Religion in the US
IntroductionReligion and Public LifeProtestantismCatholicsJewsMormonsKey Concepts
In most western societies, the last one hundred years have beencharacterized by an increasing trend of secularization, which meansthat religion plays a far less influential role in social and cultural lifethan it used to. In Europe, a growing number of people describethemselves as nonreligious, atheist (denying the existence of God)or agnostic (uncertain about the existence of God). Far less people goto church every Sunday than 50 or especially 100 years ago, and manypeople declare that they practice their faith “in their own way,” that is,outside any organized church. Education and marriage have longceased to be the monopoly of churches, as most countries created theinstitution of secular marriage and secular public school systemduring the late 19th century. As a result, religion has lost its earlierstrong influence over the moral education and world view of theyoung. Since divorce became legal and quite easy to obtain, themajority of marriages is no longer made “for life.” Sexual habits andmorality have been completely transformed: it is nowadays commonthat unmarried couples live together for years without marriage, andmore and more children are born outside marriage too. Although themassive role of Christianity in the history and culture of Europe isundeniable, many people would protest against the simple descriptionthat European countries are ‘Christian’, arguing that this isdiscriminative against the millions of nonChristian or nonreligious
people who live in Europe today.
While such trends and developments have characterized American society too, the US on the whole has remainedfar more religious than Europe. European visitors are often surprised by the fact that even relatively small townshave a large number of churches representing a bewildering variety of faiths. Sunday morning is still church goingtime in America: the majority of people drive to church or Sunday school (school providing religious instruction)together with their families. Most bookstores have an entire section of religious books, mostly about the Christianway of life, and many of these publications sell in impressive numbers. Bibles continue to be the nation's bestselling books. There are billboards along the highway with religious messages; people display their faith with suchbumper stickers as “Jesus Saves.” American currency bears the inscription “In God We Trust.” It is a common habitof politicians of both major parties to finish their public speeches with the phrase: “God Bless America.”
Such subjective impressions are supported by statistics. Although the Census Bureau is forbidden by law to askquestions about the religious affiliation of Americans, private research institutions do publish statistical surveysabout the role of religion in the US. According to the Fourth National Survey of Religion and Politics (see )conducted in 2004, for example, only 16% of respondents described themselves as ‘unaffiliated’ (not belonging toany church), but even 5% of the latter group said they believe in God “in their own way”. This means that more thanalmost 90% of people who answered the questions identified themselves as believers, and 84% are associated witha church. The survey published the following categories and figures (their meaning will be explained below):
Evangelical Protestant 26.3%
Mainline Protestant 16.0%
Latino Protestant 2.8%
Black Protestant 9.6%
Catholic (incl. Latino Catholic) 22.0%
Other Christian 2.7%
Jewish 1.9%
Other faiths 2.7%
Unaffiliated believers 5.3%
Secular 7.5%
Atheists, Agnostics 3.2%
As these figures show, the majority of Americans (about 55%) belong to one of the many Protestantdenominations. (The term ‘denomination’ means a religious group or sect; it is used as an official synonym of‘church’, which might mean a building as well as a distinct organization.) Their proportion was significantly higherin the past: half a century ago, an estimated twothirds of the population was Protestant, and in the 19th century,Protestantism was even more dominant. One reason for the relative decline of Protestant influence is the high levelof immigration into the US, since the majority of immigrants come from Catholic countries, especially from LatinAmerica. Catholics currently constitute slightly less than onefourth of the American population, and theirproportion is growing, due partly to immigration, and partly to their higher average birth rate. Catholicism isalready the largest single denomination in the US, since Protestants belong to more than one hundred larger andsmaller denominations.
After Protestants and Catholics, the third largest faith is Judaism, the religion of the Jews. Their proportion iscurrently below 2%, which represents a decline, partly because Jews no longer immigrate in large numbers to the
US (as they did in the late 19th and early 20th centuries), and partly because secularization affects Jewishcommunities too, and today a large proportion (maybe the majority) of ethnic Jews do not practice the ancientfaith.
In the table above, there are two general categories:“Other Christians” and “Other faiths”. Both include alarge number of small groups. The “Other Christians”include Orthodox churches (mostly the descendantsof Eastern and Southern European immigrants, such asRussians, Serbs, Romanians, Greeks, Armenians etc.),whose origins go back to early Christianity, as well asrecent independent Christian groups often founded inthe US, such as the LatterDay Saints (better known asthe Mormons), Jehova’s Witnesses, and other diversegroups.
“Other faiths” include nonChristian groups other thanJews, such as Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, but also recentorganizations such as Scientology. As the figures clearlyshow, American society is characterized by an unusual levelof religious diversity. Even though Christians represent theoverwhelming majority (about 80%), there is an enormous variety of churches and denominations, so no single religiousgroup may claim to represent the dominant part in American society.
Sociologists usually emphasize the role of local congregations as cohesive social institutions: the average Americanfamily moves to a new place several times in their life, and their integration in the new environment is muchassisted by the local church group. The churches also have a very important social role as they maintain schools,colleges, and hospitals, organize charity action to help the local poor, give aid to Third World countries, etc.
Religion and Public Life
Since this diversity, albeit to a smaller extent, has always been typical of Americans, one of the cornerstones of theindependent United States is freedom of religion. The religious clauses of the First Amendment of theConstitution laid down the two complementary rules. On the one hand, Congress must not establish any church,which means that no church can be declared official and supported by the federal government with laws and money(as opposed to Great Britain). On the other hand, Congress and the federal government must not discriminateagainst or persecute anybody for their religious faith. These rules have been later extended to all levels ofgovernment, including states, cities and towns, and reinforced by a number of decisions by the Supreme Court.
Of course, this does not mean that Americans have always been tolerant with people of different faiths. In the
second half of the 19th century, the Protestant majority of ‘old Americans’ were shocked to see the large number ofCatholic and Jewish immigrants flocking into the country, and AntiCatholicism and AntiSemitism characterizedlarge segments of the population. Similarly, followers of old and wellestablished churches watched suspiciously asnew ‘sects’ were founded, often by a charismatic leader: for instance, Joseph Smith, founder of the Mormon churchwas lynched by an angry mob in 1844. But such negative sentiments never entered official government policy:authorities allowed each group to settle down, build their own churches, and follow their own faith as long as it didnot conflict with state or federal laws (as it happened with the polygamy of Mormons, for instance). This longstanding tolerance of the American government attracted millions of people into the country over the years, manyof which fled their homeland because they could not practice their religion freely and openly at home. The
Massachusetts Puritans in the 17th century, the German Protestants of Pennsylvania in the 18th century, the Irish
Catholics and the Jews in the 19th century, or Christians of all sorts from Communist countries in the 20th centurywere all driven by the same desire for freedom of religious practice.
The fact that the Constitution forbade the government to prefer or discriminate against any church (this idea iscalled separation of church and state) has significantly influenced the relationship between religion and thegovernment in the US. For example, there are no legal or official religious holidays in the US. Christmas and Easterare important religious holidays for the millions of American Christians, but they cannot be made official federal orstate holidays, because that would amount to a preference for Christianity over nonChristian religions and so itwould offend the First Amendment. (An interesting consequence of this religious neutrality is that Americangreeting cards often carry the message “Happy Holidays!” or “Season’s Greetings” instead of “Merry Christmas!” or“Happy Easter!”) All religious organizations are free from all taxation, because taxes could be used as a tool ofpolitical discrimination and pressure. On the other hand, no level of government may provide any financialresources for religious purposes, because that would also raise the suspicion that the city or the state governmentfavors certain churches over others. As a result, denominations support themselves entirely from the donations oftheir followers and private business operations (e.g. publications, lease of property etc.). Donations are taxdeductable, but churches receive them directly from individuals, not from the government ( so it is impossiblefor taxpayers to direct 1% of their taxes to a church, for example, as in Hungary). Sectarian schools do not receiveany government money either; they maintain themselves from tuition fees and money provided by the church or itsmembers ( unlike in Hungary where the government finances sectarian schools as well). The separation ofchurch and state is sometimes interpreted so strictly that it might appear funny for a European. For example,Supreme Court decisions forbade public schools (which are maintained from taxpayers’ money) to allow religiousinstruction on their premises (even after school time is over), to say public prayers, even to display the TenCommandments on classroom walls. In one case, even a Christmas display in December was declaredunconstitutional by the Court, because it was placed inside the city hall (a local government building)!
Such severe restrictions look strange especially because religion has always pervaded American political life.Despite the stringent bans mentioned above, it is considered completely normal that the word ‘God’ appears ondollar bills, in the motto of the seal of the United States, or in the Pledge of Allegiance to the American flag, whichis recited by millions of schoolkids every morning in public and private schools alike. During the inaugurationceremony, the new president takes his oath of office on the Bible, and the speakers on the occasion always include aminister who delivers a nondenominational benediction. Every session of Congress opens with a nondenominational prayer. Politicians frequently make reference to God and the Bible in their speeches. They do allthis with a clear political purpose: in a society where so many people value faith in God and religion, politicianssend a positive message about their own character and their purposes if they use religious language or religiousmetaphors. But they are expected not to display any personal bias in favour of a denomination or a faith, andusually they do not emphasize their own religious preferences (especially if it clashes with some of the policies theysupport). Nonetheless, it is a telling fact that all the American Presidents have been active church goers, and all ofthem belonged to a Protestant denomination with the exception of the Catholic John F. Kennedy.
Protestantism
America’s religious roots are predominantly Protestant. The first English settlers in Virginia were mostly Anglican(the established church at the time), while the earliest settlers of New England were Puritans, a minorityProtestant sect in England in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Puritans were radical reformers whocriticized the Church of England for preserving many of the traditions and ceremonies of the hated Catholic church,and demanded strict religious discipline in private life too. They thought of themselves as God’s chosen people, andbelieved that God had elected, or “predestined,” only certain persons to be saved. Although nobody could be sure ofsalvation while on Earth, they viewed success and prosperity as an outward sign that God was pleased with themand counted them among the saved. Many people trace the American drive for success through hard work back tothis Puritan, or Protestant, work ethic.
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Protestants of many denominations immigrated to America from all overEurope, including Presbyterians from Scotland and Northern Ireland, Lutherans from Germany and Scandinavia,Baptists and Methodists from England, and members of various European Reformed Churches (among them Hungarian Calvinists). The followers of these churches often quarreled among themselves over theological andpractical issues and split up, forming several similarly named denominations that are almost impossible to bedistinguished from one another by the outsider.
The term Mainstream or Mainline Protestants is usually applied to the denominations that are thedescendants of these old Protestant churches. The most important Mainline Protestant churches include:
The Congregationalists, the denomination descended from the New England Puritans. In 1957 they united withother Reformed groups to form the United Church of Christ). Nowadays, they are a rather small group in the US,with less than 2 million followers (below 1% of US population).
The Episcopalians, the American branch of the Anglican Communion (they adopted the name ‘Episcopal Church’in the USA because the name ‘Anglican became unpopular after the US gained its independence from Britain). Theirestimated membership is about 4.8 million (1.7% of US population).
The Lutherans, the oldest branch of Protestantism, founded by Martin Luther in Germany and brought toAmerica by German and Scandinavian immigrants. The various Lutheran denominations together include about13.5 million followers (4.6% of US population), which makes Lutherans the third largest Protestant group in thecountry.
The Presbyterians, a form of Calvinism of Scottish or Northern Irish origin. They are also divided into a lot ofdifferent denominations, whose combined membership is close to 8 million (2.7% of US population).
The Baptists, whose origin goes back to 17th century England, but the church grew really large from the 18thcentury in the USA. The Baptists are distinguished from other Protestant churches primarily by their belief thatonly adults should be baptized. Baptists of various denominations constitute the largest Protestant group in theUS, having an estimated 47 million followers, over 16% of the total population. They are the dominant faith in theSouth, where they are organized in separate white and black congregations.
The Methodists, another church of English origin, founded in the 18th century by John Wesley, originally anAnglican clergyman, who came under the influence of Arminianism. Methodists mix Anglican and Calvinist ideas intheir theology but firmly reject the Calvinist doctrine of predestination. The various Methodist denominationstogether have about 20 million followers (6.8% of US population), making Methodism the second largestProtestant group.
Besides their long history, Mainline Protestants share other similarities, primarily in their moderate – criticswould call it liberal – theologies. Mainline Protestant churches tend to emphasize the communal role of faith andgive relatively little attention to doctrines. They believe that church doctrines should be adapted to social andhistorical changes but without abandoning the historical basis of Protestant Christianity. They tend to acceptdifferent and nonliteral interpretations of the Bible, arguing that the biblical text should be read with its historicaland cultural context in mind, and criticized by using man’s Godgiven reason. They are open to similarminded buthistorically different denominations; many of these mainline denominations established full communion with oneanother, accepting each other’s ministers, theological degrees etc. Most of them accept women as ministers, andtreat gays and lesbians with a certain degree of tolerance. The term ‘mainline’ was originally invented to suggestthat these denominations together gave the majority, the ‘norm’ of Protestantism in the US. However, as the tableabove showed, this is no longer true: most Mainline Protestant churches are in decline, whereas EvangelicalProtestant churches are growing, and have become the largest segment of American Protestantism.
The other major group of Protestant denominations is called Evangelical Protestants. The term might be
misleading for Hungarians, since evangélikus in Hungarian is the name of the Hungarian Lutheran Church(some of the Lutheran denominations in the US also call themselves ‘Evangelical’). But in English, the adjectivedoes not identify a specific Protestant group but rather a general attitude to
Allegedly "the biggest Crucifix in the Western
Hemisphere" in rural West Texas
Christian faith. The origin of the term goes back to the Greek euangelion (‘good news’), the name of the fourGospelsof the New Testament. So the adjective ‘Evangelical’ was meant to emphasize that these Protestant groupswish to return to the original word of the Bible and build their faith and religious life on it. The idea has importanttheological consequences. Evangelical churches are traditionalist or fundamentalist in their theologies, refusing togive up or modify certain doctrines that are no longer considered unquestionable by mainline churches. Thesedoctrines include the inerrancy of the Bible (the books of the Bible are inerrant, cannot contain any errors, thereforethe Bible is the ultimate authority in all questions of faith and moral life), the belief in the existence of heaven andhell, the expectation of Christ’s Second Coming in the near future, and the necessity of a personal conversion of eachChristian, a kind of spiritual rebirth with the help of Jesus (the socalled ‘born again’ experience). Evangelicals alsoemphasize personal devotion (active participation in church and community life), the spreading of the true faithamong others (it is almost always understood as converting others to their version of Christianity), and representingChristian values and principles in public life. As a result of these convictions, Evangelical Christians tend to dislikeMainline Protestants (they call them ‘liberal churches’ and see them as groups who strayed from the ‘true faith’) andhave little tolerance for groups who represent different or opposing views in religion or public life (e.g. Catholics,Jews, liberals, abortion advocates, gay and lesbian groups, etc.). Nowadays, Evangelical Protestants constitute astrong basis of support for the Republican Party (see The Republican Party).
None of the traditional Protestant groups listed above can be entirely separated from Evangelical Protestantism.Practically each of the traditional mainline groups have one or more splinter denomination that follow Evangelicaltheological ideas, so the dividing lines run not so much between different Protestant traditions, but betweendifferent denominations within the same tradition. For instance, the largest Baptist denomination, the SouthernBaptist Convention, has a fundamentalist theological orientation, so the majority of Baptists should be consideredEvangelical rather than Mainline. There are also many small and strongly fundamentalist Protestantdenominations, such as the Mennonites and the Amish, whose origins go back to the German Anabaptists of the
16th century, or the Pentecostals, who believe that true conversion to Christianity may only occur with the help ofthe Holy Spirit, and its outward sign is speaking in tongues.
Bookstore of the Church of God in Christ, a Pentecostal Protestant
denomination, in Memphis, TN
Worship services of Evangelical churches are usually less formal and liturgical than services of MainlineProtestants, and their followers usually consist of lowerincome groups. Both of these factors, as well as the activemissionary work in society and their simple and powerful message offering a solution to people struggling withpersonal problems, contribute to the rising popularity of Evangelical groups, usually at the expense of MainlineProtestants.
Since there is such a variety of Protestant churches in the US, it is difficult to characterize them as a group. Onecommon feature is that they usually lack formal priesthood: ministers (who are addressed as the Reverend JohnTaylor, for example) are trained in schools of theology, but they are not considered a group of people with uniquegifts (like priests in Catholic and Orthodox churches), only more learned and knowledgeable about Christiandoctrine. They are allowed – in fact, expected – to be married and have children to set a positive moral example totheir congregations. Mainline Protestants accept both men and women as ministers, but conservativeEvangelicals usually exclude women from the ministry. Most Protestants reject the visual representation of Christinside the church as a form of idolatry forbidden by the Bible. Therefore the visual appearance of Protestantchurches is typically simple and undecorated, lacking the colorful frescoes, pictures and statues of Catholic andOrthodox churches, looking more like lecture halls than a place of worship. Church services are usually informal,not having so strict liturgical rules as Catholic or Orthodox service: they almost always include singing of psalmsor gospels (in this sense, the word means church music especially popular among Protestant blacks) as well ascommunal prayers, but Americans are not surprised, for example, if a member tells about their experience in aforeign country as part of the Sunday service.
Catholics
Catholics ( ) constitute the second largest religious group in the US, and in the second half of the 20th
century, especially since the 1970s, their number and proportion has been rapidly growing in US society, as a resultof the largescale immigration of Catholic Hispanics from Latin America.
The first Catholics in America were missionaries from Spain and France. In the 16th and 17th centuries, they set up
churches in what is now Texas, New Mexico, California, and Florida. In the 17th century Catholics from England
settled the colony of Maryland. But the greatest influx of Catholics to America occurred in the 19th century.Catholics emigrated to the United States from Ireland and Germany between 1840s and 1880s, and from Easternand Southern Europe, especially from Italy and the territory of Poland, but also from Hungary and the
territory of modern Czech Republic and Slovakia, between the 1890s and the 1920s. Until the early 20th century,however, American society remained predominantly white Protestant. White AngloSaxon Protestants (WASPs)set the basic character of national life and were often intolerant of Catholics despite the official government policyof the freedom of religious practice.
The minority position of the Catholic church in the US has left its mark on the character and the social position ofthe church. Among ‘old Americans’ (earlier Protestant immigrants), Catholicism was considered a religion which issomehow alien from the American spirit and American values. The Ku Klux Klan, the infamous terroristorganization in the South, whose original aim was the maintenance of the segregation and inferior position ofblacks, also publicly incited hatred against Catholics and Jews. The Catholic faith is still associated in the US withcertain typical ethnic backgrounds: mostly Irish, Italian, Polish, or Hispanic. These ethnic groups were typicallypoor and often discriminated or unofficially segregated by the Protestant majority, therefore they looked to thechurch for help. As a result, American Catholics became the supporters of the Democratic Party, which was moresensitive to the needs of the poor than the Republicans. Also, American Catholics have traditionally been moreliberal in social and cultural issues than Protestants, especially Evangelical Protestants. For instance, mostCatholics opposed the Prohibition of alcohol in the 1920s. For most American Catholics it was a historicbreakthrough when John F. Kennedy became the first and so far the only Catholic to be elected President of theUnited States in 1960; his victory at the election symbolized the acceptance of Catholics as full and equal membersof American society.
The relatively liberal views of the American Catholic church has caused occasional controversies with the Vatican,especially since the 1980s, since many American Catholics resent some of the official policies of the church.Opinion polls show that the a significant proportion of American Catholics disagree with the church’s opposition tobirth control, while they would support such reforms as the marriage of priests or the ordination of women. In theearly 2000s, the American church was severely shaken by a series of media revelations about the sexual abuse ofyoung boys by priests (for details, see ). These cases happened in various places decades ago, but they werehushed up by church leaders, and the priests were allowed to stay in office, which dismayed members of the church.
Jews
Jews constitute about 2 per cent of the US population. Many Jews came to America during the late 19th and early
20th centuries, mostly from Eastern Europe (the Russian Empire, Germany or AustriaHungary) to escapepersecution or simply to find better opportunities in a society where freedom of religion was strict law. Similarlyto Catholics, Jews often encountered hostility and prejudice, especially before World War II. Despite that, theybecame very successful in many areas of life, for example Jews of various origins played a crucial role in thedevelopment of the American movie industry.
Today, the largest concentration of Jews is in New York City, but also many Jews live in Southern California. Themajority of Jews have become more or less secularized: they either do not practice their faith any more, or belongto one of the many liberal denominations within Judaism, which makes few demands on followers. But orthodoxJudaism is also present in the US. In fact, after the almost complete destruction of European orthodox Jewishcommunities by the Nazis, the US has the second largest concentration of orthodox Jews after Israel. Yiddish,originally the language of Ashkenazi Jews living in Eastern Europe, survived more in the US than in Europe.
The Holocaust has dramatically changed the perception of Jews in the US. AntiSemitism has practicallydisappeared from public life and politics, and, mostly under the influence of Jewish lobby organizations, the USbecame the strongest supporter and political ally of Israel.
Mormons
There is a particular Christian religious group in the US whose origins are also American, and that is the Mormonchurch, or, in their official name, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latterday Saints. They are not just anotherProtestant group, since they have developed a distinctive theology on their own, which disagrees with several basictenets of traditional Christianity.
The church was founded by Joseph Smith, a young and uneducated man, who claimed that he had receivedrevelations from the angel Moroni from 1823 onwards. The angel finally led him to find a set of buried goldenplates in 1827, written by the prophet Mormon, which contained the history of certain Hebrew tribes: they sailedto North America before the birth of Christ and became the ancestors of American Indians. Smith allegedlytranslated the text with divine help and inspiration, and published it as the Book of Mormon in 1830. He soonfound a group of followers who called him a modernday Prophet and venerated his ‘inspired’ translation of theBible (in fact, an imaginative revision) and the Book of Mormon as sacred. Smith and his group wanted to foundtheir city first in various places in the Midwest, but they were received with suspicion and hostility due to theirunorthodox religion, which included polygamy (having more than one wife). Finally, he was killed by an angrymob in an Illinois jail in 1844.
After his death, the group's leadership was taken over by Brigham Young, who decided to find a new home in the
West. They managed to cross the Rockies and settled at the Great Salt Lake in present Utah. In this semidesertarea, under incredible hardships, they managed to establish a prosperous agricultural and mining community, butthey were not admitted to the Union until they agreed to renounce polygamy in 1890 (although many Mormons arestill said to practice it). Mormonism is still the predominant church in Utah, and they have some 3 millionfollowers in the US, or about 1% of the population. The church is very rich, since each member is expected todonate onetenth of its income to the church. The moral code of Mormons is strict: they are forbidden to smoke, todrink alcohol, coffee or tea, expected to work hard and live virtuously. Each man is expected to spend a period oftime abroad as missionary, where they should work hard to spread their faith. As a result, Mormon missionariescan be regularly seen in their black suits, black ties and white shirt in Hungarian city streets too.
The most controversial feature of Mormons is their acceptance of the Book of Mormon and two other books asparts of the Holy Scripture. These books contain the letters, translations and revelations of Joseph Smith and otherearly prophets of the church. The church’s current president is always considered God’s Prophet, who is assisted bythe socalled Apostles, or highranking church leaders. They believe in the Godhead instead of the Trinity. Thesefeatures of Mormonism are unique within Christianity, and they have provoked a lot of criticism from otherChristian denominations, many of which consider Mormons to be altogether outside the acceptable limits ofChristianity. Mormons, on the other hand, are convinced that theirs is the only true kind of faith, and all the othersare in error.
Key Concepts
agnosticatheistBaptistBook of Mormonborn again ChristianCatholiccongregationCongregationalistEpiscopalianEvangelical Protestantfreedom of religiongospelGospelsidolatryJudaismKu Klux KlanLutheransMainstream or Mainline ProtestantMethodistministerMormon churchMormonnonreligiousOrthodox churchespolygamyPresbyterianProtestant denominationspsalmsPuritanssecularizationseparation of church and statespeaking in tongues (glossolalia)Sunday schoolReverendwork ethic Sources:
John C. Green, "The American Religious Landscape and Political Attitudes: A Baseline for 2004" Largest Religious Groups in the USA: E. Fiedler―R. Jansen―M. NormanRisch, America in CloseUp. 2nd Edition. London: Longman, 2001.Leonard W. Levy, The Establishment Clause: Religion and the First Amendment. New York: Macmillan, 1986.