelling/tasting

of oil should not be eaten. This recommendation remained in force until spring 2010. It also

appears that the oil spill seriously limited diving activities in the study area. Conversely, bird-

watching became important in the period after the accident, and roughly normal numbers of

people came to watch the migrations in autumn 2009. Overall, the study revealed that the

25

main impact of the oil pollution was through the damage it did to people’s quality of

experience, as it didn’t seriously affect the numbers of people or the areas that they went to.

4.4 Tourism

Studies were carried out to assess the economic impact on the tourism sector and related

sectors (retail, experiences, attractions). Immediately after the accident, while its scope was

still unclear, some dramatic assertions were made about its potential impact, as well as about

the harm it had caused to the countryside and to outdoors experiences in the affected area.

This continued for some time into August 2009, and led to a number of stories in the media

that were damaging to tourism in the region. As the cleanup operation started to produce

results, the coverage became more measured. By the end of December 2009, people didn’t

appear to be very concerned. Interviews with key people and inspections of the affected areas

revealed that measurable impacts were limited to the municipalities of Bamble, Kragerø and

parts of Larvik. Tjøme and Nøtterøy were used as references when studying trends. Business

travel was not negatively affected by the incident. An analysis of privately-owned holiday

cabins found that the “Full City” accident didn’t have a big impact on this group’s holiday

choices and spending habits. The study of the impacts on tourism was concluded in 2011,

once complete financial figures were available for 2010. The conclusion was that overall there

had not been a significant economic impact on the relevant sectors.

26

4.5 Summary of the impact of the grounding of the “Full City”


Oil pollution of the marine

environment – acute phase

PAH16/NPD levels in mussels Up to 963 μg/kg ww PAH16, 12,334 μg/kg ww NPD Aug 2009 IMR


environment – after 4 months

PAH16/NPD levels in mussels Up to 261 μg/kg ww PAH16, 2,539 μg/kg ww NPD Nov-Dec 2009 IMR


environment – after 8 months

PAH16/NPD levels in mussels Up to 137 μg/kg ww PAH16, 737 μg/kg ww NPD March-April 2010 IMR

Oil and PAHs in sediments PAHs and THCs Somewhat elevated PAH levels in some places Oct-Dec 2009 NIVA

Oil on sea floor PAHs and THCs Up to 60 mg/kg THCs at Såstein, elevated PAH levels

at Krogshavn

Up to 70% reduction in PAH levels since autumn 2009

Nov 2009

April 2010

Norconsult

Large reduction in levels. PAH16 up to Class III. Spring 2011

Plankton Composition of

zooplankton/phytoplankton and

water chemistry

No changes observed Aug 2009 and 2010 IMR

Beach seine survey Catch from 700 m2 of sea floor. No changes observed Sep 2009, 2010 IMR

Anadromous salmonids Density of yearling sea trout No impact observed 2010, 2011 NINA

Marine mammals Harbour seal population No changes observed 2010 IMR

Seabirds Number of dead birds Minimum estimate: 2,000--2,500 individuals Aug 2009 NINA

Intertidal zone Species composition No systematic differences Autumn 2009 and

2010

NIVA

Vegetation in the spray zone Higher plant species Little change, with rapid recovery in the affected areas 2009-2010 NINA

Eelgrass survey Video of eelgrass communities No changes observed Autumn 2009 – spring

2010

IMR

27

5 The “Godafoss”


On 17 February 2011, the cargo ship “Godafoss” ran aground at Hvaler in the county of

Østfold. The ship was carrying 555.5 tonnes of heavy bunker oil (IFO 380), and four of the

tanks were found to be leaking after the accident. Due to difficult weather conditions, with ice

covering large parts of the fjord around the grounded vessel, it took a long time to ascertain

the size of the spill. In the end, it turned out to be smaller than feared, with the Norwegian

Coastal Administration putting it at 112 tonnes in total. Most of this oil was successfully

removed, but approximately 30 tonnes remained in the environment, where it was gradually

degraded and broken down. An estimated 55 tonnes of oil was removed from the sea, which is

a relatively high percentage in comparison with other incidents that have occurred in coastal

waters. This is because although the cold temperatures and ice were a challenge, the stability

of the weather made it easier to contain the oil. Oil from the “Godafoss” was carried as far

south as Mandal by the coastal current. In total, 4 km of shoreline were contaminated, spread

across 125 locations.

Figure 5.1. The “Godafoss”. Source: Norwegian Coastal Administration.

Figure 5.2. Map (Norwegian Coastal Administration): extent of the oil from the “Godafoss”.

The red spots show the positions of oil slicks.

28


5.2.1 SINTEF’s studies of the oil from the “Godafoss”

SINTEF studied the physical properties of the oil, and looked at the potential of various

different methods of removing this type of oil. They analysed 42 samples collected as part of

the cleanup operation on the coast, including seven samples from the Swedish coast. The

conclusion was that, in all but one of the samples, the pollution had been caused by the oil

spill from the “Godafoss”.

5.2.2 The Institute of Marine Research’s surveys of the marine environment

Immediately after the accident, The Institute of Marine Research looked at to what extent the

marine environment (mussels, fish and sediments) around the “Godafoss” had been

contaminated, and in the case of mussels it repeated this exercise twice, one and seven months

later. The first set of tests analysed two pooled samples of mussel, five sediment samples and

a total of 63 samples of European flounder and herring (liver and muscle). Very low levels of

contaminants were found in all of the samples. However, there was a lot of ice in the area, so

there was a suspicion that the oil might spread after the ice melted in the spring. Further

mussel samples were therefore taken in late March 2011, and six pooled samples were

analysed. Relatively high levels of oil pollution were found in the mussels from one location,

although levels were low at nearby locations. In September 2011, yet another sample was

therefore taken from the affected area, as well as from a reference location, and this time low

levels of pollution were found in both samples. The conclusion was that the oil from the

“Godafoss” had only had a very limited impact on the marine environment around the ship,

and that the local environment had fully recovered within half a year of the accident.

5.2.3 The lobster population at Kvernskjær before and after the grounding of the “Godafoss”

After the “Godafoss” accident, The Institute of Marine Research studied the lobster

population in the affected area, concentrating on the populations at three of the four

designated conservation areas for lobster along the Skagerrak coast. Here the lobster has been

totally protected since 2006. Prior to the accident the lobster population was growing, as

documented by annual surveys. A new survey was carried out around half a year after the

grounding. The results showed the biggest population since the surveys started in 2003. It was

concluded that the lobster population hadn’t been affected by the accident.

5.2.4 Seabirds

NINA summarised the impact of the oil spill on seabirds. They estimated that 1,500-2000

Common Eider died, as well as at least 1,000 individuals of other species. Biometric analyses

revealed that most of the birds killed were local Common Eider. The impact was somewhat

greater than that of the “Full City” accident. Counts in Vestfold indicated that the oil spill

might have had negative impacts on the breeding populations of Common Eider, Great Black-

backed Gull and European Herring Gull. The seabird counts performed in Vestfold and

Telemark, where experience had been gained from the equivalent work done after the “Full

City accident, appear to have been well designed. Due to the very cold temperatures, it was

assumed that injured birds would die quickly. The operation did not involve the Norwegian

29

Ornithological Society and the Artsobservasjoner website for reporting species observations

in the same way as during the “Full City” response. One of the main reasons for this was the

difficult ice and weather conditions along the coast. Few injured birds were reported in

Østfold, because the oil drifted towards Vestfold and southwards. Two days after the spill,

several oiled Common Eider were reported in Vestfold, and the number increased over the

following days. By far the highest number of oiled birds was recorded in Vestfold. The ice

and cold temperatures made it difficult to count dead or injured birds. This is because in cold

temperatures many of the birds die quickly, after which they sink or are removed by other

birds/animals. Birds that get oil on their feathers also tend to head for land, which makes them

hard to find. After the “Godafoss” accident, no seabird rehabilitation programme was

initiated. Efforts were made to shoot oiled birds.

5.3 Summary of the extent of the damage caused by the “Godafoss” accident



environment – acute phase

PAH16/NPD levels in

mussels

Up to 86.5 μg/kg ww

PAH16, 297 μg/kg ww

NPD

Feb 2011 IMR


environment – after 1.5

months

PAH16/NPD levels in

mussels

Up to 504 μg/kg ww

PAH16, 6,289 μg/kg

ww NPD

March-

April 2011

IMR


environment – after 8

months

PAH16/NPD levels in

mussels

4.5 μg/kg ww PAH16,

24.7 μg/kg ww NPD

Sep 2011 IMR

Lobster population Number of lobsters per

pot

Approx. 3 in 2011 Aug 2011 IMR

Seabirds Number of dead birds Minimum estimate:

1,500-2,000 Common

Eider

1,000 of other species

March

2011

NINA

6 Summary of past experience of oil spills caused by shipwrecks

6.1 General information about the studies performed

Along the Norwegian coast, there have been a number of shipwrecks resulting in oil spills,

and in all probability such events will continue to occur in the future. We have found that the

impact of a spill on the marine environment is dependent on its size, timing and location, and

on the oil type, season and the presence or absence of vulnerable natural resources. The

purpose of the environmental studies carried out after the incidents has been to assess how

much damage is directly attributable to the incidents. The studies have also helped to

document the efficacy of mitigating measures. To some extent the environmental studies

carried out after the four incidents described in this report used differing methodologies.

Nevertheless, they give us an indication of the kinds of impacts that this sort of oil spill can

have. The incidents can reasonably be described as typical of shipwrecks in coastal waters

resulting in the release of heavy bunker oil. The findings of the studies show that the most

vulnerable natural resources are those present at the sea surface, in the upper part of the water

30

column and in the coastal zone. The findings of the environmental studies are also very

important in the event of any legal proceedings.

For all four of the accidents discussed, environmental monitoring was initiated during the first

twenty-four hours after the oil spill had occurred. The oil’s drift and spread were studied,

along with the biological resources and marine environments, as an integrated part of the

ongoing emergency responses. The people heading the response assessed potential mitigating

measures and cleanup operations in collaboration with experts on the local natural resources

affected by the oil spill. Environmental studies play an important role in helping them to

prioritise and make choices during the acute phase, and in documenting the gradual recovery

and normalisation of the area after the accident.

6.2 The properties and drift of the oil

The degradation properties and natural dispersibility of the oil(s) that have been released is

always studied and taken into account. That information is important, both for assessing

potential response strategies and as input data when modelling the drift, spread and eventual

fate of the oil. Having good data on the spread of the oil, based on both observations and drift

calculations, helps the authorities to choose suitable locations for the environmental studies.

After all four of the accidents discussed, it was mostly heavy bunker oil that spilled into the

sea, as well as smaller quantities of marine diesel and some lubricants. Knowing the

properties of the oil, and its content of various hazardous components, helps to determine

which environmental studies to perform.

6.3 Seafood

The impact of toxic components in the oil on fish and crustaceans has been the object of

increasing attention in recent years. After the “Rocknes” shipwreck, only wild mussels from a

small number of locations and fish from a nearby fish farm were tested. The NPD/PAH levels

in the samples taken immediately after the accident were detectable, but low. When further

samples were taken seven months later, the levels had fallen. No information was collected on

wild-caught fish.

After the grounding of the “Server”, a limited number of wild fish and crabs were collected

from the site of the accident, and then analysed for NPD/PAH levels in their livers and guts

respectively. The values were generally low, and there were only weak signs of them having

been affected by the oil pollution. It proved difficult to catch a sufficient number of fish,

which could have various natural explanations. One is that fish move away from the area

when they sense oil components in the water. Fish at fish farms near the site of the accident

did not show any signs of elevated NPD/PAH levels due to the oil from the “Server”.

After the grounding of the “Full City”, it also proved difficult to catch fish in the area closest

to the ship, which may be for the same reason as cited in the case of the “Server”. Single

specimens of a number of species, as well as a slightly larger number of wrasse, were

analysed. Slightly elevated NPD/PAH levels were detected in the livers of the wrasse, as well

31

as elevated PAH metabolites in their bile. For the other species of fish, there were at most

weak traces of contamination by oil components. Mussel samples taken near the stranded ship

showed significantly elevated NPD/PAH levels, which was very likely due to the oil spill

from the “Full City”. Analysis of the samples, including those taken at the reference locations,

suggested that the mussels might also have been contaminated by other sources in the local

area. The levels of individual PAH components were so high that the Norwegian Food Safety

Authority recommended against eating mussels from certain areas. These results made it

necessary to take several further samples from a larger number of locations over a period of

around one year. The recommendation against eating mussels was withdrawn after the levels

observed in the final set of samples were found to be acceptable.

After the grounding of the “Godafoss”, only mussels at one location were contaminated with

NPDs/PAHs. Further samples were therefore taken seven months later. Fish caught straight

after the accident didn’t show any signs of excess NPD/PAH levels. It was concluded that the

oil spill from the “Godafoss” only had a very small impact on fish and crustaceans.

NPD/PAH levels in fish and crustaceans are measured in order to find out the impact of oil

spills on seafood quality in the affected areas. The Norwegian Food Safety Authority is

responsible for acting upon the results, and constantly reviews the need to issue advice or take

other measures to ensure that the seafood people eat is safe. It has also been important to

measure NPD/PAH levels in various tissues in order to assess potential biological impacts on

the organisms. Chemical readings were supplemented with readings of various biomarkers in

the organisms, to give a better overall picture of the biological impacts of oil exposure. The

evidence from all of the oil spills discussed in this report is that the impact on fish and

crustaceans is small. Nevertheless, it will be necessary to perform equivalent studies in

conjunction with future oil spills, above all to document seafood safety and to monitor the

general state of the ecosystem. Mussels filter large quantities of water, and have proved very

good as indicator organisms for levels of oil pollution. Analysing the NPD and PAH levels in

mussels gives us a clear indication of the pollution levels in the affected areas.

6.4 The coastal and sublittoral zones

After the four oil spills described here, extensive cleanup operations aimed to remove the oil

that had contaminated the coastal zone. Such operations have a direct impact on the

conditions in the affected areas, and help to reduce the recovery time. After the “Rocknes”,

“Server” and “Godafoss” accidents, the scope of the environmental studies looking at the

coastal zone varied from insignificant to moderate. Rather more comprehensive studies were

performed after the “Full City” incident. Once the cleanup operation after the “Rocknes” was

completed, no significant impacts on the local fauna and flora were observed. Two months

after the oil spill from the “Server”, some oil could still be observed on beaches, while there

was a reduction in the distribution of channelled wrack and certain animal species. An

equivalent survey carried out two years after the oil spill found that the vast majority of the

fauna in the coastal zone had recovered. When interpreting the environmental conditions in

32

the coastal zone, it has proved very useful to have good background information and reference

data from systematic past surveys and monitoring activities in the relevant areas.

After the “Full City” ran aground, the impact on the marine fauna and flora in the coastal zone

was carefully monitored over a two-year period. Areas contaminated by oil were compared

with areas with little or no contamination. The high level of natural variability, combined with

a lack of detailed background information about the flora and fauna in the relevant areas,

made it difficult to document the impact of the oil spill in any detail. The initial surveys found

that in general there were somewhat fewer species and fewer individuals at the most

contaminated locations. By the time of the follow-up surveys one year after the oil spill, most

of the locations had recovered well. The conclusion was that the oil spill and cleanup

operation had not caused serious harm to the flora and fauna in the coastal zone.

After the “Godafoss” accident, the coastal and sublittoral zones were not studied, as the spill

was relatively small, and only a very short stretch of shoreline was affected.

Various methods have been used to assess the impact on the coastal and sublittoral zones. It

has proved essential to know the level of pollution and the nature of the cleanup operation at

individual locations/sampling sites. During cleanup, the coast may be sprayed with high-

pressure warm water, as well as being treated with chemical agents. Obviously the pollution

can harm the ecosystem in its own right, but it is also important to find out whether cleanup

operations cause further harm. If there are any red-listed species that may be affected by the

pollution, it is important for them to be covered by the environmental studies.

6.5 Flora on land

Based on past experience, no serious harm has been caused to plants in the coastal zone, even

if oil has been thrown onto land in bad weather. When that does happen, it often appears that

the cleanup operations cause more harm than the pollution. It might be important to study

how the flora is affected by an intensive cleanup operation in which many people walk around

in the affected areas. This is particularly relevant if rare plants or plant communities are

affected.

6.6 Seabirds

Very often seabirds have suffered more from oil spills than other parts of the ecosystem. The

number of dead birds has therefore been a good indicator of the total impact on the

environment. All four of the shipwrecks discussed in this report resulted in bird deaths,

primarily due their feathers becoming covered in oil. It was estimated that 2,000-3,000

seabirds died as a result of the “Rocknes” accident, while the equivalent figure for the

“Server” was 3,200-8,000. Meanwhile, for the “Full City” and the “Godafoss”, the numbers

were 2,000-2,500 and 2,500-3,000 respectively. In the case of the “Full City” and “Godafoss”,

the Common Eider suffered particularly badly. Although significant impacts on seabirds have

been documented, they have not been so great as to threaten the populations of the individual

33

species in the affected areas. No red-listed seabird species were particularly exposed to these

oil spills.

Several of the underlying reports emphasise that the exact number of dead seabirds as a result

of oil spills is highly uncertain, and is affected by a variety of factors. For the purposes of

estimating the true number, it is very useful to have good background data on the bird

populations in the oil-contaminated areas. Experts also consider that time is of the essence if

you want to know the extent of the impact, so it is essential to start recording the number of

injured seabirds as soon as possible. The methodologies used when counting oiled seabirds

varied from one accident to another, and the collaboration between the various groups

involved in the process was sometimes more successful than others. This suggests that there is

room for improvement in terms of both the methodology used and the way in which seabird

counts are organised.

We know little about the long-term survival rates of rehabilitated seabirds. Currently,

Norwegian policy on cleaning oiled birds is being reconsidered. In the past, government

experts have only recommended rehabilitation in the case of threatened species, and where

rehabilitation may help the species to survive.

6.7 Sediments

Sediment samples provide information about the level of pollution on the sea floor. It has

proved important to combine analyses of THC, NPD and PAH levels with drift calculations to

determine where the oil has ended up. After the “Full City” accident, samples were taken four

times over the course of a year and a half from some areas that had been exposed to

significant amounts of oil. This provided useful information about the recovery process.

Visual observations, such as those made using ROVs and water telescopes, can help to

determine whether any oil remains on the sea floor. Oil components such as NPDs and PAHs

often attach themselves to organic particles, and the highest concentrations of organic

materials are found in fine-grained sediments such as silt and clay. It is therefore important to

survey areas with fine-grained sediments using an ROV or other suitable equipment, in order

to determine where to take samples for chemical testing for NPD and PAH levels (where oil

cannot be observed visually). To date, samples taken from sediments in deep water have not

shown any signs of pollution by oil and PAHs. At popular swimming sites there is a need to

test samples to determine whether sediments have been contaminated by oil and PAHs.

6.8 General conclusions

Based on the evidence of the shipwrecks discussed in this report, systematic environmental

monitoring will also need to be carried out after future incidents. Often this work will consist

of measuring oil contamination in fish, crustaceans and bottom sediments, as well as studying

the impact on seabirds and on fauna and flora in the coastal and sublittoral zones. It might

also be desirable to study the impact on recreational activities. Moreover, it is important to

look at how the oil is distributed in the affected areas, and how long it takes to get rid of it,

either through active cleanup operations and/or through natural degradation processes. The

34

latter question is the key to successfully estimating the recovery time for the various natural

resources. Large natural variations make it challenging to directly attribute environmental

damage to specific oil spills. When assessing the impact on the environment, it is very useful

to have background data and time series from ongoing national monitoring programmes.

Past environmental studies have given us a particularly clear picture of the impact on seabirds,

marine organisms and sediments. The effects on the coastal and sublittoral zones, on

recreational activities and on coral reefs are other areas that can be studied. The choice of

exactly which studies to perform, is entirely dependent on local conditions and the natural

resources affected by the oil spill.

The time scale of the studies will inevitably vary, depending on the natural resources in

question. For example, water samples will often only be studied for a short period after the

spill (a few weeks), whereas seafood sampling may continue for up to a year. It might even be

necessary to sample seabirds and sediments for several years after an incident, as sediments in

sheltered bays, for instance, take a long time to recover. When the contamination is no longer

detectable, or is highly reduced, the studies can be brought to an end.

To ensure that the information we collect about future oil spills is as objective and

comprehensive as possible, it is a priority to develop a good, standardised system for

systematic evaluation of the total impact of oil spills in marine environments. Consequently,

new guidelines are being prepared by Klif, in collaboration with The Institute of Marine

Research and the Norwegian Coastal Administration.

Table 6.1. Summary of the environmental studies carried out after the shipwrecks discussed in this report.

Type of study Parameters

Seabirds Number of oiled seabirds. Estimated losses (number, sex, age and species).

Biometric analyses.

Mussels Analysis of NPDs and PAHs in soft tissue. Profile of NPDs and PAHs in oil

is compared with profile in shellfish. Background pollution from other

sources can confuse the picture.

Fish Analysis of NPDs and PAHs in fillet and liver tissue. Biomarker

measurement. Important to link this to general knowledge about the fish

populations in affected areas. Particularly important to study fish that are

used for human consumption.

Water and plankton studies. Analysis of dilution of THCs and NPDs into the water column. Survey of

plankton, roe and fish larvae in polluted areas. Important to compare with

unaffected reference areas.

Sediments Analysis of NPDs and PAHs in surface sediments. Use of

videos/photographs (ROV) to visually assess oil on sea floor.

Flora/fauna in the spray zone,

intertidal zone and sublittoral zone

Comparisons of changes in the flora/fauna with those at locations unaffected

by oil and/or at locations subjected to various types of cleanup operations.

Recreational activities Changes in the use of oil-contaminated areas.

35

7 Bibliography

7.1 Rocknes

Altin, D. 2007. Toxicity of WAF from “Server” & “Rocknes” to Calanus finmarchicus. Report by SINTEF, p.

15.

Byrkjeland, S. 2004. Vurdering av skadeomfang på sjøfugl etter MS Rocknes forlis (in Norwegian). Report by

the County Governor of Hordaland, p. 32.

Børseth, J.B., Eriksen, V., Tvedten, Ø.F. 2004. Oljesøl etter Rocknes-forliset. Biologiske effekter (in

Norwegian). Report by Rogaland Research Institute – 2004/165, p. 36.

Håland, A., Mjøs, A.T. 2006. Overlevelse av oljeskadete og rehabiliterte sjø- og vannfugler etter Rocknes-

forliset ved Bergen, januar 2004 (in Norwegian). NNI report no. 160, p. 22.

Norwegian Coastal Administration. 2004. “Rocknes”-ulykken (in Norwegian). Report by the Norwegian Coastal

Administration, p. 39.

Melbye, A.G. 2005. Akutt oljeforurensning etter forlis av Rocknes. Etterkantundersøkelse 2004 (in Norwegian).

Report by SINTEF, p. 84.

Moldestad, M., Wang, U.M. 2004. Analyser av prøver tatt i forbindelse med forliset av “MS Rocknes” (in

Norwegian). Report by SINTEF, p. 15.

7.2 Server

Altin, D. 2007. Toxicity of WAF from “Server” & “Rocknes” to Calanus finmarchicus. Report by SINTEF, p.

15.

Børseth, J.F. 2008. Etterkantundersøkelse etter SERVER-forliset: Effektparametre hos fisk (in Norwegian).

Report by IRIS 2008/058, p. 20.

Heggøy, E., Johansen, P.O., Johannesen, P. 2007. Marinbiologisk miljøundersøkelse i forbindelse med forliset

av MS Server i 2007 (in Norwegian). Unifob report no. 14-2007, p. 66.

Heggøy, E., Johansen, P.O. 2009. Marinbiologisk miljøundersøkelse i 2009 to år etter forliset av MS Server (in

Norwegian). Unifob report no. 15-2009, p. 48.

Lorentsen, S.-H. (ed.) 2008. Etterkantundersøkelser sjøfugl og oter etter MS Server-forliset januar 2007 (in

Norwegian). NINA report no. 336, p. 64.

Norwegian Coastal Administration. 2008. Nye utfordringer – nye løsninger. Rapport om den statlige aksjonen

mot akutt oljeforurensning etter M/S “Servers” forlis (in Norwegian). Report by the Norwegian Coastal


Meier, S., Grøsvik, B.E., Westrheim, K., Salthaug, A., Olsen, E. 2008. Undersøkelse av forurensing av det

marine miljøet etter MS Server-forliset på Fedje 12. januar 2007 – vannkvalitet, villfisk og skalldyr (in

Norwegian). Report by The Institute of Marine Research, p. 13.

Meier, S., Tveit, G., Westrheim, K. 2008. Etterkantundersøkelsene for Server-forliset på Fedje 12. januar 2007.

PAH analyser i selv-døde kamskjell fra Solund (in Norwegian). Report by The Institute of Marine

Research, p. 6.

Moldestad, M. 2008. Oljeregnskap etter forliset av MS Server (in Norwegian). Report by SINTEF, p. 53.

Paulsen, N., Tvedt, K. 2007. Rehabilitering av oljeskadd fugl etter MS Server forliset (in Norwegian). SWAN

report no. 3, p. 11.

Ramstad, S. 2007. Felttesting av kjemiske strandrensemidler under aksjonen etter forliset av MS Server (in

Norwegian). Report by SINTEF, p. 47.

Reed, M., Johansen, Ø., Albretsen, J., Ditlevsen, M.K. 2007. Modellering av oljeutslipp fra M/V Server forliset

med OSCAR (in Norwegian). Draft SINTEF report, p. 22.

Sammendragsrapport. 2008. Etterkantundersøkelser etter M/S SERVER-forliset (in Norwegian). SINTEF report

no. A7338, p. 25.

Skrede, A.-B., Jensen, N. 2007. Sjøsikkerhet og oljevernberedskap – erfaringer etter “Server” (in Norwegian).

Report by WWF, p. 22.

36

7.3 Full City

Berge, J.A. 2010. Oljeutslippet fra lasteskipet “Full City” – forekomst av olje og PAH i sediment/løsmasser (in

Norwegian). Report by NIVA, p. 112.

Boitsov, S., Klungsøyr, J. 2009. Undersøkelse av oljeforurensning i marint miljø etter havariet av lasteskipet

“Full City” (in Norwegian). Report by The Institute of Marine Research, p. 20.

Boitsov, S., Klungsøyr, J. 2010. Oppfølgingsundersøkelse av oljeforurensning i marint miljø ved lasteskipet

“Full City” (in Norwegian). Report by The Institute of Marine Research, p. 24.

Boitsov, S., Klungsøyr, J. 2010. Oppfølgingsundersøkelse av forurensning i blåskjell ved lasteskipet “Full City”

– Rapport 3 (in Norwegian). Report by The Institute of Marine Research, p. 16.

Gitmark, J. 2009. Rammeundersøkelser og undersøkelse av mobilfauna i litoral- og sublitoralsonen i forbindelse

med forliset av M/S Full City (in Norwegian). NIVA field report, p. 10.

Gitmark, J., Brkljacic, M. 2011. Marinbiologiske undersøkelser i forbindelse med oljeutslipp fra M/S Full City.

Undersøkelser av flora og fauna i littoral- og sublittoralsonen (Sluttrapport) (in Norwegian). NIVA

report 6232-2011, p. 82.

Gjøsæter, J., Paulsen, Ø. 2009. Strandnotundersøkeløser i Åbyfjorden etter “Full City”-ulykken 2009 (in

Norwegian). The Institute of Marine Research, p. 4.

Haugestøl, G.L. 2010. Undersøkelser av olje i sediment i friluftslivsområdet Krogshavn og Langesund Bad etter

havariet av Full City (in Norwegian). Report by Norconsult, p. 41.

Lorentsen, S.-H., Bakken, V., Chirstensen-Dalsgaard, S., Follestad, A., Røv, N., Winnem, A. 2010. Akutt skade-

omfang og herkomst for sjøfugl etter MV Full City-forliset (in Norwegian). NINA report no. 548, p. 48

Norborg, R.W., Salomonsen, G.R., Lundsør, E. 2010. Undersøkelser av olje på sjøbunn og i sediment ved

Såstein og i Krogshavn etter havariet av Full City (in Norwegian). Report by Norconsult, p. 35.

Norborg, R.W., Salomonsen, G.R. 2010. Erfaringer fra spylelag på strand – opprensning etter Full City havariet

(in Norwegian). Report by Norconsult, p. 119.

Olsen, E. 2010. Miljøundersøkelsene etter Full City-forliset. Framdriftsrapport per desember 2010 (in

Norwegian). The Institute of Marine Research, p. 28.

Randby, S. 2009. Befaringsrapport – Stråholmen 15. august 2009 (in Norwegian). Norwegian Coastal


Norwegian Pollution Control Authority (SFT), 1997. Molvær J., J. Knutzen, J. Magnusson, B. Rygg, J. Skei and

J. Sørensen. Klassifisering av miljøkvalitet i fjorder og kystfavann (in Norwegian). SFT guidelines

97:03. TA no. 1467/1997, 36 pp.

SFT, 2007. Revidering av klassifisering av metaller og organiske miljøgifter i vann og sedimenter. Veileder for

klassifisering av miljøkvalitet i fjorder og kystfarvann (in Norwegian). (TA-2229/2007), 12 pp.

Øian, H., Skår, M., Vistad, O.I., Andersen, O. 2010. Full City-havariet: Kortsiktige effekter av oljeforurensning

på friluftsliv (in Norwegian). NINA report no. 573, p. 114.

7.4 Godafoss

Boitsov, S., Klungsøyr, J. 2011. Undersøkelse av oljeforurensning i marint miljø etter havariet av lasteskipet

“Godafoss” (in Norwegian). Report by IMR, p. 19.

Boitsov, S., Klungsøyr, J. 2011. Oppfølgingsundersøkelse av oljeforurensning i blåskjell fra område av det

havarerte lasteskipet “Godafoss” (in Norwegian). Report by IMR, p. 4.

Follestad, A. 2012. Akutt skadeomfang og herkomst for sjøfugl etter Godafoss-forliset (in Norwegian). Report

by NINA, p. 49.

Moland Olsen, E. 2011. Hummerbestanden ved Kvernskjær før og etter Godafoss-forliset (in Norwegian).

Report by IMR, p. 2.

Ramstad, S., Faksness, L.-G. 2011. Godafoss. Karakterisering av oljeprøver, naturlige prosesser og mulige

tiltaksalternativer (in Norwegian). Report by SINTEF A20243, p. 55.

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