1. REFUSAL STRATEGIES I E GLISH SPEECH: A PRAGMATIC STUDY STRATEGI PE OLAKA DALAM TUTURA BAHASA I GGRIS: KAJIA PRAGMATIS BY YULIA I KUSUMA PUTRI 1801 2008 0024 THESIS submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Magister Humaniora THE GRADUATE SCHOOL FACULTY OF LETTERS U IVERSITAS PADJADJARA 2010 2. REFUSAL proposed to be examined as one of the requirements has been approved by Advisor Team on the REFUSAL STRATEGIES I E GLISH SPEECH: A PRAGMATIC STUDY By Yuliani Kusuma Putri 1801 2008 0024 THESIS proposed to be examined as one of the requirements for the degree of Magister Humaniora has been approved by Advisor Team on the following date. Bandung, 13 August 2010 I E GLISH SPEECH: following date. 3. iii STATEME T OF ORIGI ALITY I, Yuliani Kusuma Putri, do herewith declare that the material contained in my thesis entitled Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a Pragmatic Study is original work performed by me under the guidance and advice of my faculty advisors, Dr. Eva Tuckyta Sari Sujatna, M.Hum. and Ekaning Krisnawati, M.Hum. I certify that, to the best of my knowledge, my thesis does not infringe upon anyones copyright nor violate any proprietary rights and that any ideas, techniques, quotations, or any other material from the work of other people included in my thesis, published or otherwise, are fully acknowledged in accordance with the standard referencing practices. I declare that this thesis has not previously been submitted for the basis of award of any degree or diploma/examining body, or university or institution. Date : August 13, 2010. 4. Bismillahirrohmanirrohim, Assalamualaikum Warohmatullohi Wabarokatuh, Alhamdulillah completed her thesis Study. This study was taken as the partial fulfil taking Magister Humaniora Padjadjaran University. The writer chooses the title Pragmatic Study because the societies, especially speech acts lay under speech acts, are very important activities communication. In addition, this thesis is conducted because the writer wants to analyze the language view but also contextual The writer hopes that this thesis gives contribution for those who want to do a that this thesis can help other phenomenon in pragmatic study; furthermore, it is also possible researchers to dig up this topic iv PREFACE Bismillahirrohmanirrohim, Assalamualaikum Warohmatullohi Wabarokatuh, Alhamdulillah, by the blessing of Allah SWT, the writer has finally entitled Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a Pragmatic was taken as the partial fulfilment of the requirement taking Magister Humaniora degree in English linguistics, faculty of letters Padjadjaran University. The writer chooses the title Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a because she is interested in analyzing language phenomenon in especially speech acts and refusals. She thinks that lay under speech acts, are very important activities in everyday conversation and . In addition, this thesis is conducted in the field because the writer wants to analyze the language from not only semantic but also contextual point of view. The writer hopes that this thesis gives contributions as a useful re for those who want to do a study in the field of pragmatics. The writer also hopes that this thesis can help other linguistic researchers in find phenomenon in pragmatic study; furthermore, it is also possible o dig up this topic from different perspectives. , by the blessing of Allah SWT, the writer has finally Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a Pragmatic ment of the requirements for faculty of letters Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a language phenomenon in e thinks that refusals, which in everyday conversation and in the field of Pragmatics not only semantic point of as a useful reference . The writer also hopes finding interesting phenomenon in pragmatic study; furthermore, it is also possible for other 5. The writer realizes that this thesis is not perfect; as a result, the writer looking forward to being given better. Finally, the writer would like to e writer finish this thesis. The writer realizes that this thesis is not perfect; as a result, the writer looking forward to being given suggestions and corrections to make this thesis better. Finally, the writer would like to express her gratitude to all who help the writer finish this thesis. Bandung, Ju The writer v The writer realizes that this thesis is not perfect; as a result, the writer is suggestions and corrections to make this thesis be gratitude to all who help the Bandung, July 2010 The writer 6. First and foremost I would like to say praise only to Allah the Lord of universe, who gives me guidance, chance, power ability and health to finish my thesis. that I can do my best. In doing this thesis, have significantly given their meaningful contributions to thesis. Therefore, on this occasion Dr. Eva Tuckyta Sari Sujatna, M.Hum. and Ekaning Krisnawati, M.Hum. as advisors who have shared their start. Moreover, I would like to thank Dean University, Prof. Dr. to all lecturers in English Linguistics valuable knowledge. proposal who have given expressed to the administrator easiness and facilities given to me during my study. My thanks are also giv time transporting me during the finishing of my thesis; my uncle, my sisters and brothers, my sister-in vi ACK OWLEDGEME TS First and foremost I would like to say Alhamdulillahirabbil alamiin praise only to Allah the Lord of universe, who gives me guidance, chance, power to finish my thesis. I always pray for Allahs blessing and mercy that I can do my best. In doing this thesis, I have been helped by some great individuals who have significantly given their meaningful contributions to me in finishing this thesis. Therefore, on this occasion I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Eva Tuckyta Sari Sujatna, M.Hum. and Ekaning Krisnawati, M.Hum. as advisors who have shared their valuable guidance and advice with , I would like to thank Dean of Faculty of letters Dadang Suganda, M.Hum. The deep gratitude is expressed turers in English Linguistics of the graduate program who give us valuable knowledge. Big thanks are expressed to the examiners for my thesis proposal who have given comments and suggestions. The grat administrator of the graduate program Bapak easiness and facilities given to me during my study. My thanks are also given to my beloved family: Papa, who have spent the transporting me during the finishing of my thesis; my uncle, my sisters and in-law and brothers-in-law for the prayers, assistance and Alhamdulillahirabbil alamiin all praise only to Allah the Lord of universe, who gives me guidance, chance, power, blessing and mercy been helped by some great individuals who in finishing this deepest gratitude to Dr. Eva Tuckyta Sari Sujatna, M.Hum. and Ekaning Krisnawati, M.Hum. as my valuable guidance and advice with me from the Faculty of letters Padjadjaran The deep gratitude is expressed the graduate program who give us thanks are expressed to the examiners for my thesis The gratitude is also apak Musa for the who have spent the transporting me during the finishing of my thesis; my uncle, my sisters and r the prayers, assistance and 7. support; my nephews of this thesis. Many thanks are also given to my close have enlightened and supported support and craziness during the classes. Thank you all very much. Without you, I am just an empty glass witho s and nieces who have brightened my days during the writing thanks are also given to my close friends Risty and her parents and supported me. I also want to thank my classmates support and craziness during the classes. Thank you all very much. Without you, I am just an empty glass without water. vii who have brightened my days during the writing and her parents who y classmates for the support and craziness during the classes. Thank you all very much. Without you, I 8. Tesis ini berjudul Study. Tesis ini bertujuan klasifikasi penolakan, strategi penolakan, didasarkan pada metode penelitian analisis dokumen film serial Ugly Betty bahwa film serial sesungguhnya. Peneliti tokoh dalam film serial Houck (1999). Dari hasil analisis data ditemukan bahwa semua pemeran di film seri Ugly Betty menggunakan lebih dari satu strategi dalam satu penolakan. Strategi yang paling sering digunakan adalah penolakan langsung, alasan, dan ajun. viii ABSTRAK berjudul Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a Pragmatic . Tesis ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui dan memaparkan tipe klasifikasi penolakan, strategi penolakan, serta proses penolakan didasarkan pada metode deskriptif kualitatif, dan peneliti memilih teknik penelitian analisis dokumen untuk menganalisis data. Ada dua puluh tiga Ugly Betty yang peneliti gunakan dalam pencarian data. Peneliti yakin ini merefleksikan kehidupan masyarakat Peneliti mendeskripsikan dan menganalisis setiap ujaran dari film serial sesuai dengan teori Beebe at al. (1990) Dari hasil analisis data ditemukan bahwa semua pemeran di film menggunakan lebih dari satu strategi dalam satu penolakan. Strategi yang paling sering digunakan adalah penolakan langsung, alasan, dan Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a Pragmatic memaparkan tipe-tipe serta proses penolakan. Penelitian ini kualitatif, dan peneliti memilih teknik dua puluh tiga episode data. Peneliti yakin akat Amerika yang setiap ujaran dari serta Gass dan Dari hasil analisis data ditemukan bahwa semua pemeran di film menggunakan lebih dari satu strategi dalam satu penolakan. Strategi yang paling sering digunakan adalah penolakan langsung, alasan, dan 9. This thesis is entitled Pragmatic Study. The objectives of this study of refusal classifications, refusal strategies, qualitative descriptive technique in analyzing the serials the researcher uses to find the data reflect the real lives of Americans utterances which are uttered by the characters from the serials based on the theories of Beebe et al that all characters in Ugly Betty The mostly used strategies are direct refusal, explanation/reason, and adjunct. ix ABSTRACT thesis is entitled Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a The objectives of this study are to find out and of refusal classifications, refusal strategies, and refusal process. descriptive method; the researcher chooses document analysis research in analyzing the data. There are twenty three episodes of serials the researcher uses to find the data. The researcher believes that the real lives of Americans. The researcher describes and analyzes which are uttered by the characters from the serials based on the et al. (1990) and Gass and Houck (1999). The analysis shows Ugly Betty serials use more than one strategy The mostly used strategies are direct refusal, explanation/reason, and adjunct. Refusal Strategies in English Speech: a and explain types This study uses document analysis research twenty three episodes of Ugly Betty rcher believes that the serials he researcher describes and analyzes which are uttered by the characters from the serials based on the The analysis shows strategy in one refusal. The mostly used strategies are direct refusal, explanation/reason, and adjunct. 10. STATEME T OF ORIGI ALITY PREFACE ACK OWLEDGEME T ABSTRAK ABSTRACT TABLE OF CO TE TS LIST OF ABBREVIATIO S LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER I I TRODUCTIO 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BACKGROU D 2.1 2.2 x TABLE OF CO TE TS ORIGI ALITY ACK OWLEDGEME T TABLE OF CO TE TS LIST OF ABBREVIATIO S LIST OF FIGURES I TRODUCTIO Rationale Formulations of the Study Objectives of the Study Theoretical Outline Method 1.5.1 Method and Technique of Data Collecting 1.5.2 Method and Technique of Data Analysis Data Source Weight and Relevances THEORETICAL BACKGROU D Pragmatics Context iii iv vi viii ix x xiii xiv 1 1 5 6 6 7 Collecting 7 Method and Technique of Data Analysis 9 11 12 13 13 14 11. 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 CHAPTER III DATA A ALYSIS 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 CHAPTER IV CO CLUSIO 4.1 4.2 BIBLIOGRAPHY Speech Acts 2.3.1 Levels of Speech Acts 2.3.2 Classification of Speech Acts Direct and Indirect Speech Acts Speech Event Refusals 2.6.1 Classification of Refusals 2.6.1.1 Refusals of Requests 2.6.1.2 Refusals of Offers 2.6.1.3 Refusals of Invitations 2.6.1.4 Refusals of Suggestions 2.6.2 Refusal Strategies 2.6.3 Refusal Sequences 2.6.4 Factors Influencing Refusal Strategies DATA A ALYSIS Refusals of Requests Refusals of Offers Refusals of Invitations Refusals of Suggestions CO CLUSIO S A D SUGGESTIO S Conclusion Suggestions xi 15 16 16 17 18 19 19 20 20 20 21 22 27 Strategies 28 30 30 49 66 82 100 100 101 103 12. DICTIO ARIES THE WRITERS BIOGRAPHY APPE DICES THE WRITERS BIOGRAPHY xii 105 106 107 13. DCT Discourse DVD Digital e.g. for example EFL English as ESL English as et al. and others FO Final Outcome i.e. that is IR Initial Response USA United xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIO S Discourse Completion Test Digital Versatile Disc or example English as a Foreign Language English as a Second Language nd others Final Outcome Initial Response United States of America 14. Fig. 2:1 Possible refusal trajectories involving negotiation Fig. 2:2 Refusal sequence xiv LIST OF FIGURES Possible refusal trajectories involving negotiation Refusal sequences 15. 1.1 Rationale One sentence what people say does not mean the same as what they intend. when a speaker utters some aware of the hidden meaning does not catch on the words or the hearer misunderstands the The hidden meaning stated by Aitchison (1999) that when a speaker utters some words, he or she tries to gain some effects with this words. The effects are accomplished by an alternative action. For example an interrogative can be interpreted as a question or a request. In short, she states that this phenomenon is called a speech act. In relation to this, Finnegan (1992) says that speech act is actions that ar through language. Yu people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances. A speech act is an action performed by means of language, such as requesting something, complaining about something, or refusing something. According to Austin (1962), a speech act is a functional unit in communication. It 1 CHAPTER I I TRODUCTIO One sentence can have many meanings. In daily conversation, what people say does not mean the same as what they intend. On some occasions, when a speaker utters some words with a certain intention behind it, the hearer hidden meaning. On the contrary, there are times when the hearer does not catch on the hidden meaning from the speaker when he or words or the hearer misunderstands the utterance. hidden meaning of an utterance is expected to have some effects Aitchison (1999) that when a speaker utters some words, he or she tries to gain some effects with this words. The effects are accomplished by an on. For example an interrogative can be interpreted as a question or a request. In short, she states that this phenomenon is called a speech act. In relation to this, Finnegan (1992) says that speech act is actions that ar Yule (1996) also adds that in attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and words, they perform actions via those utterances. A speech act is an action performed by means of language, such as questing something, complaining about something, or refusing something. According to Austin (1962), a speech act is a functional unit in communication. It In daily conversation, sometimes On some occasions, with a certain intention behind it, the hearer is . On the contrary, there are times when the hearer eaker when he or she utters the expected to have some effects. As Aitchison (1999) that when a speaker utters some words, he or she tries to gain some effects with this words. The effects are accomplished by an on. For example an interrogative can be interpreted as a question or a request. In short, she states that this phenomenon is called a speech act. In relation to this, Finnegan (1992) says that speech act is actions that are carried out in attempting to express themselves, people do not only produce utterances containing grammatical structures and A speech act is an action performed by means of language, such as questing something, complaining about something, or refusing something. According to Austin (1962), a speech act is a functional unit in communication. It 16. is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance. Phonetically, an utterance is a unit of s One of the speech acts lives. Refusals or rejections can be defined as disapproval of the speakers intention. People use refusals in response to suggestions. In refusal behaviors, people use indirect communicative strategies in order to try to avoid offending forms and contents in refusal situations. There are some ways that are usuall in order to reassure the speaker that he/she has an appropriate reason, i.e. refusal strategy. Bardovi-Harlig and Hartford (199 own status and the face employ strategies to maintain the status balance. According to Beebe direct and indirect refusals non performative verbs such as a direct as I cant/I wont/I dont think so can use: statement of regret; wish; excuse, reason, explanation; statement of alternative; set condition for future or past acceptance acceptance; statement of principle interlocutor; acceptance that functions as a refusal use adjuncts to refusal is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance. Phonetically, an utterance is a unit of speech bounded by silence. One of the speech acts is refusal. It is frequently performed in our daily rejections can be defined as disapproval of the speakers People use refusals in response to requests, invitations, offers, In refusal behaviors, people use indirect communicative strategies in order to try to avoid offending their partner in the dialogue. They might use a variety forms and contents in refusal situations. There are some ways that are usually applied in performing refusal actions in order to reassure the speaker that he/she has an appropriate reason, i.e. refusal Harlig and Hartford (1991) state that refusers need to take their own status and the face-threatening nature of refusal into consideration and employ strategies to maintain the status balance. According to Beebe et al. (1990), there are two kinds of refusal categories: refusals. We can use performative verbs such as non performative verbs such as a direct o or negative willingness/ability such I cant/I wont/I dont think so for direct refusals. For the indirect refusal statement of regret; wish; excuse, reason, explanation; statement of et condition for future or past acceptance; promise of future tatement of principle; statement of philosophy; attempt to dissuade cceptance that functions as a refusal; and avoidance use adjuncts to refusal such as statement of positive opinion/feeling or agreement 2 is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance. Phonetically, an is frequently performed in our daily rejections can be defined as disapproval of the speakers requests, invitations, offers, and In refusal behaviors, people use indirect communicative strategies in order their partner in the dialogue. They might use a variety of y applied in performing refusal actions in order to reassure the speaker that he/she has an appropriate reason, i.e. refusal ) state that refusers need to take their efusal into consideration and two kinds of refusal categories: . We can use performative verbs such as I refuse, or or negative willingness/ability such For the indirect refusals, we statement of regret; wish; excuse, reason, explanation; statement of romise of future ttempt to dissuade voidance. We can also tatement of positive opinion/feeling or agreement, 17. statement of empathy the examples of refusals in English speech In situation 1, A is Bs assistant. She walks in Bs office when B to a friend. 1. A: Um, sorry to interrupt, but can I get you lunch? B: o, no, but you go ahead. Thanks. The situation 1 above shows a direct refusal. B refuses As offer using a direct o. The word In situation 2, the same as situation 1 of which A is Bs assistant. A and B are hurriedly walking out of their office and heading to their car. 2. A: (Walking hurriedly behind B) have a quick moment. B: (In offensiv (typing on his cellphone while walking to his car) B refuses As request for Bs time using an indirect refusal. B uses attempt to dissuade interlocutor by asking back A whether B has time in an offensi intonation. In everyday suggestions happen on many occasions. either direct refusals or tatement of empathy, pause fillers, and gratitude/appreciation. The examples of refusals in English speech. In situation 1, A is Bs assistant. She walks in Bs office when B A: Um, sorry to interrupt, but can I get you lunch? B: o, no, but you go ahead. Thanks. The situation 1 above shows a direct refusal. B refuses As offer using a . The word o is a non performative statement in refusals. In situation 2, the same as situation 1 of which A is Bs assistant. A and B are hurriedly walking out of their office and heading to their car. (Walking hurriedly behind B) You know, I was wondering if you have a quick moment. (In offensive intonation) Do I look like I have a quick moment? (typing on his cellphone while walking to his car) B refuses As request for Bs time using an indirect refusal. B uses attempt to dissuade interlocutor by asking back A whether B has time in an offensi day conversation, refusing requests, invitations, offers, and suggestions happen on many occasions. In making a refusal, speakers can use or indirect refusals to avoid being impolite or rude. 3 The followings are In situation 1, A is Bs assistant. She walks in Bs office when B is talking The situation 1 above shows a direct refusal. B refuses As offer using a refusals. In situation 2, the same as situation 1 of which A is Bs assistant. A and B You know, I was wondering if you Do I look like I have a quick moment? B refuses As request for Bs time using an indirect refusal. B uses attempt to dissuade interlocutor by asking back A whether B has time in an offensive requests, invitations, offers, and peakers can use oid being impolite or rude. 18. There are many studies on refusals. Those are American English refusals (Beebe et al, 1990; Bardovi Ye, & Zang, 1995), British refusals (Kitao, 1996), Japanese Takashi, & Uliss-Weltz, 1990; (Garcia, 1992; Flix-Brasdefer Takahashi and Beebe (1987) investigated written refusals by native speakers of English, native speakers United States, and Japanese EFL students in Japan and found that there was a strong native language influence in the EFL context and negative transfer of negative speech act behavior occurring in the more advanced level researchers claimed that the advanced stud English which allowed them to express complex notions in Japanese like 'being deeply honored' to receive an invitation. Yet another refusal study, undertaken by Tickle (1991), looked at pragmatic transfer in ESL refusa setting. Thirty-one Japanese men who all had at least five years of business experience (including a year in the United States) were asked to complete a discourse completion task (DCT) where hypothetical situation (customers vs. the businesspersons), relationship (positive, negative), status (higher or lower), and function (refusal to an invitation vs. refusal to a request). The results showed that refusals on a customers turf were more direct th on the businesspersons turf. They were also more direct when no prior relationship existed between the interlocutors. In refusals to invitation (e.g., to go There are many studies on refusals. Those are American English refusals , 1990; Bardovi-Harlig & Hartford, 1991), Chinese refusals (Chen, Ye, & Zang, 1995), British refusals (Kitao, 1996), Japanese refusals (Beebe, Weltz, 1990; Ikoma & Shimura, 1993), and Spanish refusals Brasdefer, 2002). Takahashi and Beebe (1987) investigated written refusals by native speakers of English, native speakers of Japanese, Japanese ESL students in the Japanese EFL students in Japan and found that there was a strong native language influence in the EFL context and negative transfer of negative speech act behavior occurring in the more advanced level that the advanced students had greater facility at speaking English which allowed them to express complex notions in Japanese like 'being deeply honored' to receive an invitation. Yet another refusal study, undertaken by Tickle (1991), looked at pragmatic transfer in ESL refusals made by Japanese speakers in a business one Japanese men who all had at least five years of business experience (including a year in the United States) were asked to complete a discourse completion task (DCT) where hypothetical situations varied by turf (customers vs. the businesspersons), relationship (positive, negative), status (higher or lower), and function (refusal to an invitation vs. refusal to a request). The results showed that refusals on a customers turf were more direct th on the businesspersons turf. They were also more direct when no prior relationship existed between the interlocutors. In refusals to invitation (e.g., to go 4 There are many studies on refusals. Those are American English refusals Harlig & Hartford, 1991), Chinese refusals (Chen, refusals (Beebe, Spanish refusals Takahashi and Beebe (1987) investigated written refusals by native ESL students in the Japanese EFL students in Japan and found that there was a strong native language influence in the EFL context and negative transfer of negative speech act behavior occurring in the more advanced levels of ESL. The ents had greater facility at speaking English which allowed them to express complex notions in Japanese like 'being Yet another refusal study, undertaken by Tickle (1991), looked at ls made by Japanese speakers in a business one Japanese men who all had at least five years of business experience (including a year in the United States) were asked to complete a s varied by turf (customers vs. the businesspersons), relationship (positive, negative), status (higher or lower), and function (refusal to an invitation vs. refusal to a request). The results showed that refusals on a customers turf were more direct than those on the businesspersons turf. They were also more direct when no prior relationship existed between the interlocutors. In refusals to invitation (e.g., to go 19. drinking), lower-status interlocutors expressed more regret toward the higher status one. In refusals to request (e.g., of co willingness/ability (e.g., particular study provided material for cross businesspeople to deal more ef Bardovi-Harlig & Hartford (1991) studied American refusals graduate students in rejecting their writer thinks that the study did not represent all American the study done by Bardovi graduate students and the refusal was limited only as a response to suggestions. Therefore, the present study is going to inv English speech. The refusal sequences used by investigate refusal strategies used by Americans power. Thus, in relation contribute to the field of linguistics, especially in the field of pragmatics. 1.2 Formulations of the Study This study focuses on speech act, with the following 1. What are the types of 2. What kinds of status interlocutors expressed more regret toward the higher In refusals to request (e.g., of co-workers), more negative willingness/ability (e.g., I cant) and empathy occurred. Results of this particular study provided material for cross-cultural programs training American businesspeople to deal more effectively with Japanese clients. Harlig & Hartford (1991) studied American refusals graduate students in rejecting their academic advisors suggestions writer thinks that the study did not represent all Americans because the scope of he study done by Bardovi-Harlig & Hartford (1991) was limited to American and the refusal was limited only as a response to suggestions. the present study is going to investigate the refusal The writer would like to know the refusal strategies and the used by the utterers of English speech. The writer will investigate refusal strategies used by Americans from different social distance and Thus, in relation to this, the writer expects that this investigation will contribute to the field of linguistics, especially in the field of pragmatics. Formulations of the Study This study focuses on ways of expressing refusals in English speech following formulations of the study: What are the types of initiating act that trigger the act of refusals kinds of refusal strategies are found in one refusal? 5 status interlocutors expressed more regret toward the higher- workers), more negative ) and empathy occurred. Results of this cultural programs training American Harlig & Hartford (1991) studied American refusals among academic advisors suggestions. However, the because the scope of Harlig & Hartford (1991) was limited to American and the refusal was limited only as a response to suggestions. estigate the refusal strategies in the refusal strategies and the The writer will from different social distance and ter expects that this investigation will contribute to the field of linguistics, especially in the field of pragmatics. in English speech as a initiating act that trigger the act of refusals? refusal? 20. 3. What are the refusal sequences found in one refusal? 4. What are the process of the refusals? 1.3 Objectives of the Study There are several aims the writer hopes she will get while doing this The aims are as follows: 1. To find out 2. To find out 3. To find out the refusal sequences found in one refusal. 4. To explain the process of the refusals. 1.4 Theoretical Outline For the discussion and analysis of the data, the present study relies on theory of Yule (1995) which talks about pragmatics are Austins (1962) and Searle classifications, and types in terms of indirectness. als (1990), Yangs ( refusals: their classifications, strategies, and sequences and Houcks (1992) which talks about refusal trajectories refusal that may involve theory of Brown and Levinson (1987) which talks about social distance and power as the factors influencing the use of refusal strategies. What are the refusal sequences found in one refusal? What are the process of the refusals? Objectives of the Study There are several aims the writer hopes she will get while doing this The aims are as follows: To find out the types of initiating act that trigger the act of refusals find out the kinds of refusal strategies found in one refusal To find out the refusal sequences found in one refusal. To explain the process of the refusals. Theoretical Outline For the discussion and analysis of the data, the present study relies on (1995) which talks about pragmatics in general. Another (1962) and Searles (1969) which talk about speech acts: classifications, and types in terms of indirectness. The other theories are Yangs (2008) and Flix-Brasdefers (2008) which talk their classifications, strategies, and sequences and also theory of Gass and Houcks (1992) which talks about refusal trajectories, i.e. the process of the refusal that may involve negotiations. The analysis of the data also relies on the theory of Brown and Levinson (1987) which talks about social distance and power as the factors influencing the use of refusal strategies. 6 There are several aims the writer hopes she will get while doing this study. the types of initiating act that trigger the act of refusals. one refusal. For the discussion and analysis of the data, the present study relies on the Another theories 9) which talk about speech acts: their levels, theories are Beebe et which talk about and also theory of Gass , i.e. the process of the The analysis of the data also relies on the theory of Brown and Levinson (1987) which talks about social distance and power 21. 1.5 Method 1.5.1 Method and Technique of Data Collecting It is necessary for ever will be used to obtain the data and information intended in a research. study is aimed to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population or area of interest, method should be used is the states: Nonexperimental or, as it is often called, descriptive research is undertaken when description and explanation (rather based on cause and effect) are sought, when it is not possible or feasible to manipulate the potential causes of behavior, and when variables are not easily identified or are too embedded in the phenomenon to be extracted for study. Isaac and Michael (1982) sense of describing situations or events. It is the accumulation of a data base that is solely descriptive hypotheses, make predictions, or get at meanings and implications. The kind of descriptive research used in this study is the document analysis research, as stated by Riyanto (2001) in his book: Penelitian analisis dokumen/analisis isi adalah penelitian yang dilakukan secara sistematis terhadap catatan sebagai sumber data. Ciri Penelitian dilakukan terhadap informasi yang didokumentasikan dalam bentuk rekaman, gambar, dan sebagainya (2) Subjek penelitiannya adalah se (3) Dokumen sebagai sumber data pokok. Method and Technique of Data Collecting It is necessary for every researcher to determine the research method that will be used to obtain the data and information intended in a research. study is aimed to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a given population or area of interest, factually and accurately, then the appropriate sed is the qualitative descriptive research as Merriam (1988) Nonexperimental or, as it is often called, descriptive research is undertaken when description and explanation (rather than prediction based on cause and effect) are sought, when it is not possible or feasible to manipulate the potential causes of behavior, and when variables are not easily identified or are too embedded in the non to be extracted for study. and Michael (1982) add that descriptive research is used in the literal sense of describing situations or events. It is the accumulation of a data base that is solely descriptive it does not necessarily seek or explain relationships, test predictions, or get at meanings and implications. The kind of descriptive research used in this study is the document analysis research, as stated by Riyanto (2001) in his book: Penelitian analisis dokumen/analisis isi adalah penelitian yang ara sistematis terhadap catatan-catatan atau dokumen sebagai sumber data. Ciri-ciri dari penelitian ini adalah (1) Penelitian dilakukan terhadap informasi yang didokumentasikan dalam bentuk rekaman, gambar, dan sebagainya (2) Subjek penelitiannya adalah sesuatu barang, buku, majalah dan sebagainya (3) Dokumen sebagai sumber data pokok. 7 y researcher to determine the research method that will be used to obtain the data and information intended in a research. Since this study is aimed to describe systematically the facts and characteristics of a given factually and accurately, then the appropriate descriptive research as Merriam (1988) Nonexperimental or, as it is often called, descriptive research is than prediction based on cause and effect) are sought, when it is not possible or feasible to manipulate the potential causes of behavior, and when variables are not easily identified or are too embedded in the that descriptive research is used in the literal sense of describing situations or events. It is the accumulation of a data base that does not necessarily seek or explain relationships, test predictions, or get at meanings and implications. The kind of descriptive research used in this study is the document Penelitian analisis dokumen/analisis isi adalah penelitian yang catatan atau dokumen ciri dari penelitian ini adalah (1) Penelitian dilakukan terhadap informasi yang didokumentasikan dalam bentuk rekaman, gambar, dan sebagainya (2) Subjek suatu barang, buku, majalah dan sebagainya 22. Riyanto states that the document analysis research has three characteristics: the research is conducted towards documented information forms of recordings, pictures, magazine, etc.; and documents as the main source. The data for analysis is collected from Compared with previous data collection methods such as discourse completion tests or role plays according to Yang (2008) own advantages for pragmatic study: 1. Clips from television series provide contextual information, which is essential for pragmatic analysis. Most television series present ongoing stories about a specific set of people at specific locations doing certain things in culture. The contextual factors of a refusal instance, such as time, place, and the roles of the participants, can be easily identified in a television series. 2. Video clips from television series record both the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of participants in interactions. This will facilitate the examination of non 3. Clips from television are materials that are readily adaptable for foreign language learning. They not only expressions but also in certain contexts by native speakers. 4. From the operational perspective, contextual variables are easier to control in produced Riyanto states that the document analysis research has three teristics: the research is conducted towards documented information forms of recordings, pictures, etc.; the research subject is a thing, a book, a magazine, etc.; and documents as the main source. The data for analysis is collected from video clips from television series Compared with previous data collection methods such as discourse completion according to Yang (2008), this data collection method has its own advantages for pragmatic study: lips from television series provide contextual information, which is essential for pragmatic analysis. Most television series present going stories about a specific set of people at specific locations doing certain things in culture. The contextual factors of a refusal instance, such as time, place, and the roles of the participants, can be easily identified in a television series. o clips from television series record both the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of participants in interactions. This will facilitate the examination of non-verbal behaviors of refusal. Clips from television are materials that are readily adaptable for gn language learning. They not only present expressions but also present how these expressions are actually uttered in certain contexts by native speakers. From the operational perspective, contextual variables are easier to control in produced video clips data, because researchers can more 8 Riyanto states that the document analysis research has three teristics: the research is conducted towards documented information in the etc.; the research subject is a thing, a book, a video clips from television series. Compared with previous data collection methods such as discourse completion , this data collection method has its lips from television series provide contextual information, which is essential for pragmatic analysis. Most television series present going stories about a specific set of people at specific locations doing certain things in culture. The contextual factors of a refusal instance, such as time, place, and the roles of the participants, can be o clips from television series record both the verbal and nonverbal behaviors of participants in interactions. This will facilitate Clips from television are materials that are readily adaptable for present linguistic how these expressions are actually uttered From the operational perspective, contextual variables are easier to video clips data, because researchers can more 23. easily select the genre, the topics and the main characters of the television series. Compared with discourse completion tests which are short segments of realistic interactions, video clips from television interaction process of refusal, which includes the information of the turn mechanism and the negotiation strategies. Compared with role plays, data involving more situations can be collected in a short time by means of video from television series. 1.5.2 Method and Technique of Data Analysis The methods of data analysis in this study are going to be analysis procedures: procedure will be executed using these steps: 1. reducing clips, 2. choosing data relevant to the topic of the stu and 3. transcribing the data from video clips into transcriptions. The second procedure these steps: 1. examining the transcriptions and classifying the refusals, whether they are used in response to requests, invitations, offers, or suggestions, easily select the genre, the topics and the main characters of the television series. Compared with discourse completion tests which are short segments of realistic interactions, video clips from television series record the whole interaction process of refusal, which includes the information of the turn mechanism and the negotiation strategies. Compared with role plays, data involving more situations can be collected in a short time by means of video from television series. Method and Technique of Data Analysis The methods of data analysis in this study are going to be during data collecting and after data collecting. executed using these steps: educing the data by identifying refusals while observing the video hoosing data relevant to the topic of the study, in this case, refusals, transcribing the data from video clips into transcriptions. procedure, i.e. after data collecting will be carried out using xamining the transcriptions and classifying the refusals, whether they are used in response to requests, invitations, offers, or suggestions, 9 easily select the genre, the topics and the main characters of the Compared with discourse completion tests which are short segments of series record the whole interaction process of refusal, which includes the information of the turn-taking mechanism and the negotiation strategies. Compared with role plays, data involving more situations can be collected in a short time by means of video clips The methods of data analysis in this study are going to be done by two during data collecting and after data collecting. The first refusals while observing the video dy, in this case, refusals, transcribing the data from video clips into transcriptions. will be carried out using xamining the transcriptions and classifying the refusals, whether they are used in response to requests, invitations, offers, or suggestions, 24. 2. rewriting the conversations into e writer to analyze the refusal strategies and sequences, 3. describing place, and person 4. describing the Initiating Act, refusal refusal trajectories, and 5. drawing the figure of the refusal process. The following is the example of the steps. Transcription: Justin: I hate telenovelas. I want to watch Fashion TV. Hilda: Justin, you can watch Fashion TV later when your Aunt Betty is babysitting ok? Context: The conversation takes place in Suarez familys house between Justin Suarez and Hilda Suarez. Justin Suarez is between them is mother and son. Justin is in the living room watching telenovela and Hilda, accompanied by her father, is in the dining room having lunch. The dining room is facing the television in the livin watching television. rewriting the conversations into excerpts so it will be easier for the writer to analyze the refusal strategies and sequences, describing the context of the conversation, i.e. describing the time, place, and persons that the conversations take place, describing the Initiating Act, refusal strategies, refusal sequ refusal trajectories, and drawing the figure of the refusal process. The following is the example of the data analysis which is analyzed using I hate telenovelas. I want to watch Fashion TV. Justin, you can watch Fashion TV later when your Aunt Betty is The conversation takes place in Suarez familys house between Justin Suarez and Hilda Suarez. Justin Suarez is Hildas son, therefore the degree of solidarity between them is mother and son. Justin is in the living room watching telenovela and Hilda, accompanied by her father, is in the dining room having lunch. The dining room is facing the television in the living room and the three of them are 10 xcerpts so it will be easier for the describing the time, strategies, refusal sequences, and the data analysis which is analyzed using Justin, you can watch Fashion TV later when your Aunt Betty is The conversation takes place in Suarez familys house between Justin Suarez and Hildas son, therefore the degree of solidarity between them is mother and son. Justin is in the living room watching telenovela and Hilda, accompanied by her father, is in the dining room having lunch. The g room and the three of them are 25. Analysis: The Initiating Act of the dialogues above is telenovela on television, Justin declares that he hates telenovelas and requests to change the channel and watch refuses his request using Fashion TV later when your Aunt Betty is babysitting ok strategy because she does not want to disappoint Justin that she forbids him to watch Fashion TV. The refusal sequence here is only watch Fashion TV later when your Aunt Betty is babysitting ok his mothers refusal, which makes Hildas response the Final Outcome. The refusal process can be seen in the following figure. Initiator (Initiating Act) I hate telenovelas. I want to watch Fashion TV. Respondent Justin, you can watch Fashion TV later when your Aunt Betty is babysitting ok? Initiator (IR = FO) Accept 1.6 Data Source The data for this study will be obtained from season one and the film data from this source because she thinks that The Initiating Act of the dialogues above is request for permission telenovela on television, Justin declares that he hates telenovelas and requests to change the channel and watch Fashion TV (I want to watch Fashion TV refuses his request using a promise of future acceptance (Justin, you can watch ion TV later when your Aunt Betty is babysitting ok?). Hilda uses this strategy because she does not want to disappoint Justin that she forbids him to watch Fashion TV. The refusal sequence here is only head act ( ion TV later when your Aunt Betty is babysitting ok?). his mothers refusal, which makes Hildas response the Final Outcome. The refusal process can be seen in the following figure. I hate telenovelas. I want to watch Fashion TV. Response Refusal Sequence Justin, you can watch Fashion TV later when your Aunt Betty is babysitting ok? head act Accept The data for this study will be obtained from Ugly Betty and the film subtitles of the same title. The writer decides to take the data from this source because she thinks that the characters in Ugly Betty 11 request for permission. Watching telenovela on television, Justin declares that he hates telenovelas and requests to I want to watch Fashion TV). Hilda Justin, you can watch ). Hilda uses this strategy because she does not want to disappoint Justin that she forbids him to (Justin, you can ). Justin accepts his mothers refusal, which makes Hildas response the Final Outcome. The I hate telenovelas. I want to watch Fashion TV. Strategy promise of future acceptance Ugly Betty serial DVDs The writer decides to take the Ugly Betty serial 26. represent almost all English speakers solidarity and authorities the same as Americans' everyday lives. 1.7 Weight and Relevances The contributions in the field of pragmatics are as follows 1. Enriching the 2. Stimulating research in the same field of study. 3. Improving the existing investigations in the same field of study. English speakers from various social distance and authorities, and because the stories in Ugly Betty serial are almost the same as Americans' everyday lives. Weight and Relevances contributions of this investigation to the field of linguistics, especially in the field of pragmatics are as follows: Enriching the variety of analyses in speech acts. Stimulating interest among language observers to continue conducting research in the same field of study. Improving the existing investigations in the same field of study. 12 social distance, i.e. degree of serial are almost of this investigation to the field of linguistics, especially language observers to continue conducting Improving the existing investigations in the same field of study. 27. 2.1 Pragmatics Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics which studies meaning in According to Yule (1996 as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and Yule (1996: 3 what people mean by their utterances than what the words of phrases in those utterances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of spea meaning. This type of study necessarily involves the interpretation of what people mean in particular context and how the context influences what is said. Thus, pragmatics is also the study of contextual meaning. In addition, pragmatics explores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as part of what is communicated. On the other hand, pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said. determines the choice between the said and notion of distance. Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience. On the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, speakers determine how much needs to be said. In bri the expression of relative distance. Taken together, pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. Only pragmatics allows humans into 13 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BACKGROU D Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics which studies meaning in According to Yule (1996: 3), pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener (or reader). : 3) adds that pragmatics has more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words of phrases in those erances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of spea meaning. This type of study necessarily involves the interpretation of what people mean in particular context and how the context influences what is said. Thus, pragmatics is also the study of contextual meaning. In addition, pragmatics great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as part of what is communicated. On the other hand, pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said. This perspective then raises the quest e between the said and unsaid. The basic answer is tied to the . Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience. On the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, speakers determine how much needs to be said. In brief, pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance. Taken together, pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. Only pragmatics allows humans into Pragmatics is a branch of linguistics which studies meaning in interaction. ), pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning interpreted by a listener (or reader). ) adds that pragmatics has more to do with the analysis of what people mean by their utterances than what the words of phrases in those erances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning. This type of study necessarily involves the interpretation of what people mean in particular context and how the context influences what is said. Thus, pragmatics is also the study of contextual meaning. In addition, pragmatics great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as part of what is communicated. On the other hand, pragmatics is the study of how more gets This perspective then raises the question of what unsaid. The basic answer is tied to the . Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience. On the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, ef, pragmatics is the study of Taken together, pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms. Only pragmatics allows humans into 28. the analysis. Whereas the study of grammar focuses on the language system, pragmatics offers a complementary perspective on language, providing an insight into the linguistic choices that users make in social situations. 2.2 Context According to Richard before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etc. Cruse (2006: 35) adds that c interpretation of utterances and expressions. The most important aspects of context are: (1) preceding and following utterances and/or expressions (co (2) the immediate physical situation, (3) the wider situation, including social and power relations, and (4) knowledge presumed shared between speaker and hearer. McManis et al subparts: 1. Physical context. objects are present, and what actions are taking place. 2. Epistemic context. the hearers. 3. Linguistic context. consideration. Whereas the study of grammar focuses on the language system, pragmatics offers a complementary perspective on language, providing an insight into the linguistic choices that users make in social situations. According to Richards & Schmidt (2002:116), context is that which occurs before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, Cruse (2006: 35) adds that context is an essential facto interpretation of utterances and expressions. The most important aspects of context are: (1) preceding and following utterances and/or expressions (co (2) the immediate physical situation, (3) the wider situation, including social and wer relations, and (4) knowledge presumed shared between speaker and hearer. et al (1987: 197) state that context can be divided into four Physical context. That is, where the conversation takes place, what objects are present, and what actions are taking place. Epistemic context. Background knowledge shared by the speakers and the hearers. Linguistic context. That is, utterances previous to the utterance und consideration. 14 Whereas the study of grammar focuses on the language system, pragmatics offers a complementary perspective on language, providing an insight that which occurs utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, n essential factor in the interpretation of utterances and expressions. The most important aspects of context are: (1) preceding and following utterances and/or expressions (co-text), (2) the immediate physical situation, (3) the wider situation, including social and wer relations, and (4) knowledge presumed shared between speaker and hearer. (1987: 197) state that context can be divided into four That is, where the conversation takes place, what Background knowledge shared by the speakers and That is, utterances previous to the utterance under 29. 4. Social context. hearers. To sum up, context is that which determines the actual meaning of a word, phrase, or utterance. Context can include additional information about the nature of the text, the period written, fiction/non writer. 2.3 Speech Acts Speech act refers to an act that is performed when making an utterance; for example, giving orders and making promises (Austin, 1962). Searle (1969 shares, Speech acts are the basic unit of linguistic communication. The minimal unit of linguistic communication is not linguistic expression but rather the performance of certain kinds of acts. When people utter a sentence, it is not just to say things but rather actively to do things. There are sorts of things that can be done with words, such as make requests, ask questions, give orders, and make promises. According to linguistic resources for co explicitly using performative verbs or speech act verbs (e.g., I promise, etc.). However, it should be noted that not all speech acts may be realized using speech act verbs, as one insult someone (e.g., Social context. The social relationship and setting of the speakers and , context is that which determines the actual meaning of a word, Context can include additional information about the nature of the text, the period written, fiction/non-fiction, the age and nationality of the Speech act refers to an act that is performed when making an utterance; for example, giving orders and making promises (Austin, 1962). Searle (1969 shares, Speech acts are the basic unit of linguistic communication. The minimal unit of linguistic communication is not linguistic expression but rather the performance of certain kinds of acts. When people utter a sentence, it is not just to ngs but rather actively to do things. There are sorts of things that can be done with words, such as make requests, ask questions, give orders, and make According to Flix-Brasdefer (2008: 37), languages have different linguistic resources for communicating speech acts. Speech acts can be realized explicitly using performative verbs or speech act verbs (e.g., I apologize, I refuse, , etc.). However, it should be noted that not all speech acts may be realized using speech act verbs, as one cannot use the verb to insult to explicitly insult someone (e.g.,I insult you!); but rather, speakers may employ other 15 The social relationship and setting of the speakers and , context is that which determines the actual meaning of a word, Context can include additional information about the nature fiction, the age and nationality of the Speech act refers to an act that is performed when making an utterance; for example, giving orders and making promises (Austin, 1962). Searle (1969: 16) shares, Speech acts are the basic unit of linguistic communication. The minimal unit of linguistic communication is not linguistic expression but rather the performance of certain kinds of acts. When people utter a sentence, it is not just to ngs but rather actively to do things. There are sorts of things that can be done with words, such as make requests, ask questions, give orders, and make anguages have different mmunicating speech acts. Speech acts can be realized I apologize, I refuse, , etc.). However, it should be noted that not all speech acts may be cannot use the verb to insult to explicitly ); but rather, speakers may employ other 30. linguistic resources to express the illocutionary force of a speech act speech acts can be performed through either utteranc instruments. 2.3.1 Levels of Speech Acts Austin (1962) identifies three distinct levels of action beyond the a utterance itself: 1. Locutionary sentence with a grammatical structure and meaning. 2. Illocutionary as stating, questioning, commanding, or promising. 3. Perlocutionary means of ut circumstances of utterance. Of these three levels, based on Yule (1996 illocutionary force. Indeed, the term s narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance. The illocutionary force of an utterance is what it counts as. 2.3.2 Classification of Speech Acts Austin (1962 in Wardaugh, 1992: 284 Verdictives typified by presenting evidences, reasons, or evaluations of truth, like calculating, acquitting, and describing. linguistic resources to express the illocutionary force of a speech act speech acts can be performed through either utterances or other linguistic Levels of Speech Acts ) identifies three distinct levels of action beyond the a ocutionary act, it has to do with the utterance that is presented by a sentence with a grammatical structure and meaning. llocutionary act, it has to do with the intention of the utterance, such as stating, questioning, commanding, or promising. erlocutionary act, the bringing about of effects on the audience by means of uttering the sentence, such effects being special to the cumstances of utterance. Of these three levels, based on Yule (1996: 49), the most discussed is illocutionary force. Indeed, the term speech act is generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance. The illocutionary force of an utterance is what it counts as. Classification of Speech Acts in Wardaugh, 1992: 284) lists five categories of speech acts. typified by presenting evidences, reasons, or evaluations of truth, like calculating, acquitting, and describing. Exercitives, having to do with deciding or 16 linguistic resources to express the illocutionary force of a speech act. Hence, es or other linguistic ) identifies three distinct levels of action beyond the act of act, it has to do with the utterance that is presented by a act, it has to do with the intention of the utterance, such the bringing about of effects on the audience by ering the sentence, such effects being special to the ), the most discussed is peech act is generally interpreted quite narrowly to mean only the illocutionary force of an utterance. The illocutionary categories of speech acts. typified by presenting evidences, reasons, or evaluations of truth, like , having to do with deciding or 31. advocating particular actions, such as ordering, directing, appointing. Commisives, pledge, vow, and swear. fit into an argument or exposition, such as affirming, denying, emphasizing, and illustrating. Behavities, felicitate, and congratulate which provide reactions to the behavior of others. Meanwhile, Searle (1969 basic kinds of action that 1. Representatives proposition, such as asserting, concluding, and suggesting. 2. Directives action, for example; re 3. Commisives action like promising, threatening, offering, and pledging. 4. Expressives welcoming, and congratulating. 5. Declarations marrying, blessing, and firing. 2.4 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts In terms of indirectness, indirect speech acts. Yule (1996) states that a direct speech act is an utterance that is performed by the speaker means exactly and literally advocating particular actions, such as ordering, directing, nominating, and Commisives, typified by commiting to a future act like promise, pledge, vow, and swear. Expositives, a term refers to how one make an utterance fit into an argument or exposition, such as affirming, denying, emphasizing, and Behavities, having to do with such matter like applaud, deplore, felicitate, and congratulate which provide reactions to the behavior of others. Meanwhile, Searle (1969: 240) proposes taxonomy that there are just five basic kinds of action that one can perform in speaking: Representatives is to commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, such as asserting, concluding, and suggesting. Directives is speech acts which attempt the addressee to carry out an action, for example; requesting, questioning, and commanding. Commisives is speech act which commit the speaker to some future action like promising, threatening, offering, and pledging. Expressives is to express a psychological state or attitude like thanking, welcoming, and congratulating. Declarations which bring about the state of affairs they name, such as marrying, blessing, and firing. Direct and Indirect Speech Acts In terms of indirectness, there are two types of speech acts; direct and indirect speech acts. Yule (1996) states that a direct speech act is an utterance that is performed by the speaker means exactly and literally. It means that in uttering 17 nominating, and typified by commiting to a future act like promise, a term refers to how one make an utterance fit into an argument or exposition, such as affirming, denying, emphasizing, and such matter like applaud, deplore, felicitate, and congratulate which provide reactions to the behavior of others. ) proposes taxonomy that there are just five is to commit the speaker to the truth of the expressed proposition, such as asserting, concluding, and suggesting. addressee to carry out an questing, questioning, and commanding. is speech act which commit the speaker to some future action like promising, threatening, offering, and pledging. is to express a psychological state or attitude like thanking, which bring about the state of affairs they name, such as there are two types of speech acts; direct and indirect speech acts. Yule (1996) states that a direct speech act is an utterance that . It means that in uttering 32. something, the speaker says what he or Thus, both the speaker and the hearer can understand what the utterance implies. For example, the utterance the hearer to take out the garbage. An utterance c meaning of the locution differs from its intended meaning. Searle (1975) introduced the idea of an 'indirect speech act' follows: In indirect speech acts the speaker communicates to the hearer more than he actually says by way of relying on their mutually shared background information, both linguistic and nonlinguistic, together with the general powers of rationality and inference on hearer. 2.5 Speech Event A speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. It may include an obvious central speech act, such as complaining, but it will also include other utterances leading up to and subsequently reacting to that central action clearly another way of studying how more gets coomunicated than is said 1996: 57). something, the speaker says what he or she means and means what he or she says. Thus, both the speaker and the hearer can understand what the utterance implies. For example, the utterance Please take out the garbage. is a direct request for the hearer to take out the garbage. An utterance can be recognized as an indirect speech act if the literal meaning of the locution differs from its intended meaning. Searle (1975) of an 'indirect speech act'. He describes indirect speech acts as In indirect speech acts the speaker communicates to the hearer more than he actually says by way of relying on their mutually shared background information, both linguistic and nonlinguistic, together with the general powers of rationality and inference on the part of the Speech Event A speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. It may include an obvious central speech act, such as I dont really like this, as in a speech event of complaining, but it will also include other utterances leading up to and subsequently reacting to that central action. The analysis of speech events is clearly another way of studying how more gets coomunicated than is said 18 she means and means what he or she says. Thus, both the speaker and the hearer can understand what the utterance implies. . is a direct request for an be recognized as an indirect speech act if the literal meaning of the locution differs from its intended meaning. Searle (1975) e describes indirect speech acts as In indirect speech acts the speaker communicates to the hearer more than he actually says by way of relying on their mutually shared background information, both linguistic and nonlinguistic, together the part of the A speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. It may include an obvious speech event of complaining, but it will also include other utterances leading up to and . The analysis of speech events is clearly another way of studying how more gets coomunicated than is said (Yule, 33. 2.6 Refusals The speech act of refusals represents one type of dispreferred response. Refusals are one of relatively small number of speech acts which can be characterized as a response to anothers act, rather than as an act initiated by the speaker (Gass & Houck, 1999: 2). Refusals, according to Searle (1977), commissives because they commit the refuser to performing an action Brasdefer, 2008: 42). response to requests, invitations, offers, and suggestions In response to requests, invitations, offers, and suggestions, acceptance or agreement are usually preferred, and refusing or rejections can mean disapproval of the interlocutor's idea and therefore, a threat to the interlocutor's face, w language without much delay, mitigation, or explanation, refusals tend to be indirect, include mitigation, and/or delay within the turn or across turns. The delay probably shows that the refuser has a good reason for refusing and may imply that the refuser would accept or agree instead if it were possible or practical. 2.6.1 Classification of Refu As previously mentioned, refusal is initiated by four types of acts: request, invitation, offer, and suggestion. Each type can be subcategorized in terms of their different communicative functions (Yang, 2008: 1047). The speech act of refusals represents one type of dispreferred response. Refusals are one of relatively small number of speech acts which can be characterized as a response to anothers act, rather than as an act initiated by the Gass & Houck, 1999: 2). , according to Searle (1977), belong to the category of commissives because they commit the refuser to performing an action ). Beebe et al. (1990) adds that refusals can be used in requests, invitations, offers, and suggestions (in Scarcella In response to requests, invitations, offers, and suggestions, acceptance or agreement are usually preferred, and refusing or rejecting are not. Refusals or rejections can mean disapproval of the interlocutor's idea and therefore, a threat to the interlocutor's face, while acceptance or agreement tend to be used in direct language without much delay, mitigation, or explanation, refusals tend to be nclude mitigation, and/or delay within the turn or across turns. The delay probably shows that the refuser has a good reason for refusing and may imply that the refuser would accept or agree instead if it were possible or practical. Classification of Refusals As previously mentioned, refusal is initiated by four types of acts: request, invitation, offer, and suggestion. Each type can be subcategorized in terms of their different communicative functions (Yang, 2008: 1047). 19 The speech act of refusals represents one type of dispreferred response. Refusals are one of relatively small number of speech acts which can be characterized as a response to anothers act, rather than as an act initiated by the belong to the category of commissives because they commit the refuser to performing an action (in Flix- refusals can be used in Scarcella, p. 55-73). In response to requests, invitations, offers, and suggestions, acceptance or rejecting are not. Refusals or rejections can mean disapproval of the interlocutor's idea and therefore, a threat to hile acceptance or agreement tend to be used in direct language without much delay, mitigation, or explanation, refusals tend to be nclude mitigation, and/or delay within the turn or across turns. The delay probably shows that the refuser has a good reason for refusing and may imply that the refuser would accept or agree instead if it were possible or practical. As previously mentioned, refusal is initiated by four types of acts: request, invitation, offer, and suggestion. Each type can be subcategorized in terms of their 34. 2.6.1.1 Refusals of Requests A request is an act of asking politely or formally for something. Request as an initiating act is divided into four types: 1. Request for favor (e.g. borrowing or help) 2. Request for permission/acceptance/agreement (e.g. job aplication) 3. Request for information/advice 4. Request for action (e.g. payment) 2.6.1.2 Refusals of Offers An offer is an expression of readiness to do or give something. Offer as an initiating act is divided into four types: 1. Gift offer 2. Favor offer (e.g. giving a ride) 3. Food/drink 4. Opportunity offer (e.g. job, promotion) 2.6.1.3 Refusals of Invitations An invitation is a written or verbal request inviting someone to go somewhere or to do something. types: ritual invitation 1. Ritual invitation functions as a leave unspecific expressions of invitation, the inviter shows the willingness Refusals of Requests an act of asking politely or formally for something. Request as an initiating act is divided into four types: Request for favor (e.g. borrowing or help) Request for permission/acceptance/agreement (e.g. job aplication) Request for information/advice (e.g. product information) Request for action (e.g. payment) Refusals of Offers An offer is an expression of readiness to do or give something. Offer as an initiating act is divided into four types: Favor offer (e.g. giving a ride) Food/drink offer Opportunity offer (e.g. job, promotion) Refusals of Invitations An invitation is a written or verbal request inviting someone to go somewhere or to do something. Invitation as an initiating act is divided into two ritual invitation, and real invitation. Ritual invitation often occurs at the end of the interactions. It functions as a leave-taking act between interlocutors. Through unspecific expressions of invitation, the inviter shows the willingness 20 an act of asking politely or formally for something. Request as Request for permission/acceptance/agreement (e.g. job aplication) (e.g. product information) An offer is an expression of readiness to do or give something. Offer as an An invitation is a written or verbal request inviting someone to go ct is divided into two often occurs at the end of the interactions. It taking act between interlocutors. Through unspecific expressions of invitation, the inviter shows the willingness 35. of maintaining relationship with the listener in the future. For example Come to visit me some time. 2. Real invitation, and functions as an invitation with me to the 2.6.1.4 Refusals of Suggestion A suggestion is an idea or plan put forward for consideration. as initiating act is divided into suggestion. 1. Solicited suggestion: the suggestions asked by the 2. Unsolicited suggestion: the suggestions voluntarily given by the interlocutor a. Personal suggestion: the suggestions given by the speaker to establish or/and maintain the relationship between the listener. Show concern: wear more clothes. Develop conversation rapport: home earlier! Establish or show membership in a group: consider you as my insider, I suggest you not go. of maintaining relationship with the listener in the future. For example Come to visit me some time. eal invitation, shows speakers sincere intention to treat the listener and functions as an invitation. For example Do you want to come with me to the movie? Suggestions A suggestion is an idea or plan put forward for consideration. as initiating act is divided into two types: solicited suggestion Solicited suggestion: the suggestions asked by the interlocutor Unsolicited suggestion: the suggestions voluntarily given by the interlocutor Personal suggestion: the suggestions given by the speaker to establish or/and maintain the relationship between the listener. Show concern: The weather is getting cold. Youd better wear more clothes. Develop conversation rapport: Time is running late. Go home earlier! Establish or show membership in a group: consider you as my insider, I suggest you not go. 21 of maintaining relationship with the listener in the future. For example shows speakers sincere intention to treat the listener Do you want to come A suggestion is an idea or plan put forward for consideration. Suggestion solicited suggestion and unsolicited interlocutor Unsolicited suggestion: the suggestions voluntarily given by the Personal suggestion: the suggestions given by the speaker to establish or/and maintain the relationship between the listener. cold. Youd better Time is running late. Go Establish or show membership in a group: Because I consider you as my insider, I suggest you not go. 36. b. Commercial suggestion: suggestions to guide thoughts or behaviors, such as the suggestions to buy by salesmen or advertisements. 2.6.2 Refusal Strategies Refusals often include explanations/reasons why such refusals are necessary. Refusal strategies function to reassure the recipient he or she is still approved of but that there are necessary reasons for the refusal, and that the refuser regrets the necessity for the refusal Beebe et al. (1990 categories: direct refusals; indirect refusals; and p. 55-73). In direct refusals, the speaker can use either performative verbs ( refuse) or non performative statements with a direct willingness/ability (I can't/I won't If a refusal response is expressed indirectly, the degree of inference increases as the speaker must choose the appropriate form to soften the negative effects of a direct refusal include the following strategies: 1. Statement of regret ( 2. Wish (I wish I could help you... 3. Excuse, reason, explanation ( have a headache 4. Statement of alternative Commercial suggestion: suggestions to guide others commercial thoughts or behaviors, such as the suggestions to buy by salesmen or advertisements. Refusal Strategies Refusals often include explanations/reasons why such refusals are necessary. Refusal strategies function to reassure the recipient of the refusal that is still approved of but that there are necessary reasons for the refusal, and that the refuser regrets the necessity for the refusal (Beebe et al., (1990) proposed a classification of refusals com categories: direct refusals; indirect refusals; and adjuncts to refusals In direct refusals, the speaker can use either performative verbs ( ) or non performative statements with a direct o I can't/I won't/I don't think so). If a refusal response is expressed indirectly, the degree of inference increases as the speaker must choose the appropriate form to soften the negative effects of a direct refusal (Flix-Brasdefer, 2008: 43). Indirect refusals may include the following strategies: Statement of regret (I'm sorry.../I feel terrible...) I wish I could help you...) Excuse, reason, explanation (My children will be home that night./I have a headache) Statement of alternative 22 others commercial thoughts or behaviors, such as the suggestions to buy by salesmen Refusals often include explanations/reasons why such refusals are of the refusal that is still approved of but that there are necessary reasons for the refusal, et al., 1990). proposed a classification of refusals comprised of three adjuncts to refusals (in Scarcella, In direct refusals, the speaker can use either performative verbs (I o and negative If a refusal response is expressed indirectly, the degree of inference increases as the speaker must choose the appropriate form to soften the negative Indirect refusals may My children will be home that night./I 37. a. I can do X instead of Y ( b. Why don't you do X instead of Y ( else?) 5. Set condition for future or past acceptance ( earlier, I would have... 6. Promise of future acceptance ( time I'll...) 7. Statement of principle ( 8. Statement of philosophy ( 9. Attempt to dissuade interlocutor a. Threat or statement of negative consequences to the requester ( won't be any fun tonight b. Guilt trip (waitress to customers who want to sit a while: make a living off people who just order coffee. c. Criticize the request/requester (statement of negative feeling or opinion; insult/atta terrible idea! d. Request for help, empathy, and assistance by dropping or holding the request. e. Let interlocutor off the hook ( okay./You don't have to. f. Self-defense ( I can do X instead of Y (I'd rather.../I'd prefer...) Why don't you do X instead of Y (Why don't you ask someone ) Set condition for future or past acceptance (If you had asked me earlier, I would have...) Promise of future acceptance (I'll do it next time./I promise I'll.../ ext ) Statement of principle (I never do business with friends. Statement of philosophy (One can't be too careful.) Attempt to dissuade interlocutor Threat or statement of negative consequences to the requester ( won't be any fun tonight to refuse an invitation). Guilt trip (waitress to customers who want to sit a while: make a living off people who just order coffee.) Criticize the request/requester (statement of negative feeling or opinion; insult/attack (Who do you think you are?/That's a terrible idea!) Request for help, empathy, and assistance by dropping or holding the request. Let interlocutor off the hook (Don't worry about it./That's okay./You don't have to.) defense (I'm trying my best./I'm doing all I can do 23 Why don't you ask someone If you had asked me ext time./I promise I'll.../ ext I never do business with friends.) Threat or statement of negative consequences to the requester (I Guilt trip (waitress to customers who want to sit a while: I can't Criticize the request/requester (statement of negative feeling or Who do you think you are?/That's a Request for help, empathy, and assistance by dropping or holding Don't worry about it./That's 'm doing all I can do.) 38. 10. Acceptance that functions as a refusal a. Unspecific or indefinite reply b. Lack of enthusiasm 11. Avoidance a. Nonverbal 1) 2) 3) 4) b. Verbal 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Finally, a refusal response is often accompanied by adjuncts to refusals which may preface or follow the main refusal response. Adjuncts to refusals include: 1. Statement of pos idea.../I'd love to... 2. Statement of empathy ( Acceptance that functions as a refusal Unspecific or indefinite reply Lack of enthusiasm Avoidance Nonverbal Silence Hesitation Doing nothing Physical departure Verbal Topic switch Joke Repetition of part of request (Monday?) Postponement (I'll think about it.) Hedge (Gee, I don't know./I'm not sure.) Finally, a refusal response is often accompanied by adjuncts to refusals which may preface or follow the main refusal response. Adjuncts to refusals Statement of positive opinion/feeling or agreement ( idea.../I'd love to...) Statement of empathy (I realize you are in a difficult situation 24 Finally, a refusal response is often accompanied by adjuncts to refusals which may preface or follow the main refusal response. Adjuncts to refusals itive opinion/feeling or agreement (That's a good I realize you are in a difficult situation.) 39. 3. Pause fillers ( 4. Gratitude/appreciation According to Gass & lengthy sequences involving negotiation of a satisfactory outcome. They proposed possible refusal trajectories involving Fig. 2:1 Possible refusal trajectories involvi 8) According to Gass & Houck (1999: 3 Initial Responses after an Initiating Act such as a request; similarly, there are a Pause fillers (uhh/well/oh/uhm) Gratitude/appreciation (Thanks for the invitation, but According to Gass & Houck (1999: 2), refusals are often played out in lengthy sequences involving negotiation of a satisfactory outcome. They proposed possible refusal trajectories involving negotiation, as seen in Figure Possible refusal trajectories involving negotiation (Gass & Houck, 1999 rding to Gass & Houck (1999: 3), there are a number of possible Initial Responses after an Initiating Act such as a request; similarly, there are a 25 Thanks for the invitation, but) Houck (1999: 2), refusals are often played out in lengthy sequences involving negotiation of a satisfactory outcome. They proposed negotiation, as seen in Figure 2.1. (Gass & Houck, 1999: ), there are a number of possible Initial Responses after an Initiating Act such as a request; similarly, there are a 40. number of possible Final Outcomes. The Initial Response and not coincide. Gass & Houck (1999 motion. Two general types of Initial Reponse by a Respondent are possible. The Respondent can either accept or not accept. An Accept in this case refers sincere acceptance, that is, an acceptance that is intended as agreement and is perceived as such. With Nonaccepts, the situation becomes more complex, particularly because numerous options confront a refuser. A Nonaccept can be expressed as a refusal, If the response is a Nonaccept, the Initiator can concur or go along with the Respondents Nonaccept, in which case the current interaction is resolved, and the Initial Response serves as the Final Outcom Initiator does not accede to the Respondents Nonaccept, the Initiator can attempt to work out a more acceptable resolution. This circumstance leads to negotiation, where negotiation is part of interaction in which interactants linguistic acts with the goal of producing a satisfactory Final Outcome. The Final Outcome refers to the resolution of the interaction, the status of the action (or nonaction) by the Respondent that is in force at the end of the inter In summary, refusals are complex speech acts that require not only long sequences of negotiation and cooperative achievements, but also face saving maneuvers to accommodate the noncompliant nature of the act 1999: 2). number of possible Final Outcomes. The Initial Response and Final Outcome may Gass & Houck (1999: 3) add that the Initiating Act sets the process in motion. Two general types of Initial Reponse by a Respondent are possible. The Respondent can either accept or not accept. An Accept in this case refers sincere acceptance, that is, an acceptance that is intended as agreement and is perceived as such. With Nonaccepts, the situation becomes more complex, particularly because numerous options confront a refuser. A Nonaccept can be expressed as a refusal, a postponement, or the proposal of an alternative. If the response is a Nonaccept, the Initiator can concur or go along with the Respondents Nonaccept, in which case the current interaction is resolved, and the Initial Response serves as the Final Outcome. On the other hand, if the Initiator does not accede to the Respondents Nonaccept, the Initiator can attempt to work out a more acceptable resolution. This circumstance leads to negotiation, where negotiation is part of interaction in which interactants performs a series of linguistic acts with the goal of producing a satisfactory Final Outcome. The Final Outcome refers to the resolution of the interaction, the status of the action (or nonaction) by the Respondent that is in force at the end of the inter , refusals are complex speech acts that require not only long sequences of negotiation and cooperative achievements, but also face saving maneuvers to accommodate the noncompliant nature of the act (Gass & Houck, 26 Final Outcome may ) add that the Initiating Act sets the process in motion. Two general types of Initial Reponse by a Respondent are possible. The Respondent can either accept or not accept. An Accept in this case refers to sincere acceptance, that is, an acceptance that is intended as agreement and is perceived as such. With Nonaccepts, the situation becomes more complex, particularly because numerous options confront a refuser. A Nonaccept can be , or the proposal of an alternative. If the response is a Nonaccept, the Initiator can concur or go along with the Respondents Nonaccept, in which case the current interaction is resolved, and e. On the other hand, if the Initiator does not accede to the Respondents Nonaccept, the Initiator can attempt to work out a more acceptable resolution. This circumstance leads to negotiation, performs a series of linguistic acts with the goal of producing a satisfactory Final Outcome. The Final Outcome refers to the resolution of the interaction, the status of the action (or nonaction) by the Respondent that is in force at the end of the interaction. , refusals are complex speech acts that require not only long sequences of negotiation and cooperative achievements, but also face saving (Gass & Houck, 41. 2.6.3 Refusal Sequences The linguistic expressions employed in a refusal sequence may include direct and indirect strategies ( (1990), refusals can be seen as a series of the following sequences. 1. Pre-refusal strategies upcoming refusal 2. Main refusal (Head Act) 3. Post-refusal strategies emphasize, justify, mitigate, or conclude the re For instance, a refusal example below shows an instance of a refusal sequence to a boss' request for an employee to stay at work two extra hours. Boss: I was wondering if you might be able to stay a bit late this evening, say, until about 9:00 pm or so. Employee: Uh, I'd really like to, but I can't. I'm sorry. I have plans. I really cant stay. Response Uh, I'd really like to but I can't I'm sorry I have plans I really cant stay Fig. 2:2 Refusal sequences uences The linguistic expressions employed in a refusal sequence may include direct and indirect strategies (Flix-Brasdefer, 2008: 42). Based on Beebe efusals can be seen as a series of the following sequences. refusal strategies: these strategies prepare the addressee for an upcoming refusal Main refusal (Head Act): this strategy expresses the main refusal. refusal strategies: these strategies follow the head act and tend to emphasize, justify, mitigate, or conclude the refusal response. For instance, a refusal example below shows an instance of a refusal sequence to a boss' request for an employee to stay at work two extra hours. I was wondering if you might be able to stay a bit late this evening, say, 9:00 pm or so. Uh, I'd really like to, but I can't. I'm sorry. I have plans. I really cant Refusal-sequences Strategy Pre-refusal Willingness Head act Direct refusal Post-refusal Apology/regret Post-refusal Reason/explanation Post-refusal Direct refusal Refusal sequences 27 The linguistic expressions employed in a refusal sequence may include Based on Beebe et al. efusals can be seen as a series of the following sequences. : these strategies prepare the addressee for an : this strategy expresses the main refusal. : these strategies follow the head act and tend to fusal response. For instance, a refusal example below shows an instance of a refusal sequence to a boss' request for an employee to stay at work two extra hours