Government of India Geological Survey of India
REPORT
ON PROJECT: IGCP-628
THE GONDWANA MAP (2013-2017)
By S. Ananda Murthy
Convener IGCP-628 & Director (P&A), CHQ, GSI, Kolkata
Final Report JULY 2017
Not to be reproduced in part or full without prior permission of the Director General, Geological Survey of India, Kolkata
628
Open File Report
C O N T E N T S
Page No.
ABSTRACT 1
CHAPTER-1 2-5
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Background Information 2
1.3 Role of NWG (India) in IGCP-628 3
1.4 Acknowledgements 5
CHAPTER-2 6-12
The concept of Gondwana 6
CHAPTER-3 13-36
3.1 ARCHITECTURE OF INDIAN SHIELD 13
3.1.1 Precambrian Cratons and Mobile Belts of India 13
3.2 CRATONS OF INDIA 15
3.2.1 Dharwar Craton 15
3.2.2 Bastar Craton 18
3.2.3 Singhbhum Craton 19
3.2.4 Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton 20
3.3 MOBILE BELTS OF INDIA 24
3.3.1 Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt 24
3.3.2 Southern Granulites 29
3.3.3 Central Indian Tectonic Zone 34
3.3.4 Mahakoshal Belt 35
3.3.5 Sausar Mobile Belt (SMB) 36
3.3.6 Suturing of south and north Indian blocks 37
CHAPTER-4 39-46
4.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF MOBILE BELTS IN GONDWANA RECONSTRUCTION 39
4.1.1 Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt 39
4.1.2 Southern Granulites 41
4.1.3 The Trivandrum Block, Peak Metamorphism during the
Ediacaran and Provenance 43
4.1.4 Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ) 44
4.1.5 Chhotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex 44
CHAPTER-5 47-51
5.1 PHANEROZOIC GONDWANA BASINS OF INDIA 47
DISCUSSION 52-53
REFERENCES 54-72
1
ABSTRACT
Indian shield is a collage of a number of cratonic crusts stitched together by Proterozoic
mobile belts. The cratons are characterized by Archaean nucleii with oldest dated age of 3.5 Ga.
A characteristic feature of these cratons are the presence of tonalite-trondjemite granite gneiss
and greenstone succession and a unique presence of 2.5 Ga intrusive granite. The Proterozoic
mobile belts bears the imprints of Columbian, Rodinian and Pan-African Orogeny and are
studied in detail for their relevance in reconstruction of Proterozoic supercontinents. Indian
shield, like other Gondwanaland countries, contains a number of Late Palaeozoic-Mesozoic
sedimentary basins which are localized along the zones of crustal weakness and represents a
sedimentary history spanning over nearly 200 Million years stretching from late Carboniferous
to Early Cretaceous. A comperative study of the sedimentary prism of these predominantly
continental basins with those of other Gondwana continents and a palaeogeographic
reconstruction helps in understanding the map pattern of Gondwanaland with the perspective of
Pangaea as well as the processes that lead to final disintegration of Gondwanaland.
2
CHAPTER – 1
1.1 Introduction
The Gondwana Map Project (IGCP-628) was originally proposed by Renata da Silva
Schmitt of Brazil, Maarten De Wit of South Africa, Alan Collins of Australia, Philippe Rossi of
France, Collin Reeves of The Netherlands and Edison Jose Milani of Brazil. The project was
taken up for a period of five years (2013-17) under the leadership of Renata da Silva Schmitt.
The basic objective of the project was to update the Gondwana map conceived by Prof.
Maarten de Wit and his colleagues in South Africa and published in 1988 by the AAPG.
The main objectives of the project are:
(a) A new Gondwana Map and sets of thematic map showing its evolution through time;
(b) A website providing to all the geological data taken into the project at the Gondwana
Digital Center of Geoprocessing (GDCG);
(c) Three complete book volumes about Gondwana;
(d) New detailed geology of key areas for correlation;
(e) An interactive 4-D GIS of Gondwana
(f) Creation of a permanent exposition at the Gondwana Memory Center (GMC), in South
America, with specimens, representative off all parts of Gondwana.
1.2 Background information:
Gondwana was recognized as a supercontinent and as such has played a pivotal role in
our understanding of supercontinent cycles. It was one of the largest and long lasting
supercontinents in Earth’s history, comprising five large continents (Africa, Australia,
Antarctica, South America and India) and many other smaller masses scattered today around the
globe (e.g., Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, Falklands and others now
embedded in Asia, Europe and USA). Amalgamation of Gondwana was complete at ca. 500
million years ago, during the Cambrian period, when marine life was flourishing and evolving
fast to (and) visible organisms. With time large intracontinental basins developed and registered
the evolution of life on Earth as plants and vertebrates migrated from water to terrestrial
environments.
3
The continental margins of Gondwana were very heterogeneous. The southern margin of
Gondwana was characterized by active tectonics, with subduction zones, collisions and accretion
of new terranes along the Gondwanides. The northern margin of Gondwana – facing the Tethys
Ocean- was entirely different, with stable, wide continental shelves and shallow seas from
Northern Africa to Papua New Guinea. This extensional tectonic setting allowed small
continental blocks to separate from Gondwana, drifting away to be deformed and welded onto
Laurasia. Gondwana started to break up into several land fragments evolving steadily in to the
present- day picture of the continents and oceans on Earth.
Gondwana research involves the understanding of the evolution of our planet, its
climatic, thermal and tectonic processes and the evolution of life itself. Since 1872, when the
geologist Medlicott first used the nomenclature Gondwana from India, through the definition of
the Gondwana Land by Sues in 1885 and the first maps by Wegener and Du Toit in the dawn of
the twentieth century, this major subject has been investigated by many scientists worldwide.
Geological map of Gondwana conceived by Prof. Maarten de Wit and his colleagues in South
Africa was published in 1988 by the AAPG. Much new data, particularly based on recent
available geochronology has been generated since. This lead to the proposal “The Gondwana
Map Project” aims to update the Gondwana Map of de Wit with an approach of the 21st century.
Since 1988, the geological data for the regions concerned have improved incredibly in the wake
of new geochronological laboratories and investigative methodologies. Thorough airborne
geophysical reconnaissance has been extended across most parts of the constituent continents. It
has been planned to prepare a new GIS data- base, with a dynamic digital process that will allow
the construction not just an improved Gondwana Map but also a wide variety of maps showing
the evolution of this supercontinent. Geophysical advances at continental margins and oceanic
floors, the modelling of the restoration with new software and the analysis of satellite imagery
permits scientifically rigorous reconstruction of Gondwana.
1.3 Role of NWG (India) in IGCP-628:
In the 39th Session of INC for IGCP, held on 30th January 2014 at Hyderabad Project-628
was approved for Indian participation. The National Working Group (NWG) for the project was
constituted comprising the following members.
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1. Shri S. Ananda Murthy, Director & Convener
2. Dr.Manas Roychowdhury, Director
3. Dr. Anjan Rai Choudhuri , Director
4. Shri Debashis Saha, Director (Geology)
5. Shri V.V. Mugal, Director
6. Dr.B.K.Sahu, Director
7. Dr. Sudip Bhattacharyya, Superintending Geologist
8. Shri Ashish Kumar Nath, Superintending Geologist
9. Dr. Vivek Prakash Malviya, Minerologist (Sr.)
10. Dr. V.V. Sesha Sai, Superintending Geologist
11. Shri Vakalapudi Srinivasa Chowdary, Senior Geologist
12. Dr. Saibal Gupta, Professor in Geology, Department of Geology and
Geophysics, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.
The NWG first met in Hyderabad on 24.02.2015 to discuss on the different technical
aspects of the project. It was decided to retrieve all available data from GSI publications as well
as recent national and international publications on the thrust areas related to the project. It was
also discussed that the focus of the project should be mainly on the cratons and mobile belts like
Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB), Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) and Central Indian
Tectonic Zone (CITZ) which are believed to be major inter-continental suture zones
transgressing the Indian shield to the adjacent Australia, Antarctic, Madagascar and African
plates. The large number of Proterozoic and Phanerozoic basins are present which although have
ramification in building major tectonic history of Gondwana but are not discussed in this write
up as these basins are intracontinental in nature and never transgresses the shield boundary.
Hence are not spatially correlatable with similar basins in other continent. Emphasis was laid on
separating the SWEAT orogeny and the Pan African orogeny based on geochronological data.
The final meeting of NWG was held on 20th February, 2017, where the final draft of the report
was prepared compiling the material provided by the members.
5
1.4 Acknowledgement:
Fruitful communication with Renata da Silva Schmitt is gratefully acknowledged.
Authors are grateful to the Director General, GSI for his continuous encouragement. Recent
compilations on ‘Cratons and Fold Belts of India’ by R.S. Sharma, (Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg 2009), ‘Precambrian Basins of India’ by Majumder and Eriksson (Geological
Society, Memoir No. 43), Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt by Mukhopadhyay and Basak (2009),
Nanda, (2008), Dasgupta et al. (2003), Saha et al. (2016), on Gondwana basins of India by
Mukhopadhyay et al., (2010), Veveers & Tiwary (1995) have greatly helped during the present
compilation. Many a data has been quoted verbatim from these compilations which is duly
acknowledged. Smt. Kasturi Chakraborty, Suptdg. Geologist has contributed in preparing the
write up on Southern Granulite Terrain which is duly acknowledged.
6
CHAPTER -2
THE CONCEPT OF GONDWANA
Earth's crust is constantly being reconfigured through the agglomeration and break up of
cratonic blocks which is termed as Wilson cycle. The first findings, which ultimately culminated
into visualization of Gondwana continent, go back to A. Brongniart, who described leaves of
Glossopteris, a fern, from Raniganj Coalfield, India (Gl. indica) in 1828. H.B. Medlicott (1873)
designated a particular group of sedimentary rocks with typical plant fossils, dominated by
‘Glossopteris’, as ‘GONDWANA’ after the name of local Gond Tribe from Satpura area in
Central India. Glossopteris was reported from similar rocks from Africa and South America in
1959 and 1995. Overwhelmed by the affinities between the fossils, both animals and plants, of
the Beaufort Group of Africa and those of the Indian Panchets and Kamthis, Blanford (1875)
suggested the former existence of a land connection between the two areas. He proposed that of a
large continent ‘Indo-Oceanic land’ appears to have existed from at least early Permian time up
to the close of the Miocene epoch; and South Africa and Peninsular India are the existing
remnants of that ancient land (Blanford 1875: 538). Eduard Suess (1885), however, was the first
to create the term Gondwana Land consisting of India, Africa, Arabian Peninsula and
Madagascar because of the common Gondwana flora. He extended the concept of Gondwana to
South America only later in 1909. He believed that these present day widely separated lands
were connected in the past through land bridge during periods of major regression.
Alfred Wegener (1912) presented his revolutionary hypothesis of “continental drift” that
the continents had once formed a single landmass, named as Pangaea (Fig. 2.1), before breaking
apart and drifting to their present locations. Wegener presented many evidences in support of his
hypothesis like matching boundary of continents, close faunal and floral similarities, presence of
sediments which indicate a climate, completely at variance with the present day latitudinal
position etc. but could not provide a convincing explanation for the physical processes which
might have caused this drift. His suggestion that the continents had been pulled apart by
the centrifugal pseudoforce (Polflucht) of the Earth's rotation or by a small component of
astronomical precession was not accepted as calculations showed that the force was not
7
sufficient. Wegener’s ideas were examined and rejected in British Geographical Society in 1923
and the American Association of Petroleum Geologists in 1926.
Fig. 2.1. The supercontinent Pangæa during the Late Paleozoic (~260 Ma) (reproduced from Meert, 2012)
Alexander Logie du Toit (1927, 1937), who worked extensively in Africa and South
America, was a staunch supporter of Wegener’s ideas of continental drift and is credited with the
preparation of first map of unified Gondwanaland solely relying on geologic trends and fits of
the continental margins.
During fifties and sixties of twentieth century, key discoveries that led to general
acceptance of seafloor spreading, correlation of mid-oceanic magnetic anomalies and plate
tectonics had a revolutionary impact on the understanding of Gondwana and its history
particularly through the introduction of plate tectonics by Wilson (1963) and a host of
geoscientists. Smith and Hallam (1970), compiling geological and geophysical data, proposed a
computer fit of the 500-fathom contour of most of the southern continents.
Gondwanaland was the first recognised supercontinent and as such has played a pivotal
role in our understanding of supercontinent cycles, though opinion varies whether to consider
Gondwanaland as a sensu stricto supercontinent or not (Hoffman, 1999). It was demonstrated
that available paleomagnetic data from the continents are consistent with the history of
8
Gondwana dispersal recorded by marine magnetic anomalies. Based on sea floor spreading
constraints and continental paleomagnetic constraints Marteen et al. (1988) prepared Apparent
Polar Wander Path (APWP) of different Gondwana continents for the last 150 years and had
shown the disposition of Gondwana continents in different time slots.
It was soon realized that amalgamation and disintegration of continental blocks are not
only restricted to Pangaea but is a cyclic process during the earth’s history (Wilson, 1966).
Original proposition of Runcorn (1962) of four phases of ‘orogenesis’ at 200Ma, 1000 Ma,
1800Ma and 2600 Ma has been almost precisely validated by compilation of U–Pb detrital zircon
ages by Campbell and Allen (2008) (Meert, 2012). In the last few decades besides Phanerozoic
Supercontinent Pangea, Proterozic supercontinent Rodinia were recognised and still older ones
like Columbia and others were proposed. Rodinia supercontinent was assembled around 1.3–0.9
billion years ago and broke up during 750–600 million years ago. Although recognised in the
1970s, McMenamin & McMenamin (1990) first proposed the name 'Rodinia' and produced
a temporal framework for the supercontinent (Fig. 2.2). A number of names has been proposed
for this supercontinent including Ur-Gondwana (Hartnady, 1986, 1991), Palaeopangea (Piper,
2000), Kanatia (Young, 1995) and Rodinia (McMenamin and McMenamin, 1990). The
corresponding global ocean surrounding Rodinia is called Mirovoi.
Fig. 2.2 Rodinia according to McMenamin and McMenamin, 1990
9
In spite of varied opinion regarding the disposition of different continental blocks, the
Rodinia concept is well established (Yoshida et al., 2003). The amalgamation of Rodinia
supercontinent is considered to be compeleted in a series of late Meso- to early Neoproterozoic
collisions clubbed under the term ‘Grenvillian’. Break up of Rodinia was completed by late
Neoproterozoic marked by rift and passive margin successions. (Dewey and Burke, 1973; Bond
et al., 1984; Dalziel, 1991, 1992; Hoffman, 1991; Powell et al., 1993, 1994).
Possibly Pre-Rodinia basement covered by Phanerozoic cover or ice
Exposed Pre-Rodinia basement 2.1-1.8 Ga orogens
Fig. 2.3. Reconstruction of the proposed Columbia Supercontinent. Symbols: B—Baltica (including Eastern Europe); CA—Central Australia; EA—East Antarctica; G—Greenland; IND—India; M—Madagascar; NA—North America; NC—North China; S—Siberia; SA—South America; SAF—South Africa; SC—South China; T—Tarim; WA—West Australia; WAF—West Africa; 1—Trans Hudson Orogen; 2—Penokean Orogen; 3—Taltson – Thelon Orogen; 4—Wopmay Orogen; 5—New Quebec Orogen; 6—Torngat Orogen; 7—Foxe Orogen; 8—Makkovik – Ketilidian Orogens; 9—Ungava Orogen; 10—Nugssugtoqidian Orogen; 11—Kola – Karelian Orogen; 12—Svecofennian Orogen; 13—Volhyn – Central Russian Orogen; 14—Pachelma Orogen; 15—Akitkan Orogen; 16—Transantarctic Orogen; 17—Capricorn Orogen; 18—Limpopo Orogen; 19—Transamazonian Orogen; 20—Eburnian Orogen; 21—Trans-North China Orogen; 22—Central Indian Tectonic Zone; 23—Central Aldan Orogen Zone; 24—Scotland. (After Zhao et al, 2002)
Rogers and Santosh (2002) and Zhao et al. (2002) conceived supercontinent Columbia,
containing nearly all of the earth’s continental blocks at some time between 2.1 and 1.8 Ga.
Columbia was so naned because the key evidence for its existence emerged from the relationship
10
between eastern India and the Columbia region of North America. According to Rogers and
Santosh (2002), at that time, eastern India, Australia, and attached parts of Antarctica were
apparently sutured to western North America, and the eastern margin of North America, southern
margin of Baltica/North China, and western margin of the Amazon shield formed a continuous
zone of continental outbuilding. The fragmentation of Columbia began at -1.6 Ga and continued
upto 1.4 Ga. Zhao et al (2002) proposed the configuration of Columbia (Fig. 2.3) through
compiling available lithostratigraphic, tectonothermal, geochronological and paleomagnetic data
from 2.1–1.8 Ga collisional orogens and related cratonic blocks around the world. Their
proposed fit of the North China Craton and India Shield (Fig. 2.4) was based on the presence of
2.5 Ga granitic intrusion in the two cratons and continuity of the CITZ into the Trans-North
China Orogen.
Fig. 2.4 Proposed fit of the North China Craton and Indian Shield (Zhao et al., 2002)
Based on evolutionary history, Gondwanaland is classified into East and West Gondwana
(Fig. 2.5). East Gondwana comprising India, Madagascar, West Australia, North Australia, East
Antarctica-Gawler and Sri Lanka is considered as a mega-craton since Neo-Proterozoic when it
was a part of supercontinent Rodinia (Hoffmann, 1991, Unrug, 1996; Yoshida, 1996). However,
palaeomagnetic data of 750Ma (U–Pb) of mafic dikes and granites from the Seychelles
microcontinent, considered to result from subduction beneath the peripheral continents of East
Gondwanaland and 755Ma Mundine dykes of Australia (Wingate and Giddings, 2000)
11
challenge the notion of a united East Gondwanaland since it was part of Rodinia. It is suggested
that much of East Gondwanaland was not amalgamated until the Cambrian (Meert and van der
Voo, 1997; Fitzsimons, 2000a, b; Meert, 2001).
Fig. 2.5 Gondwana assembly reconstruction showing location of Pan-African events (after Grunow et al. 1996). Pan-African belt: B, Brasiliano; DF, Dom Feliciano; D, Damara; G, Gariep belt; K, Kaoko belt; L, Lufilian arc; LH, Lutzow-Holm Bay; MD, Madagascar; Y, Yamato mountains; R, Ross orogen; S, Saldanian belt; SH, Shackleton Range; SL, Sri Lanka; SR, Sor Rondane mountains; Z, Zambezi belt. Other features: EM, Ellsworth-Whitmore Mountains; QML, Queen Maud Land; SF, Sao Francisco craton.
West Gondwana was made up of Amazonia, Rio de la Plata, São Francisco-Congo, West
Africa and Kalahari cratons (Alkmim et al., 2001). The deformation history shows that the
eastern segments of West Gondwana were amalgamated first, and cratons were successively
accreted to the western border of emerging Gondwana which was completed with the closure of
Araguia-Paraguia Ocean between Africa and Amazonian craton. Suturing of East and West
Gondwana occurred along the Neo-Proterozoic mobile belt of Arabia-Nubia-Ethiopia-Kenya-
12
Mozambique (Unrug, 1993). Each individual continental fragment within the Gondwanaland is
found to be a mosaic of several protocontinents with Archaean nucleii, amalgamated along
Proterozoic mobile belts (Unrug, 1996). Reactivation of deep ductile shear zones along these
mobile belts gave rise to the Proterozoic and Phanerozoic basins under renewed stress field.
13
CHAPTER-3
3.1 ARCHITECTURE OF INDIAN SHIELD
3.1.1 Precambrian Cratons and Mobile Belts of India
Indian shield is a mosaic of Precambrian cratons with relics of the Archaean crusts,
ranging in age from 3.6-2.6 Ga (Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986). Most of the cratons are
composed of granite, gneiss and greenstone belts. These cratons are stitched together by
Proterozoic mobile belts. There are four cratons in the Indian shield namely Dharwar, Bastar
(also called Bhandara), Singhbhum and Bundelkhand (including BGC in Rajasthan). The
Precambrian rocks in Shillong-Mikir Hills Massif is called the Meghalaya craton which is
separated from the remaining cratonic part of India by Rajmahal Trap and Gangetic alluvium.
Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum cratons, amalgamated along Godavari and Mahanadi sutures
respectively, collectively constitute the southern peninsular block of the Indian shield
(Radhakrishna and Naqvi, 1986). The southern peninsular block is amalgamated with the
northern Bundelkhand craton through the Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ). While some
authors consider Chhotanagpur Gneiss Complex as a sixth craton most workers are in favour of
considering it as a mobile belt and the eastward extension of CITZ. Apart from these cratons,
Southern Granulite occurring below Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone is also considered by some as a
craton, attached with Dharwar craton through Pandian mobile belt (Rabi Shankar et al., 1996).
The Pan-African orogenic cycle was the result of ocean closure, arc and microcontinent
accretion and final suturing of continental fragments to form the supercontinent Gondwana. It
seems clear that Madagascar, Sri Lanka, southern India and parts of East Antarctica were Part of
this process (Figure I), although the exact correlations between these fragments are not known
The Southern Granulite Terrane of India (Figure 3.1) consists predominantly of Late
Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic gneisses and granulites, deformed and metamorphosed during the
Pan-African event and sutured against the Dharwar Craton. Areas in East Antarctica such as
Lützow- Holm Bay, Central Dronning Maud Land and the Shackleton Range, previously
considered to be Meso- Proterozoic in age, are now interpreted to be Part of the Pan-African Belt
System (Figure 3.1)
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Fig. 3.1 Distribution of cratons and mobile belt of Gondwanaland around 540 Ma (after Kroner and Stern, 2005).
Continuity of CITZ and Pandian mobile belt beyond the limits of Indian shield has been
proposed in reconstructed Gondwana (Fig.3.2). Besides CITZ and Pandian mobile belt, the most
significant one in the Gondwana correlation scheme is the Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt which plays
a vital role in any scheme of Gondwana map project. A thorough understanding about the cratons
and the mobile belts is fundamental to any pan-Gondwanide correlation. In the following
sections the broad geological framework of these cratons and mobile belts will be discussed in
the context of intercontinental correlation.
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Figure 3.2. Continuity of lineaments and mobile belts beyond the limits of Indian Shield (After Stern, 1994)
3.2 CRATONS OF INDIA
The Indian shield consists of a mosaic of Precambrian metamorphic terrains that exhibit
low to high-grade crystalline rocks of paleo-archean to early paleo-proterozoic era. The cratons
are flanked by fold belts (Fig. 3.3), signifies that the cratons moved against each other and
collided to generate these fold belts (Naqvi, 2005 and Sharma, 2010).
3.2.1 Dharwar Craton
The Dharwar craton occupies about half a million sq. km area bounded by Deccan Trap
16
in the north and Southern Granulite Belt (SGT) in the south (Fig. 3.4). The eastern margin is
demarcated by Karimnagar Granulite belt (2.6 Ga old) and Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB).
Dharwar craton has been subdivided into Eastern Dharwar and Western Dharwar along
the western margin of 2.5 Ga old Closepet granite characterized by a prominent shear zone
through Chitradurga Shear Zone – Javanahalli - layered mylonite of Markonahalli near Kunigal
Fig. 3.3: Simplified geological map showing Archean cratonic nuclei and Proterozoic mobile belts in peninsular India (after map published in Saha et al., 2016). Tertiary and y-ounger cover rocks are omitted. SGT = Southern granulite terrain, EGB = Eastern Ghats belt, CITZ = Central Indian tectonic zone, EDC = Eastern Dharwar craton, WDC = Western Dharwar craton, ADMB = Aravalli-Delhi mobile belt, CGGC = Chotanagpur granite gneiss complex, NSFB = North Singhbhum fold belt, PGV = Pranhita-Godavari basin, NFB = Nallamalai fold belt, CB = Cuddapah basin, Ch = Chattisgarh basin, V = Vindhyan basin
which is connected with Moyar Bhavani (M-Bh) shear zones along the southern boundary of
Dharwar craton (Swami Nath and Ramakrishnan, 1981; Ramakrishnan, 2003). The volcano
sedimentary formations of the Western Dharwar craton comprise the Sargur, Kudremukh,
Bababudan, Shimoga, Chitradurga, Sandur schist belts, all of which have a broadly comparable
lithostratigraphy. The Sargurs, occur as enclaves within Peninsular Gneiss, are dated >3.3 Ga.
The Sargur Group, is represented by high-grade pelitic schists (kyanite-staurolite-garnet-mica
schists), fuchsite quartzite, marble and calc-silicate rocks, mafic and ultramafic (komatiite?)
volcanic. The rest of the more extensive belts are placed in the Dharwar Supergroup and are
considered younger (2.8 to 2.6 Ga). Peninsular Gneisses contain 3.4-3.58 Ma old basement
tonalitic gneiss enclaves (Nutman et al., 1992). The available geochronological data indicate that
17
the magmatic protolith of the TTG accreted at about 3.4 Ga, 3.3-3.2 Ga and 3.0-2.9 Ga (Meen et
al., 1992).
Fig. 3.4 Simplified geological map of the southern Indian shield (after GSI and ISRO, 1994) showing the Dharwar (-Karnataka) craton and its Schist belts, Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) and shear zones. Metamorphic isograds between greenschist facies and amphibolite facies and between amphibolite and granulite facies (i.e. Opx-in isograd) are after Pichamuthu (1965). Green-stone (Schist) belts in the Dharwar craton (Eastern and Western blocks) are: 1 = Shimoga, 2 = Bababudan, 3 = Western Ghats, 4 = Chitradurga, 5 = Sandur, 6 = Kolar, 7 = Ramagiri, 8 = Hutti. Locality: BR = Biligiri Rangan Hills, Ch = Chitradurga, Cg = Coorg, Dh = Dharwar, Jh = Javanahalli, Kn = Kunigal, S = Shimoga. Shear zones: Bh = Bhavani; Ch-Sz = Chitradurga Shear Zone, M = Moyar; M-Bh = Moyar-Bhavani (Sharma, 2010)
On the other hand, in Eastern block the volcano-sedimentary formations comprise the
Sandur, Ramagiri, Hutti-Kolar, Raichur and smaller belts of comparable lithostratigraphy with
prominent mafic–ultramafic komatiitic rocks. In contrast to Western Dharwar, the rocks of
Eastern Dharwar are much younger in age. The 2.6 to 2.8 Ga Schist belts are intruded by 2.5 to
2.6 Ga granites which are absent in Western Dharwar.
The schist belts of the two blocks show different metamorphic characters. Eastern Block
is characterized by low-pressure high-temperature metamorphism while Western Block
undergone high pressure, high-temperature metamorphism. The schist belts are N-S trending but
the metamorphic isograds are E-W trending increasing from greenschist facies in the north to
granulite facies in the south. Crustal thickness of Western Block (40—45 km) is much higher
than the Eastern Block (35-37 km) (Singh et al. 2003, Srinagesh and Rai, 1996).
18
3.2.2 Bastar Craton
Bastar craton is bounded by CITZ in the north, Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) to the
southeast, Godavari rift in the SW and the Mahanadi rift in the NE. The contact between Bastar
craton and EGMB represents a terrain boundary shear zone (Bandyopadhyay et al., 1995). Schist
belts and gneiss of Bastar craton show a general strike of WNW-ESE to NW-SE in contrast to
the general N-S strike of Dharwar craton.
The basement complex, known as Amgaon Gneiss ranges in composition from tonalite to
adamellite. It resembles with Peninsular Gneiss Complex of the Dharwar craton. The Amgaon
Gneiss also contains granulite facies rocks and intrusion of granites of different ages.
Geochronology of single grain U-Pb zircon ages gave 3580 ± 14 and 3562 ± 2 Ma for tonalite
gneisses to the east and west of Kotri-Dongargarh linear belt (Ghosh, 2003, 2004).
The volcanosedimentary succession of Sukma Group and Bengpal Group occur as rafts
within the Amgaon Gneiss and appear to form a synclinorium. Sukma Group shows higher grade
of metamorphism than the Bengpal Group. Amgaon Gneiss and Bengpal Group were affected
by granite intrusion coeval with Closepet Granite (Stein et al., 2004; Bandyopadhyay et al.,
1990; Sarkar et al., 1990). The Bengpal and the Sukma groups are overlain by the BIF bearing
Bailadila Group and bimodal volcanic bearing Nandagaon Group. This is followed by the
intrusion of 2.4 to 2.1 Ga Dongargarh and Malanjkhand granites. The Nandgaon Group is
overlain by Khairagarh Group and Chilpi Ghat Group. The acid volcanics associated with Chilpi
Ghat Group has been dated ~1.8 Ga (Sharma, 2010). These are covered by the Neoproterozoic
Chattisgarh Formations. The Sakoli Group of rocks occurring in the northern part are generally
correlated with the Chilpi Ghat Group.
Diiferent sets of mafic dyke swarms have been reported from southern Bastar craton
(Srivastava et al., 1996). Some of the dyke are cut by 2.3-2.1 Ga granite while the youngest set
has been dated as 1776 ± 13 Ma (Srivastava and Singh, 2003), 1891 ± 0.9 Ma and 1883 ± 1.4 Ma
French et al. (2008).
19
3.2.3 Singhbhum Craton
The Singhbum craton covers an area of about 40,000 km2 and is situated east of Bastar
craton separated by Mahanadi suture. Northern and southern boundary is bordedred by
Chhotanagpur Gneissic Complex and Eastern Ghats mobile belt while the eastern limit is
concealed under Gangetic alluvium.
Singhbhum craton is occupied by gneiss-granite batholith with linear patches of Older
Metamorphic Group (OMG). Granite bodies of Bonai Nilgiri and Chakradharpur are consider
equivalent to Singhbhum Granite. Iron Ore Supergroup (IOSG) flanks the eastern, western and
southern margin of the batholiths (fig. 3.5).
Fig. 3.5 Geological map of Singhbhum craton by Saha, 1994, simplified by Sharma (2010)
OMG is composed of amphibolite facies pelitic schists, garnetiferous quartzite, calc-
magnesian metasediments and metabasic rocks and is considered equivalent to Sargur Group of
Dharwar craton. OMG has been intruded by the tonalitic Singhbhum Granite Phase I and II
giving rise to Older Metamorphic Tonalite Gneiss (OMTG). The earliest date recorded from
OMTG is 3.4 Ga (ref. Sharma et al., 1994). Overlying Iron Ore Supergroup (IOSG), consists of
banded iron formation (BIF), metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks. Along the eastern border
20
zone of the Singhbhum Granite the BIF is intruded by a group of unmetamorphosed gabbro,
norite, and anorthosite. IOSG has been intruded by 3.2 Ga Singhbhum Granite Phase III (Sarkar
et al. 1979). The metasedimentary enclaves in the Singhbhum Granite from southern Singhbum
are dated at about 3.5 Ga (Saha, 1994). Sharma et al. (1994) gave the time span of 3.3-3.1 Ga for
the Granite phases I, II and III. The Younger Dhanjhori volcanics, followed by Chaibasa
Formation, rests unconformably over the IOSG and the batholith. The 2.2 Ga old (Pb-Pb age;
Sarkar et al., 1985) Soda Granite that syntectonically intruded the Chaibasa Formation fixes the
upper age limit of the Singhbhum Group.
3.2.4 Aravalli-Bundelkhand Craton
The Bundelkhand craton is a collage of two blocks i.e. (1) The Banded Gneissic
Complex-Berach granite (BBC) (Fig. 3.6), and (2) the Bundelkhand Granite Complex (BKC)
(Fig. 3.7) separated by a vast tract of Vindhyan sediments. The Great Boundary Fault passes
along the eastern limit of the BBC block. The two blocks are of same age and have a common
lithology with similar deformational events (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987, Mondal, 2003). The
northern, eastern, southern and western boundary is marked by Gangetic alluvium, Vindhyan
sediments, Deccan Traps and Aravalli-Delhi mobile belt respectively.
Bundelkhand Granite Complex (BKC) has similar evolutional history as other Archean
cratonic blocks world-wide (Sarkar et al., 1984, 1994, 1996 and 1997; Basu, 1986; Rahman, and
Zainuddin, 1993; Sharma and Rahman, 1995; Sharma, 1998; Mondal and Ahmad, 2001; Mondel
et al., 2002; Rao et al, 2004, 2005, Malviya et al., 2004, 2006, 2013 Verma et al. 2015).
Bundelkhand craton comprises mainly three litho-tectonic components, (i) highly deformed
gneisses-greenstone components, (ii) multiphase granitoid plutons and associated quartz reefs
and (iii) mafic dyke swarms (Sharma, 1998).
21
Fig. 3.6 Simplified geological map of Rajasthan craton (after Heron, 1953 and GSI, 1969. Blank area occupied by Proterozoic fold belts and sand cover. Abbreviations:
BL= Bhilwara, BW=Beawar, N=Nathdwara, M=Mangalwar. (Sharma, 2010)
Tonalite–trondhjemite–granodiorite (TTG) series granitoids and greenstone belt
assemblages from the Bundelkhand craton in central India reveal that it is a typical Archaean
craton. Two greenstone complexes can be recognized in the Bundelkhand craton, namely the (i)
Central Bundelkhand greenstone belt (Babina, -Mauranipur -Mahoba belts) along Bundelkhand
Tectonic Zone (BTZ) and (ii) Southern Bundelkhand greenstone belt (Girar, Madaura belts)
Singh and Slabunov (2015).
Fig-3.7 Simplified geological map of Bundelkhand craton illustrating prominent surrounding boundaries, greenstone belts, giant quartz reefs, mafic dykes and intracratonic basins (Modified After Basu, 1986 and Malviya et al., 2006).
22
The Central Bundelkhand greenstone complex contains three tectono-stratigraphic
assemblages: (1) High-Mg Basalt- basaltic andisetic amphibolites at place showing pillow
structure, and volcaniclastic meta-sediment. (Malviya et al. 2006) (2) Banded iron formations
(BIFs) and inter-bedded quartzite; 3) highly deformed granite gneisses of TTG series. These
supracrustal units are interpreted as remnants of supra-subduction crust of island arc affinity,
which have been tectonically emplaced onto continent during arc-continent-continent collision
Malviya et al. (2006). Malviya et al. (2006) propose that an alignment of greenstone belts along
the Bundelkhand Tectonic Zone is an Archean suture zone.
The southern part of the Bundelkhand craton contains a series of a E-W trending mafic
and ultramafic rocks, about 40 km in length and 2–4 km wide, that occur as intrusions within the
Bundelkhand Gneissic Complex (BnGC). They are confined between the Madawara-Karitoran
and Sonrai-Girar shear zones. Dunite, harzburgite, lherzolite and websterite are the commonly
occurring ultramafic rocks that have high MgO, Ni, Cr, PGE and low Al2O3, CaO, K2O, TiO2
and V contents, and shows peridotitic affinity.
The Girar Greenstone Belt, located in the southern part of the craton, consists generally
of metasedimentary rocks namely quartzites and BIFs. Quartzites are represented by fuchsite-
and hematite- bearing quartz arenite and lesser quartz pebble conglomerates that have been
subjected to low-grade metamorphism Zircons from quartzites give two U-Pb ages: 3432±9.7
Ma and 3252±6.4 Ma. The Sm- Nd isotope study of quartzite from the Girar belt shows that the
TDM is 3.29 Ga. This TDM correlates well with the U-Pb ages of zircon and indicates that the
continental crust in the Girar area began to form in the Paleoarchaean (3.4-3.2 Ga). Slabunov et
al. (2017).
Bundelkhand Craton was affected by at least four discrete episodes of Palaeoarchaean
TTG magmatism between 3.55 Ga and 3.20 Ga at regular intervals of 100–150 Myr. After a
period of about 500 Myr of near magmatic shutdown, it was followed by a relatively short-lived,
but more voluminous granitoid emplacement event during the Neoarchaean at 2.58–2.50 Ga,
during which minor granodioritic gneisses and voluminous granites intruded (Kaur et al., 2016).
An intrusive contact of the ~3.3 Ga old Mahoba TTG gneiss with the associated supracrustal
units and a zircon evaporation age of ~3.25 Ga obtained from a metabasic enclave within the
gneiss indicate the minimum age of formation of the supracrustal units (Mondal et al., 2002).
23
Jhosi et al. (2016) proposed that the oldest remnants of a Palaeo- to Neoarchaean
protocontinent consisting mainly of TTG granitoids and migmatites have existed at least since
3.5/3.3–2.7 Ga. Even older ages are found in zircon cores.
Saha et al. 2015 proposed that the crust-forming process in the Bundelkhand Craton
initiated in the same time-frame (~3.6 Ga) as that recorded from the Bastar and Singhbhum
cratons, a time-frame when continental crust formation became widespread throughout the
world. A major episode of tectonothermal activity is recorded in the Bundelkhand Craton at ~
3.44 Ga and this has so far been recorded only from the Singhbhum Craton. Therefore, it is
possible that the North Indian Shield cratons had similar Palaeoarchaean tectonothermal
histories. The similar Palaeoarchaean time-frames for the evolution of the Bundelkhand, Bastar
and Singhbhum cratons is support for the Bundelkhand Craton being part of the Ur
Supercontinent
The oldest cratonic nucleus of the Western Shield, known as the Banded Gniessic
Complex (BGC), often termed as Bhilwara Supergroup (Gupta et al., 1980; Sinha-Roy, 1985),
occupies a large tract in south and east Rajasthan. The BGC is predominantly a tonalite
trondhjemite (TT) gneiss, migmatite, granitoids (grey granodiorite to pink granite) assemblage
with subordinate amphibolite. The amphibolites have been divided into two litho-types, namely
(i) the older Sawadri Group containing komatiite, ultramafic, chert, basic tuff and carbonates and
are metamorphosed in amphibolites to granlite facies as at Sandmata, and (ii) the Tanwan Group
containing greywacke, amphibolite and carbonates which are metamorphosed in amphibolites
facies. Tanwan Group lack ultra basics but are associated with fuchsite-quartzite (Sinha-Roy, et
al., 1998; Mohanty and Guha, 1995). BGC has been dated at 2.89 to 3.3 Ga (Gopalan et al.,
1990; Wiedenbeck and Goswami, 1994; Roy and Kroener, 1996). The enderbite-charnockite
occurring as intrusion in the Sandmata complex yielded 1723 Ma age by U-Pb zircon
geochronology (Sarkar et al., 1989) indicating that the metamorphism is related with a much
latter mesoproterozoic event.
The 2.5 Ga intrusion of granitic plutons like Gingla granite, Untala granite, Berach
Granite, Ahar River Granite which are correlated with the Bundelkhand gneiss of central India
indicate stabilization of Rajasthan craton. (Gupta, 1934; Sivaraman and Odom, 1982; Choudhary
et al., 1984; Wiedenbeck et al., 1996a, 1996b, Roy and Kroener, 1996). Based on corelatable
24
lithology and age, BGC-Berach Granite and the Bundelkhand massif are considered to have
evolved as a single large protocontinent. (Mondal, 2003, Yedekar et al., 1990).
Metamorphic and structural parameters backed up by the geochronological data have
clearly demonstrated that the BGC was a crystalline basement upon which the rocks of the
Proterozoic Aravalli and the Delhi Supergroups have been deposited. Besides, evidences of an
unconformity between the BGC and the overlying supracrustals suites have also been proposed.
The Aravalli Supergroup (early Proterozoic) is represented by metamorphosed and complexly
folded clastic sediments with minor chemogenic and organogenic assemblages with interlayered
basic volcanic. It has been observed that the Aravalli Supergroup has been deformed by four
generations of folding/deformation. Aravalli metasediments were intruded by 1.9 Ga old
syntectonic Derwal granite during their first phase of folding (Naha et al., 1967; Choudhary et
al., 1984). The Delhi Supergroup (early to middle Proterozoic) comprises mainly carbonates,
metavolcanics, metasammites and metapelites, intruded by syn-orogenic granites and have been
affected by at least three phases of deformation.
3.3 MOBILE BELTS OF INDIA
3.3.1 Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt
The nearly 600km long belt of intensely deformed, high grade metamorphic rocks
running along the eastern coast of India bordering the Archaean Dharwar, Bastar and
Singhbhum cratonic blocks is known as Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt (EGMB) which has
important ramifications in the modelling of reconstruction of supercontinents Columbia, Rodinia
and Gondwana.
The main lithology is khondalite and charnockite with a host of associated rocks like
leptynite, enderbite, Augen gneisses, grey quartzo-feldspathic gneisses, alkaline rocks,
anorthosite, granite etc (Fig. 3.8). The granulites in the contact zone exhibit small scale discrete
shear zones characterized by mylonites and ultramylonites and localized veinlets of
pseudotachylite traversing the mylonite. Large bodies and mappable patches of migmatitic
charnockite traversed by metamorphosed mafic dykes occur within this zone. These migmatitic
charnockites often grade into granites produced by hydration and K-metasomatism.
25
EGMB is a composite orogenic belt comprising several domains characterised by distinct
geological histories and separated from each other by tectonic boundaries. Ramakrishnan et al.
(1998) recognised four zones i.e. Western Charnockite Zone (WCZ), Western Khondalite Zone
(WKZ), Central Charnockite-Migmatite Zone (CMZ) and Eastern Khondalite Zone (EKZ) (Fig.
3.9a). Godavari rift separates EGMB into two distinct entities the southern EGMB that include
WCZ and the northern EGMB occurring north of Godavari rift and include the remaining zones.
Rickers et al. (2001) identified several distinct isotopic domains (Fig.3.9b), based on Nd-model
ages which are transverse to the lithotectonic domains recognized byRamakrishnan et al. (1998).
Dobmeir and Raith (2003) proposed a classification of EGMB and the adjoining regions of lower
metamorphic grade into four 'Provinces' based on integrated structural, metamorphic and
geochronologic information. These are the (1) Jeypore, (2) Rengali, (3) Krishna and (4) Eastern
Ghats Provinces (Fig. 3.9c). Each Province has further been subdivided into domains. The main
rock types of WCZ are enderbite, charnockite and mafic granulite and minor khondalite.
Chromiferous ultramafic bodies (dunite, orthopyroxenite and chromite) and associated lenses of
layered anorthosite and their gabbroic/noritic variants have been emplaced in this granulitic
Fig. 3.8. Locations of Eastern Ghats Belt (EGB), its adjacent cratons and Proterozoic basins within India (inset). The map also shows broad lithological associations after Ramakrishnan et al. (1998) along with localities of anorthosite, alkaline rocks ophiolites mélange and layered igneous complexes (see text for details). Major shear zones are shown after Chetty and Murthy (1994). Abbreviations used are GR – Godavari Rift, MR – Mahanadi Rift, MSZ – Mahanadi Shear Zone, VSZ – Vamshadhara Shear Zone, NSZ – Nagavalli Shear Zone, SSZ – Sileru Shear Zone, KSZ –
26
Koraput–Sonepur Shear Zone, and EGBSZ – Eastern Ghats Boundary Shear Zone (Dasgupta et al., 2013).
lithopackage (Nanda and Natarajan, 1980). Southern EGMB experienced granulite facies
metamorphism related to Columbian orogeny unlike the northern EGMB where Grenvillian
granulite facies metamorphism is a pervasive phenomenon (Sengupta et al., 1999; Bhattacharya
and Gupta, 2001; Das et al., 2008; Mezger and Cosca, 1999; Rickers et al., 2001). Mezger and
Cosca (1999) suggested a major tectonic discontinuity between WCZ and rest of the EGMB.
Dobmeir et al., (2006) argue that the Krishna Province where Grenvillian ages are lacking may
be different from the Eastern Ghats Province.
Fig. 3.9. Divisions and classifications of EGB based on (a) lithological characters (modified after Ramakrishnan et al., 1998), (b) isotopic (Nd-model age) characters (modified after Rickers et al., 2001) and (c) combination of lithological, metamorphic and isotopic characters (modified after Dobmeier and Raith, 2003). Note that the isotopic domains in (b) are different than crustal domains in (c). The isotopic domain boundaries are marked by prominent shear zones as shown in (b). Note the red bold line marked as the proposed boundary between Domain 2 and Domain 1A (Dasgupta et al., 2013).
However, based on latest available data three distinct orogenic events have been clearly
established in EGB and accordingly the EGMB has been subdivided into three distinct domains
modified after Dobmeier and Raith (2003).
The Ongole Domain constituting the southern EGMB evolved during the ca. 1.7-1.54 Ga
orogenesis (Henderson et al., 2014; Dasgupta et al., 2013; Sarkar and Schenk, 2014; Sarkar et al.,
27
2014; 2015). The Eastern Ghats Province north of the Godavari rift, evolved during the 1.07-0.90
Ga Grenvillian orogenesis (Dasgupta et al., 2013; Korhonen et al., 2013). The northern part of
the Eastern Ghats Province and adjacent Rengali Province was subjected to 0.55-0.50 Ga Pan
African orogenesis (Crowe et al., 2001; Misra and Gupta, 2014; Chattopadhyay et al., 2015;
Bose et al., 2016).
Alkaline magmatic rocks occur discontinuously almost all along the western and northern
fringe region of EGMB from Elchuru in southwest through Kunavaram, Koraput, Khariar,
Rairakhol-Kankarakhol up to Badadangua in the northeast. Geochronological data indicate
recurrent alkaline magmatism during pulses in 1500-1400 Ma (Khariar and Rairakhol), 1300-
1200Ma (Kunavaram, Elchuru) and ~850 Ma (Koraput) (Sarkar and Paul, 1998; Aftalion et al.,
2000; Upadhyay et al., 2006) and 517 Ma (Biswal et al., 2007). Subsequently, the complexes at
Kunavaram (Gupta and Bose, 2004) and Koraput (Gupta et al., 2005) were shown to be
deformed and metamorphosed after emplacement. Nanda (2008) demonstrated that the Koraput
complex had intruded after a phase of granulite facies metamorphism, and was subsequently
metamorphosed along with the country rocks in a second event of granulite metamorphism.
Following this, Vijaya Kumar and Leelanandam (2008) considered the alkaline intrusive as
evidence of a rift setting and operation of Wilson cycle. According to them, the first rifting
initiated at ~ 2.0 Ga which was later converted into an Andean type continental margin by
convergent plate motion at ~1.85 Ga and final continent-continent collision by 1.55 Ga. The
second episode of rifting between 1.5-1.35 Ga, along the eastern margin of the thickened arc
crust, facilitated the emplacement of alkaline rocks and carbonatites (ARCs). The girdle joining
the sites of deformed alkaline rocks (DARCs) is inferred to be a Precambrian suture zone with
surface manifestation of a terrane boundary shear zone. The Mesoproterozoic basin inversion
and conversion of ARCs into DARCs took place either during Grenvillian or Pan-African
orogeny.
Amalgamation of EGMB with the Bastar and Singhbhum cratonic blocks has been
proposed to be either by oblique transpressional collison or thrusting and followed by strike-slip
movements (Nanda, 2008 and references cited therein).
Dasgupta and Sengupta (2006) observed that in EGMB, high Mg-Al granulites and calc-
silicate granulites provide evidence for UHT metamorphism (ca. 1000°C) at moderate pressures
28
(9-10 kbar) followed by near-isobaric cooling followed by near-isothermal decompression. Non-
extensional lithospheric thinning and/or heat input from basic/enderbitic magma are suggested to
be the causes of such UHT metamorphism on an anticlockwise path in this belt.
There are distinct sectorial variations in deformational style and metamorphic history
within EGMB (Nanda, 2008). Aftalion et al. (1988) identified polyphase deformation and
multimetamorphism during Grenvillean Orogeny, from migmatitic gneisses of Angul Sector.
Sarkar et al. (2007) identified five deformation phases in the Angul area, and correlated them
with two separate metamorphic cycles. Out of three major phases of deformation, the first two
phases are isoclinal with the development of strong axial planar foliation while third deformation
produced open-tight upright folds and localised axial planar fabric. They suggested that during
first phase of deformation strong metamorphic differentiation fabric (S1) related to the earliest
granulite facies event developed (D1-M1). Repeated phases of neosome development took place
during D2 and D3 under amphibolite to granulite facies. Augen gneisses and grey quartzo-
feldspathic gneisses formed between D1 and D2 and D2 and D3 respectively during a 1100-1150
Ma compressional tectonism while leptynites formed during D3. A late deformation (Dlate)
manifests as open folds, kink bands and fractures during which local charnockitisation and
emplacement of granitic pegmatites took place. Charnockite formation was linked to an
extensional tectonic regime that was dated at ~950 Ma (Aftalion et al., 1988). Granite pegmatite
was dated at ~850 Ma (Halden et al. 1982).
Utilising the evidence from the occurrences of ophiolite fragments, anorthosite and
alkaline bodies, a 'Great Indian Proterozoic Fold Belt' encompassing EGMB, Singhbhum mobile
belt, Central Indian Tectonic Zone, Aravalli and Delhi fold belts has been envisaged by
Leelanadam et al., (2006) somewhat similar to the model of Radhakrishna and Naqvi (1986).
Upadhyay (2006) suggests that the collisional suture zone is superimposed on a (1.4-1.3
Ga) Mesoproterozoic rift which can be correlated to the breakup of the supercontinent Columbia
and opening of an ocean between eastern India and east Antarctica where the sedimentary
sequences of the Eastern Ghats Province (EGP) were deposited between 1.4 and 1.2 Ga. He
argues that the Grenvillian collision of eastern India with east Antarctica during Rodinia
assembly formed the EGP-Rayner Complex orogen where the EGP sediments and the rocks of
the Rayner complex were deformed, metamorphosed and migmatised at granulite-facies
29
condition. According to him, the Mesoproterozoic rifting and Grenvillian basin closure may
represent a Wilson cycle related to the break-up of Columbia and the assembly of Rodinia. The
craton Eastern Ghats suture was subsequently modified significantly during Pan-African
tectonism (0.5-0.6 Ga) when the Eastern Ghats granulites were thrust westward over the cratonic
foreland along a number of amphibolite-facies shear zones at the contact (Bhadra et al., 2004;
Bhadra and Gupta, 2016). The present crustal geometry exposes only the eroded Pan-African
thrust contact between the craton and the Eastern Ghats Belt and not the original Grenvillian
suture, which may be lying unexposed under the granulite thrust sheets.
Pervasive high-grade metamorphism recording the Grenvillian collision between 985 and
954 Ma in EGMB synchronous with that in the Rayner Province was inferred by Chatterjee et
al., (2008). According to them, the Pan-African shear zones between the EGMB and the Archean
cratons of India, and at Prydz Bay and south of the Rayner Block in Antarctica may record the
early Paleozoic assembly. Dobmeir et al. (2006) argue that the Eastern Ghats- Rayner Province
terrane formed part of Rodinia while the rest of subcontinental India remained as distinct
continental entity far away from Rodinia land mass.
3.3.2 Southern Granulites
Southern Granulite Terrain consists of three high grade metamorphic blocks joined together by
some shear zones (Fig. 3.10). From north to south these three blocks have been named as the
Northern Block, the Madurai Block and the Trivandram Block. The Northern Block, also known
as the Salem Block, is located between the Fermor line and the Palghat- Cauvery Shear zone
(PCSZ). The block is traversed by a complex network of shear zones which is collectively named
as the Moyar-Bhavani Shear Zone (MBSZ). On the western side of the block, wedged between
two major branches of MBSZ, lies the Nilgiri Block. The Northern Block represents a
transitional zone, showing a complex tectono-magmatic history dominated by Archean granite
gneisses and charnockite. PCSZ, marking the southern boundary of the Northern Block extends
westward into Madagascar.
The Madurai Block extends from Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone in the north to the
Achankovil Shear Zone in the South. A relatively younger granulite terrain is present south of
Achankovil Shear Zone which is known as Trivandrum-Nagercoil Block.
30
Nilgiri Block is believed to represent the deepest exhumed crust in Indian peninsula.
Paleo-depths estimated at Moyar shear zone range from ∼ 22kms (6-10kbar) to ∼35kms (8-
10kbar). It has been dated ca 2.55 Ga and is considered to be of subduction-related magmatic arc
origin (Samuel et al., 2014, 2015).
Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ) is a post-Archean dextral transpressive shear zone,
exhibiting ‘flower structure’ (Saha et al., 2016). It has been proposed that Madurai Block
subducted beneath the southern margin of Dharwar Craton during Gondwana amalgamation
(Santosh et al., 2009).
Fig.3.10. Sketch map of Southern Granulite province (after Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Ramkrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2006; Meert et al., 2006)
31
2.4 Ga eclogites from the layered anorthosite complex of Sittampundi represents very
high P-T (20 kbar, 1020°C, Sajeev et al., 2009). An accretionary prism model of ophiolite suite
during collision and continental growth was invoked for ca. 2.52 Ga trondhjemite Devannur
ophiolite from the southern margin of the Cauvery Shear Zone (Yellappa et al., 2012). Ram
Mohan et al. (2013) reported new U-Pb zircon age of anorthosite of Sittampundi, with magmatic
age of ca. 2.53 Ga and granulite metamorphism of ca. 2450 Ma. Geochronological studies from
Kanjamalai on high-pressure granulites also reveals Archean crustal formation and the
metamorphism in the Paleoproterozoic (Noack et al., 2013; Anderson et al., 2012). Anderson et
al. (2012) dated kyanite-garnet bearing granulite and inferred that the high-pressure texture grew
at ca. 2.49 Ga with P-T conditions 14-16 kbar and 820-860°C. A 2.48 Ga early Paleoproterozoic
peak metamorphism from garnetiferous mafic granulite was also reported (Noack et al., 2013).
Recent work indicates that the PCSZ has undergone two-stage evolution – by the end of Archean
and later during the Neoproterozoic. Ultramafic-mafic sequence from the Manamedu area
located within the Cauvery Shear Zone (CSZ), interpreted as an ophiolite complex (Yellapa et
al., 2010; Chetty et al., 2011) has been dated at 790 Ma by U-Pb zircon dating of associated
plagiogranite (Santosh et al., 2012) which are considered as remnants of the Mozambique Ocean
bed that existed before the amalgamation of Gondwana supercontinent. Massive granite plutons
(Sankagiri granite) intrusive into the hornblende gneiss occurring west of Cauvery Shear Zone,
has been recently dated at ca. 0.55 Ga and 0.8 Ga (Brandt et al., 2014, Sato et al., 2011b).
Cryogenian age (ca. 0.8 Ga) from layered complex in Madurai Block (Brandt et al., 2014; Teale
et al., 2011) are cited as evidences for amalgamation of Gondwana supercontinent (Santosh et
al., 2012; Santosh et al., 2014; George et al., 2015). Geophysical evidence also suggests that the
PCSZ is a deep crustal feature with indications of Moho-offset.
The Madurai Block has a complex tectonomagmatic-metamorphic history suggesting
repeated reactivations. This vast terrain of Madurai Block has been transected by the NNE
trending Suruli Shear Zone. Brandt et al (2014) divided the Madurai Block into the East Madurai
Block (EMB) and the West Madurai Block (WMB) on the basis of zircon and monazite
geochronology as well as geochemistry. They showed that there are evidences of repeated
reactivation in both the Madurai Blocks. WMB is dominantly constituted of late Neoarchaean
32
(2.53 – 2.46 Ga) magnesian charnockites and enderbites that have been reworked in early
Palaeoproterozoic (2.47 – 2.43 Ga) suturing of WMB with the northern granulites.
The EMB is dominated by vast metamorphosed supracrustal sequences deposited on late
Palaeoproterozoic (1.74 – 1.62 Ga) charnockite basement, retrogressed to hornblende-biotite
gneiss. Although zircon geochronology by Brandt et al (2014) suggests the basement age to be
around 1.74 – 1.62 Ga, Plavasa et al (2012) found evidences of older crust in detrital zircon (2.52
Ga). Brandt et al (2016) has updated their database and suggested that EMB basement records
older age of 2.05 Ga and therefore spans a period of 2.05 – 1.62 Ga. Both the blocks have been
affected by Tonian-Cryogenian (0.83 – 0.79 Ga) high temperature riftogenic event characterized
by mafic, anorthositic and felsic A-type magmatism. Finally the Ediacaran to Early Cambrian
(Pan African) tectonic event has affected both the blocks. Brandt et al (2014, 2016) suggested
that the EMB and WMB were brought together by convergent tectonic event in the late-
Neoproterozoic (ca. 0.55 Ga) that culminated in their collision along a SSW-NNE-trending belt
of ultrahigh-temperature metamorphic rocks, the Kambam-UHT-Belt, and was associated with
the intrusion of leucogranites (0.56-0.53 Ga). In their map (modified after the compiled
geological map of GSI), the authors have marked the southern portion of Suruli Shear Zone as
the Kambam UHT belt.
Geochronological data on the vast areas of EMB and WMB are scant. However, in
addition to the publications sited, Ghosh et al (2004) has zircon SHRIMP date in the Kodaikanal
massif of WMB and Sivagiri area of EMB. Based on their geochronological data, Ghosh et al
(2004) were the pioneer in suggesting that the WMB is in essence an age equivalent of northern
PCSZ. In fact, they extended the northern terrain further south into the WMB. Based on this data,
it can be concluded that the WMB essentially represents an older terrain extending up to
Achankovil shear zone that underwent high grade metamorphism during early Palaeoproterozoic
(2.47 – 2.43 Ga). The EMB has undergone a younger event in late Paleoproterozoic (1.74 – 1.62
Ga) of which as yet there is no evidence from WMB.
Renjith et al (2016) has studied the alkaline rocks on the western side of Suruli Shear
Zone and within the WMB. Their Zr U-Pb studies suggest alkaline magmatism at around 2.47 –
2.49 Ga and again at 608 Ma. Thus there are multiple reactivation events in the Madurai Blocks.
33
Several evidences of a 600 Ma orogeny have been reported by recent zircon studies of Vijay
Kumar et al (2016).
Brandt et al (2016), in their Gondawana Paleogeographic model has linked the
Western Madurai Domain with the Antananarivo Domain of central Madagascar and the
Paleoproterozoic Eastern Madurai Domain with the Trivandrum and Nagercoil Blocks of
southern India, the Anosyen–Androyan domain of southern Madagascar and the Wanni Complex
of Sri Lanka (Fig. 3.11).
Trivandrum Block, also known as Kerala Khondalite Belt (KKB) comprises an extensive
array of UHT metamorphosed supracrustal rocks that includes sillimanite granulites, garnet-opx
granulites, two pyroxene granulites, garnet-biotite gneisses and calc-silicates with peak
metamorphism during Pan-African Orogeny (Harley and Nandakumar, 2014; Taylor et al.,
2014; Johnson et al., 2015). It must be noted that Mg-Al rich UHT granulites are not yet
identified from the Trivandrum Block, however there are unpublished reports on Zn-rich spinel +
quartz assemblage similar to that of southern Wanni Complex, Sri Lanka. Kröner et al. (2015)
reported that granitic rocks of the Trivandrum and Nagercoil blocks were emplaced between
1.765-2.1 Ga, and were intercalated with meta-sedimentary rocks that must be older than 2.1 Ga.
However, Taylor et al. (2014) obtained 1.8-1.7 Ga detrital zircon ages from meta-sedimentary
rocks of Trivandrum Block, meaning that the sedimentary protoliths must be ca. 1.8 Ga or
younger.
34
Fig. 3.11 Unified disposition of India, Madagaskar and Sri Lanka
3.3.3 Central Indian Tectonic Zone
The Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) in Central India is a ENE-WSW trending zone of
suture between Bundelkhand Craton (BKC) in the north and Bastar Craton (BC) in the south
(Fig. 3.12). The CITZ comprises several low- to medium-grade supracrustal belts, gneisses,
granitoids and a few linear tracts of granulite belts. Some major shear zones define the
boundaries of the supracrustal belts and discrete terrains. CITZ was subjected to polyphase
tectonothermal events, from Palaeoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic, largely characterized by
contraction tectonic regime and attendant metamorphism and magmatism.
CITZ is over 1600 km long with a width upto 200 km (Stein et al., 2004), and is bounded
by Son-Narmada North Fault (SNNF) in the north and Central Indian Suture (CIS) in the south.
In between these extreme boundaries two more lineaments have been identified as Son-Narmada
35
South fault (SNSF) and Gavilgarh-Tan Shear Zone (GTSZ), (Yedekar, 1990). SNNF and SNSF
demarcates the boundary of Mahakoshal belt. Betul belt lies between SNSF and GTSZ. The
Mesoproterozoic Sausar mobile belt marks the southern domain of CITZ between GTSZ and CIS
(Roy & Prasad, 2003). Gondwana sediments are found to be restricted between SNSF and
GTSZ. CITZ records >800 Ma of protracted Proterozoic tectono-thermal and tectono- magmatic
history from Paleoproterozoic to Early Neoproterozoic as well as during Gondwana
sedimentation. The tectonic evolution of the CITZ overlaps with two supercontinent assembly
events (cf. Columbia, between 2.1 and 1.8 Ga and Rodinia, between 1.2 and 0.9 Ga).
3.3.4 Mahakoshal Belt
It consists of metasediments with pillow basalts, pyroclastics and ultramafics and
intruded by granitoids (Roy and Devrajan, 2000; Acharyya, 2003). The rocks are intensely
deformed with a number of ductile shear zones parallel to the regional trend of axial plane of the
dominant fold. The shear sense is mostly reverse-slip with occasional sinistral strike slip
component (Roy et al., 2000). Late to post-tectonic granitoid bodies and associated mafic
microgranular enclaves (MME) were emplaced within the Mahakoshal supracrustals and the
timing of magmatic emplacement of some of these granitoid bodies (e.g. Jhirgadandi Pluton) and
the MMEs have been dated between 1.76 and 1.75 Ga by U-Pb Sensitive High Resolution Ion
Micro-probe (SHRIMP) (Bora et al., 2013) and has been correlated with continental collision
during the assembly of Columbia (Bora and Kumar, 2015). On the other hand, Srivastava, (2013)
correlated this Paleoproterozoic felsic plutonism with mantle plume-activated lithospheric
thinning and rifting of the Mahakoshal belt, which is tentatively constrained at ca. 1.6 Ga. The
extension event led to the intrusion of dykes and plugs of mafic, ultramafic, alkaline and
carbonatitic rocks within the Mahakoshal supracrustal belt (Srivastava, 2013).
36
Fig. 3.12 Geological Map of CITZ (Roy & Devrajan, 2000)
3.3.5 Sausar Mobile Belt (SMB)
Sausar Mobile Belt is an agglomeration of metasedimentary supracrustals with pre-
Sausar (Tirodi Biotite Gneiss) migmatitic gneiss, felsic orthogneiss, cordierite gneiss with
enclaves of metaultramafites, metabasites, metapelites and mafic granulites (Bhowmik et al.,
1998; Acharyya, 2003). The Sausar Mobile Belt at the southern margin of the CITZ records two
orogenic events at ca. 1.66-1.54 Ga and ca. 1.06- 0.93 Ga (Bhandari et al., 2011; Bhowmik et al.,
2011, 2012, 2014; Chattopadhyay et al., 2015) which are linked with accretionary orogenesis
that led to the emplacement of Tirodi biotite gneiss (TBG) at 1.62 Ga from partial melting of
Paleoproterozoic, near juvenile source (Bhowmik et al., 2011), and near-coeval, episodic short-
lived granulite facies metamorphism between 1.66 and 1.54 Ga (Bhowmik et al., 2014) due to
crustal extension and in a periodic back-arc extensions and its final closure due to collision
between arc and back-arc systems along the presently disposed CIS leading to the growth of a
Proto-Greater Indian landmass (Bhowmik et al., 2011, 2014).
37
3.3.6 Suturing of south and north Indian blocks
Sausar Basin developed on the northern margin of the composite South Indian Block and
the BBG crust with the TBG basement between 1.54 and 1.06 Ga and closed during the
continent–continent collisional Grenvillean orogeny between 1.06 and 0.93 Ga (Bhowmik et al.,
2012; Bhowmik et al., 2014; Chattopadhyay et al., 2015) due to the underthrusting of the South
Indian Block (SIB) beneath the North Indian Block (NIB) which led to the final suturing of the
SIB and NIB, producing the Greater Indian landmass. Chattopadhyay and Khasdeo (2011)
proposed an oblique collision and transpressional deformation in granitoids along the Gavilgarh-
Tan shear zone, at the northern margin of the SMB.
The SMB and CGGC evolved through 1.6 to 1.5 Ga and ca. 1.0 Ga (Grenvillean
orogeny) (Roy, 2002; Acharya, 2003) orogenies. The Shilong plateau in the northeastern India
although considered to be the extension of SMB, however, presence of Pan-African orogenic
event in the Shilong Plateau and its petrographic characters appears to be more akin to Albany-
Fraser mobile belt rather than CITZ.
The available geochronological data implies that the ca. 1100 Ma and ca. 1600 Ma
orthogneiss units and the metasedimentary rocks constitute the basement of the NE Indian craton
overlain by the Proterozoic Shillong Group. The Shillong Plateau is located north of the 1100–
900 Ma, northwest-trending Eastern Ghats orogen, which was considered to be developed by
India-Antarctica collision during formation of the ca. 1100-Ma Rodinia supercontinent (Li et al.,
2008). The similarities in deformation and magmatic history of the Eastern Ghats Belt and the
Shillong Plateau suggest that the 1100 Ma and 550–500 Ma orogenic belts extend along the
entire eastern margin of the Indian subcontinent. Combined structural and geochronological
work reveals three episodes of igneous activity at ca. 1600 Ma, ca. 1100 Ma, and ca. 500 Ma
respectively. The 1600 Ma event may be correlated to the collision of two proto-India
continental blocks, the 1100 Ma event to collision between India-Antarctica and Australia–South
Tibet during the formation of Rodinia, and the 500 Ma event to the amalgamation of Eastern
Gondwana, the last two tectono-thermal events being associated with ductile deformation. The
first two events were contractional, induced by assembly of Rodinia and Eastern Gondwana,
while the last event was extensional, related to breakup of Gondwana from Rodinia.
Gondwanaland shows more than 10,000 km long chain of 530–500 Ma granitic magmatism over
38
Laurentian, European and Asian assembly of continents along the northern margin and with a
trench along the western and southern margins due to intense deformation and epeirogenic uplift
of cratons (Veevers 2004).
39
CHAPTER-4
4.1 Significance of Mobile Belts in Gondwana Reconstruction
4.1.1 Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt
The geology of the Eastern Ghats belt (EGB) explains the evolution of superhot
Proterozoic orogenic system(s) that went through stages of convergence and divergence of
continental blocks of India and east Antarctica. Based on chronological data EGB has been
spatially subdivided into multiple domains. It has been observed that some of these domains
have undergone distinct orogenic events. For example, the Ongole Domain in southern EGB
evolved during the ca. 1.7-1.54 Ga orogenesis (Henderson et al., 2014; Dasgupta et al., 2013;
Sarkar and Schenk, 2014; Sarkar et al., 2014; 2015). The Eastern Ghats Province north of the
Godavari rift, evolved during the 1.07-0.90 Ga Grenvillian orogenesis (Dasgupta et al., 2013;
Korhonen et al., 2013). The northern part of the Eastern Ghats Province and adjacent Rengali
Province witnessed orogenic events during 0.55-0.50 Ga Pan African orogenesis (Crowe et al.,
2001; Misra and Gupta, 2014; Chattopadhyay et al., 2015; Bose et al., 2016).
Metasedimentary rocks of Ongole domain show Paleoproterozoic to Mesoarchean ancestry
(Henderson et al., 2014; Sarkar et al., 2014), but opinions differ regarding the provenance of the
sediments. While according to one group its souce was the Dharwar Craton (Sarkar et al., 2014),
the other prefers Napier Complex (Henderson et al., 2014). Dasgupta et al. (2013) were of the
view that this domain evolved as a part of the accretionary belt of Columbia between the Napier
and Dharwar blocks around ca.1.8-1.6 Ga. Recent report of a high pressure metamorphism at ca.
1.54 Ga (Sarkar and Schenk, 2014; Sarkar et al., 2014) has been interpreted to result from the
final collision of the Indian and east Antarctic blocks. As there is no record of any major
subsequent tectonothermal event, it is postulated that Ongole domain was cratonized after ca.
1.54 Ga.
A large number of occurrences of pelitic migmatites, mafic granulites and calc-silicate granulites
showing UHT metamorphism are reported from Eastern Ghats province (review in Dasgupta et
al., 2013). The ca. 0.95-0.90 Ga metamorphic events in the Eastern Ghats Province match with
the Rayner Province of east Antarctica and these two belts evolved simultaneously as a part of
Rodinia (Dasgupta et al., 2013). UHT metamorphism in Eastern Ghats is unique and possibly
40
developed in a back arc basin within an accretionary system (Dasgupta et al., 2013). The final
docking was complete by ca. 0.90 Ga when the Eastern Ghats Province was mostly cratonized.
Rocks of Chilka Lake Domain of Eastern Ghats province show discrete rock association, P-T
evolution and preponderance of Neoproterozoic age data. Recent petrological, fluid and age data
from this domain presented a multistage evolutionary history (Bose et al., 2016). The peak UHT
metamorphism (900-950⁰C, 8.5-9 kbar) at ca. 0.98 Ga, was overprinted by three
tectonometamorphic events at ca. 0.78 Ga (800⁰C, 7 kbar), ca. 0.75 Ga (700C, 6 kbar) and at ca.
0.52 Ga (800⁰C, 6 kbar). The ca. 0.78 Ga event has been correlated with break-up of Rodinia and
the ca. 0.52 Ga event with Pan African orogeny. It is proposed that this domain was attached
with the Prydz Bay region of east Antarctica within the framework of Rodinia, got separated at
ca. 0.78 Ga and re-united with rest of India at ca. 0.52 Ga as a part of east Gondwana. However,
according to Saha et al. (2016) rocks of Chilka Lake area may not be part of the Eastern Ghats
Province.
Rengali province has been considered as a part of Eastern Ghats Belt in spite of its contrasting
petrological and geochronological histories (Mahapatro et al., 2012; Misra and Gupta, 2014;
Bose et al., 2015; Chattopadhyay et al., 2015; Ghosh et al., 2016). Based on recent petrological,
structural and geochronological data it is suggested that the granulites from Rengali
Province are of late Archean age and these can be correlated with the thermal pulses in the
Singhbhum craton (Mahapatro et al., 2012; Bose et al., 2015, Chattopadhyay et al., 2015; Ghosh
et al., 2016). This Archean metamorphism could be connected with the assembly of Ur
(Mahapatro et al., 2012). The Archaean metamorphism was followed by amphibolite facies
metamorphism of the supracrustals at ca. 0.98 Ga (Chattopadhyay et al., 2015) and a regional
transpression at ca. 0.5 Ga that caused rocks from middle crust to be thrusted over those of upper
crust (Misra and Gupta, 2014; Ghosh et al., 2016). However, whether juxtaposition of the
Rengali province with the Eastern Ghats occurred during the Grenvillian orogeny
(Chattopadhyay et al., 2015) or Pan African orogeny (Ghosh et al., 2016) is a matter of debate
and additional data is needed to resolve it.
41
4.1.2 Southern Granulites
Recent works present the Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ) as a crustal segment undergoing
two-stage evolution – by the end of Archean and later during the Neoproterozoic.
Earlier studies based on lineament mapping from satellite imagery regarded PCSZ as a post-
Archean dextral shear zone, reinterpreted later as the central part of a mobile belt (Pandyan
mobile belt). Early geochronologic work using Sm-Nd whole rock and mineral isochron ages
yielded ca. 2.9 Ga and 0.8 Ga ages of granulites from the Sittampundi layered complex
indicating Neoproterozoic reworking of the Archean crust. Subduction related magmatism and
metamorphism close to the Archean-Proterozoic boundary was also supported by later work on
the charnockites from the Salem block yielding ages between 2.52 Ga and 2.48 Ga (Clarke et al.,
2009). Reports of eclogites indicating P-T condition of 20 kbar and 1020°C, from the layered
anorthosite complex of Sittampundi is supplemented by recent metamorphic age of ca. 2.4 Ga
(Sajeev et al., 2009 and unpublished data). Geochronological studies (Sato et al., 2011a; Saitoh
et al., 2011) on granulites from Kanjamalai region near Salem, within the Salem-Attur Shear
Zone further confirmed magmatism and metamorphism during the late Archean. Ultramafic-
mafic sequence from the Manamedu area located within the Cauvery Shear Zone (CSZ),
interpreted as an ophiolite complex (Yellapa et al., 2010; Chetty et al., 2011) has been dated at
790 Ma from U-Pb zircon dating of associated plagiogranite (Santosh et al., 2012), the latter
work postulating remnants of the Mozambique Ocean in this belt, which supposedly existed
before the amalgamation of Gondwana supercontinent around ca. 0.55 Ga. Devannur ophiolite
from the southern margin of the Cauvery Shear Zone (CSZ), dated (U-Pb zircon) at ca. 2.52 Ga
from trondhjemite sample, has been interpreted as an ophiolite complex formed in an
accretionary prism setting during collision and continental growth (Yellappa et al., 2012). Ram
Mohan et al. (2013) reported new U-Pb zircon age of anorthosite of Sittampundi, with magmatic
age pegged at ca. 2.53 Ga and granulite metamorphism ca. 2450 Ma. Geochronological studies
from Kanjamalai on high-pressure granulites also underscored Archean crustal formation and the
metamorphism in the Paleoproterozoic (Noack et al., 2013; Anderson et al., 2012).
The southern part of the PCSZ with the presence of Mg-Al rich rocks and granites, has been
shown to have suffered Neoproterozoic metamorphism. West of Cauvery Shear Zone, massive
granite plutons (Sankagiri granite) intrusive into the hornblende gneiss at Sankagiri-
42
Tiruchengode region, has been recently dated at ca. 0.55 Ga (Brandt et al., 2014). However, there
are reports of ca. 0.8 Ga granites too (Sato et al., 2011b).
However, the extent of the PCSZ and the Archean crust has been debated (e.g., Collins et al.,
2014). Earlier work suggested that the Archean crust extends through the northern part of
Madurai block till the Karur-Kambam-Painav-Trichur (KKPT) shear zone (e.g., Tomson et al.,
2013 and references therein) based on the results from geochronological studies from the
northern part of Madurai block with Archean ages (Brandt et al., 2014; Plavsa et al., 2012;
Plavsa et al., 2014). However, report of Cryogenian age (ca. 0.8 Ga) from layered complex in
Madurai Block (Brandt et al., 2014; Teale et al., 2011) are cited as evidences for amalgamation
of Gondwana supercontinent in the Cryogenian (Santosh et al., 2012; Santosh et al., 2014;
George et al., 2015). Geophysical evidence also suggests that the PCSZ is a deep crustal feature
with indications of Moho-offset, marking PCSZ as a crustal block independent from the Madurai
block (e.g., Naganjaneyulu and Chetty, 2010).
The Madurai block is the largest and most studied crustal block of the Southern Granulite
Terrain and is bounded by the PCSZ in the north and Achankovil shear zone in the south (Rajesh
et al., 2013). The major rock types of this block are granitic gneiss, charnockite and granite, with
reports of UHT rocks from the central part indicating complex evolutionary history. Based on the
U-Pb ages from zircon a twofold division of the Madurai block into northern and southern blocks
separated by KKPT lineament and having different evolutionary history has been proposed
(Plavsa et al., 2012). However, Brandt et al. (2014) hypothesized that a belt of UHT granulites
divides the block into Eastern and Western domains with different evolutionary history.
Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) (~1000oC, 10-11 kbar) granulite facies metamorphic rocks have
also been reported from several localities in central region of this block (e.g., Collins et al., 2014
and references therein). The UHT assemblages reported so far include sapphirine-quartz, spinel-
quartz (Shazia et al., 2015 and references therein) and orthopyroxene-sapphirine-cordierite
(Shazia et al., 2012). The 0.55 Ga U-Pb zircon ages of the UHT rocks have been put forward to
indicate regional metamorphism during the Gondwana amalgamation (e.g., Collins et al., 2014).
However, the heat sources for the UHT rocks are yet to be understood.
Teale et al. (2011) also reported magmatism at 0.8 Ga from Kadavur anorthosite complex, which
lies to the east of the Madurai block, leading to the suggestion of Cryogenian magmatic imprints
43
within the Madurai block, possibly due to the southward subduction during the closing stages of
Gondwana assembly. Reports of association of granite and charnockite formed by the
Cryogenian magmatism from the southern part of the block near Rajapalayam also exist (George
et al., 2015). The granitecharnockite association and incipient charnockite formation are also
seen widely in the Munnar region as reported by Bhattacharya et al. (2014).
4.1.3 The Trivandrum Block, Peak Metamorphism during the Ediacaran and Provenance
Wide range of metamorphic zircon growth during the Neoproterozoic has been reported from the
Trivandrum Block (Kerala Khondalite Belt) and Achankovil Zone. While earlier estimates of
peak metamorphism ranges between 0.59 Ga and 0.53 Ga, through studies of a detailed
texturally controlled zircon age results, Harley and Nandakumar (2014) have suggested that peak
metamorphism occurred earlier than 545 Ma, Taylor et al. (2014) proposed from studies of
monazite growth that peak metamorphism was shortly after ca. 585 Ma and demonstrated later
zircon growth at ca. 0.523 Ga. Achankovil Zone situated to the north of Trivandrum Block
experienced relatively younger peak metamorphism (ca. 545-512 Ma) and sediment source age
ranging from 0.65-1.1 Ga (Taylor et al., 2015). The southern tip of Trivandrum Block, also
known as Nagercoil Block shows relatively older peak-metamorphic age at ca. 0.56 Ga (Johnson
et al., 2015) with a prograde age of ca. 0.57 Ga and retrogression at ca. 0.535 Ga.
That several stages of zircon growth and dissolution occurred during high-temperature
metamorphic evolution in the Trivandrum block is clear from the results quoted above. It must
be noted that Mg-Al rich UHT granulites are not yet identified from the Trivandrum Block,
however there are unpublished reports on Zn-rich spinel + quartz assemblage similar to that of
southern Wanni Complex, Sri Lanka. Kröner et al. (2015) reported that granitic rocks of the
Trivandrum and Nagercoil blocks were emplaced between 1.765-2.1 Ga, and were intercalated
with meta-sedimentary rocks that must be older than 2.1 Ga. However, Taylor et al. (2014)
obtained 1.8-1.7 Ga detrital zircon ages from meta-sedimentary rocks of Trivandrum Block,
meaning that the sedimentary protoliths must be ca. 1.8 Ga or younger. Further studies are
required for resolving the issues related to provenance and deformation histories of the
Trivandrum Block.
44
This Mozambique Belt represents the southern part of the East African Orogen and
essentially consists of medium- to high-grade gneisses and voluminous granitoids. It extends
south from the Arabian-Nubian Shield into southern Ethiopia, Kenya and Somalia via Tanzania
to Malawi and Mozambique and also includes Madagascar (Figure 2). Southward continuation of
the belt into Dronning Maud Land of East Antarctica (Figure 2) has been proposed on the basis
of geophysical patterns, structural features and geochronology.
4.1.4 Palghat Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ)
The Southern Granulite Terrane of India (Figure 1) consists predominantly of Late
Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic gneisses and granulites, deformed and metamorphosed during the
Pan-African event and sutured against the Dharwar Craton. Areas in East Antarctica such as
Lützow-Holm Bay, Central Dronning Maud Land and the Shackleton Range, previously
considered to be Meso- Proterozoic in age, are now interpreted to be Part of the Pan-African Belt
System.
4.1.5 Chhotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex
The E-W trending Chhotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex (CGGC) covers an area of
about 100,000 km2 and extends in the states of Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Orissa and West Bengal.
The Chhotanagpur Granite-Gneiss Complex (CGGC) is bordered on the north by Gangetic
alluvium, on the south by Singhbhum mobile belt, on the northeast by the Rajmahal basalt and
on the west by the Deccan Traps (Fig. 2.7).
The CGGC comprises mainly granitic gneisses, usually migmatized, and porphyritic
granite, besides numerous metasedimentary enclaves. The metased-imentary rocks, occurring
inside and outside the granitic gneisses, show varying degree of metamorphism, ranging from
greenschist (mostly in SE part of the CGGC terrain) to granulite facies (central and eastern part
of the terrain). Gneisses from central and granites from the western CGGC gave nearly similar
ages of 1.7 Ga (Chatterjee et al., 2008). The oldest age of >2.3 Ga of the gneisses of the CGGC
has been recorded from Dudhi area, west of Daltanganj (Mazumder, 1988).
The granulite assemblage in the CGGC is commonly represented by khondalite (garnet-
sillimanite ± graphite), calc-silicate granulite (scapolite-wollastonite-calcite-garnet ± quartz),
45
charnockite (hypersthene-granite), 2-pyroxene granulite with or without garnet, hornblende
granulite- all occurring as dismembered bands within migmatitic granitic gneisses, enclaves of
ultramafic bodies (hypersthene-spinel-hornblende ± olivine), lenticular or elliptical massif of
anorthosite and syenite bodies (Roy, 1977; Sarangi and Mohanty, 1998; Mahadevan, 2002).
Anorthosites and alkaline rocks are also locally abundant in the granulites. The granulites and
high-grade gneisses are reported from metamorphic belts located on the north and south of the
median Gondwana outcrops that were deposited in intracratonic rifts of the CGGC during Upper
Palaeozoic time. The southern belt is named South Palamau-Gumla-Ranchi-Purlia belt and the
northern belt is designated Daltonganj-Hazaribagh-Dhanbad-Dumka belt by Mahadevan (2002).
Euhedral zircon from the high-grade gneiss yielded U-Pb upper intercept age of 1624 ± 5
Ma while from massive charnockites in the vicinity the upper intercept age is 1515 ± 5 Ma. In
both cases the lower intercept yielded ca. 1000 Ma age, suggesting a thermal overprinting on
both gneiss and charnockite. Rounded zircons separated from basic granulites that occur as sills
and dykes within the hypersthene gneiss yielded 1515 Ma age (Acharyya, 2003).
The age of 1457 Ma obtained by Rb-Sr systematics of syenite in the Dumka sector is
taken to indicate the time of anatexis of paragneisses (Ray Barman et al., 1994). Well foliated
granitoid from the Ranchi Shear zone containing granulite facies supracrustals yielded Rb-Sr
whole-rock isochron ages of 1.7-1.5 Ga (Sarkar et al., 1988).
A weak Pan-African thermal event (ca. 590-595 Ma) is recorded in the fission-track
dating of mica from the Bihar Mica belt (Nand Lal et al., 1976). The U-Pb data on zircons from
massive charnockite yielded 1625 and 1515 Ma (Mesoproterozoic) while its recrystallization
ages are at 1071-1178 Ma, indicating Grenville orogeny. Acharyya (2003) and Ray Barman et al.
(1994) tentatively correlated the near isobaric cooling event at ca. 1500 Ma and the near-
isothermal decompression at ca. 1000 Ma.
Metamorphism in the vast terrain of CGGC reached middle to upper amphibolite facies
above 680°C and the granites were originated at depth and were emplaced as structurally
controlled plutons during F2 folding (Bhattacharya, 1988). In contrast to the high-grade rocks,
there is lower grade schist- phyllite-quartzite association at Rajgir and Munger (Sarkar and Basu
Mallik, 1982).
46
The CGGC is considered as an eastern estension of the Satputra fold belt or Central
Indian Tectonic Zone. Dasgupta (2004) states that the CGGC terrain contains comparable
geological milieu and tectono-thermal events as in the Satpura fold belt.
Available radiometric ages show that magmatic-metamorphic events in the CGGC
occurred at ~2.3 Ga, 1.6-1.5 Ga, and 0.9 Ga (Misra, 2006). In view of the dominant calc-alkaline
gneisses amidst the CGGC rock complex and their interleaving with the high-grade pelites and
calc-magnesian metasediments, some workers proposed that the CGGC was a magmatic arc (cf.
Bose, 2000).
Singh (1998, 2001) showed that the CGGC records two cycles of metamorphism-deformation.
The first cycle ended at 1.6 Ga during which enclaves of granulites and mafic/ultramaficl rocks
are formed with granite intrusions. The second cycle is considered to begin with Kodarma Group
(conglomerate, quartzite, metapelites, amphibolites and BIF), followed by intrusion of S-type
granite which have Rb-Sr ages in the range of 1.2-1.0 Ga (Mallik, 1998; Misra and Dey, 2002).
47
CHAPTER 5
5.1 Phanerozoic Gondwana basins of India
The Gondwana sedimentation commenced in Late Carboniferous after the Hercynian
orogeny (mid-Carboniferous), during which almost whole of land surface of Gondwanaland is
represented by nondeposition except the Tethyan margins.
During late Carboniferous, the Gondwana supercontinent rotated clockwise almost 180o
bringing the eastern and northern margin of Gondwanaland from equatorial position to high
southern palaeolatitude resulting in widespread glacio-marine and rift-related sedimentation in
many of the Gondwana basins during early Permian (Acharyya, 1998). The faunal and
palaeomagnetic data from South- and North China along with Tarim block, Indochina-East
Malaya indicate that they had been detached from Gondwanaland during Silurian time and
remained in equatorial position (Metcafe, 1993; Acharya, 1998; Mitra, 1996). The accumulation
of a cold-based ice sheet occurred over elevated land surfaces probably as a result of regional
uplift caused by collision of Laurussia and Gondwanaland (Veevers, 2004).
In South Africa, sedimentation occurred over four periods between 312 and 290 Ma with
each corresponding to a deglaciation sequence (Visser, 1997). Similar deglaciation cycles are
also reported from India from Talchir Formation culminated with the deposition of Sakmarian
fossil bearing horizon. Multiple marine transgressions caused by deglaciation covered part of
Palaeo-Tethyan and Panthalassan margins and extended deep into the plate interior in almost all
the continents except Antarctica during Sakmarian. Marine Eurydesma and Deltopecten fauna is
found in India, Western Australia, Madagaskar, Argentina (Harrington, 1955), South Africa
(Dickins, 1961; Dickins & Shah, 1977). It is proposed that major trough in between India and
Australia-Antarctica, Malagassy trough separating India-Madagaskar and Africa, acted as major
pathways which had intermittent connection with the Tethys.
During the retreat of sea following major Sakmarian marine flooding event a deltaic
condition prevailed in most of the Gondwana basins with the deposition of finer siliciclastic
marginal marine sequence, often associated with tuffs, as the upper part of Polarstar Formaton of
Antarctica, Prince Albert Formation/lower part of Vryheid Formation of Karoo basin and in
48
deeper part of many basins in India (Collinson, 1994; Ghosh et al., 2004). However, in some
small basins and proximal part of some larger basins, it is represented by coarse clastic
dominated proximal sequence where fluvial processes dominate and is known as Karharbari
Formation. Widespread occurrence of mature quartz pebble conglomerate at the top is likely to
be indicative of a pause in sedimentation of unknown extent. Similar depositional pattern is
reported from the Transantarctic Mountains where the fluviatile Fairchild Formation shows a
similar characteristic to that of type Karharbari Formation of subsidiary basins of DVB
(Collinson, 1994).
Large scale tectonic subsidence during later part of Early Permian caused the widespread
coal formation in many Gondwanaland countries including Barakar Formation in India under
post glacial warmer condition.
A major tectonic disturbance can be recognised from different parts of the Gondwanaland
with a rise in eustatic sea level during Middle Permian time. Tarim, Chang Tang, Sibamasu
blocks were detached from the Indo-Antarctic mass of East Gondwana with the opening of Neo-
Tethys (Metcafe, Acharya, 1998). Tholeiitic volcanism started in the northern margin of
Gondwanaland as found in Oman, Kashmir (Panjal Trap of 258-251 Ma, Stampfli et al., 1991)
and Western Australia along the divergent plate margin. In Sydney-Bowen-Gunnedah basins of
Australia transgression took place with active volcanism and associated tectonic movement with
deposition of coal in the later regressive phase.
Marine transgression took place during Kazanian almost throughout Gondwanaland. In
the northern and western margin of the Gondwanaland transgression took place under an arid to
semiarid condition as in Oman, Madagaskar, South America and western India. Thick clay
dominated sequence developed in East African Rift basins. In Madagaskar, the marine incursion
deposited Productus bearing Vahitola limestone at the top of Sakoa Group. This is associated
with renewed rifting resulting in an unconformity between the Sakoa and overlying Sakmena
Group. In East African rift basins, on the opposite side of the Malagassy trough, shale dominated
sequences deposited indicating high stand under arid condition (Krueser, 1994). In Satpura basin
Oolites, foraminifera are reported from the Motur Formation indicating marine incursion (Dutt &
Mukhopadhyay, 2001).
49
Occurrence of phosphatic nodules, chamosite, marine ichnofossils, oolites coupled with
high energy wave generated structures in many basins clearly indicate this rising sea level during
Barren Measures. It is proposed that marine incursions took identical path like the Sakmarian
transgression (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2010).
There is a fall of sea level at the end of Permian with deposition of nonmarine/deltaic
sediments throughout Gondwanaland except Tethyan margin. In Africa Lower Beaufort and
equivalent formations were deposited in lacustrine or fluvio-lacustrine condition. Occurrence of
warm-water mammal-like reptile (therapsid), calcretised beds indicate a semi-arid monsoonal
climate (Rust, 1975; Smith, 1990). The marine influence has been reported from eastern
Tanzania where increasing aridity in latest Permian resulted in dessication cracks, rainprints,
septarian nodules (Yemane et al., 1989). Marine condition existed in the northern part of
Madagaskar.
Permo-Triassic boundary, which often considered to coincide with the amalgamation of
supercontinent Pangea (Worseley et al, 1984; Scotese & Mecerrow, 1990), heralds a global
change in depositional environment, climate, physiography and in the ecosystem as a whole. Not
only in continental set up, a gap in sedimentation is present in almost all the marine sections of
the world suggesting a drop in sea level. A semi-arid condition prevailed all over the
Gondwanaland with the deposition of red beds for the first time in Australia, Antarctica and
eastern India. Deposition of coal seams completely stopped with a global drop in δ13Corg
(Morante et al., 1994). However, no major tectonic event is noticed across the boundary and
sedimentation continued unabetted in almost all the basins (Veevers et al., 1994) of
Gondwanaland. Although in some basins of western Gondwanaland P-T boundary marks the
initiation of a long hiatus encompassing almost whole of Triassic (Parana basin of South
America, Ruhuhu basin of northern Africa, Wardha, Kamthi basins of India).
In India, the Permian Raniganj and equivalent Formations grades into Triassic
formations. Although in many basins a pause in sedimentation is noticed at the P-T boundary.
All the formations contain red beds with typical Triassic Flora and fauna.
In southern part of Gondwanaland, there is a break in sedimentation during Ladinian
50
(~237-228 Ma) following the red bed bearing sequence. A major compressive tectonic
movement designated as “Gondwanides II” deformation by Veevers (2004) manifested by
volcanic eruptions, folding, thrusting took place following this lull affecting the southern margin
of Gondwanaland at around 230 Ma. However, this is not represented in the northern part of
Gondwanaland and the deposition of red beds continued unabated till Middle Norian.
End Triassic is marked by non-deposition throughout most of Gondwanaland that was
thought to coincide with epeirogenic uplift related to final coalescence of Pangea with the
closure of Permo-Triassic basins. In South Africa this period is characterised by aeolian strata.
A new set of rift basins developed within the interior basins of India and East Africa,
separation of India-Madagaskar from Africa, opening of pericratonic basins of Kuchchh and
Jaisalmer in the western margin of India, extrusion of huge tholeeitic lava in Karoo basin, Parana
basin. Eruption of mantle plume related basaltic lavas of the Drakensberg Group in South Africa
at 184 Ma (Turner, 1999; Storey and Kyle, 1997) marks the onset of Pangaean breakup.
Although the new sets of rift basins of India are located at the same site as the Permo-Triassic rift
basins but the basin architecture and the nature of deposits completely changed. The
predominantly coarse clastic-rich Kota and equivalent deposits (Suprapanchet/Lugu
Formation/Mahadeva/ Dubrajpur/ Bandhavgarh/ Hartala/Upper Panchmarhi/ Upper Kamthi)
were deposited during this time slot with a pronounced hiatus marked by an angular
unconformity at the base. This deposits show an overlapping relationship with the underlying
formations in all the basins. They are all quartzarenites with little clay content particularly at the
lower part. Palaeontological data is scarce from this lithounit. It has been demonstrated from a
number of basins that some faults are distinctly older than these sediments (Jowett, 1925). On the
other hand, new sets of faults develop before or during this time slot. The fault that expose the
Proterozoic Sulavai Formation at Chinnur postdate the Carnian Maleri Formation and possibly
predate and accompany the Early Jurassic Kota Formation, which derived conglomerate from the
uplift (King,1881, Veveers & Tewari, 1995). Similar relationship of faults is reported from most
of the Gondwana basins of India.
Palaeontological data, matching palaeopoles of Laurentia and Gondwanaland, tectonic
setting clearly indicate that although the extensional regime was established during Early
51
Jurassic, the amalgamated Pangaea maintained its existence almost throughout the time slot.
Rifting along the north-eastern passive margin of Gondwanaland resulted in the break up of
Pangea. Hankel (1994) considered that separation of Africa from India-Madagaskar took place at
180-170 Ma along the Malagassy trough, however, many workers consider the rifting along
Malagassy trough to have taken place at Late Jurassic during which Eastern and Western
Gondwana break up. This break up event is correlated with the oldest marine sediment within the
Indian Ocean (approximately 160 Ma). These marks the separation of East and west
Gondwanaland. It also marks the end of Jurassic sedimentation in the inland basins of India
although sedimentation continued in western pericratonic basins.
During Early Cretaceous, rifting propagated between India and Antarctica-Australia
giving rise to the opening of Bay of Bengal. Sedimentation took place in a number of troughs
along the east coast as well as along the marginal part of some basins. Break up of India from the
Gondwana was completed with the eruption Rajmahal Trap and its equivalents in India including
dykes and sills of lamprophyre emplaced within the Gondwana basins. Volcanic activity at about
the similar time is reported from different Gondwana basins of the world e.g. flood basalt of
Parana basin (130 Ma) Etendeka, Namibia (120 Ma) Bunbury basalt, Southwestern Australia
(130-135 Ma), flood basalt of Madagaskar (88 Ma).
52
DISCUSSION
Indian Plate has a complex geological history stretching from Archaean to Recent. The
cratonic areas are characterised by TTG suite – greenstone association and widespread
remobilisation resulting in multiple granite intrusion often nearly obliterating the original
basement upon which the initial supracrustals were deposited. The stabilisation of the cratons
was completed with the widespread emplacement of 2.5 Ga granite. This 2.5 Ga granitic activity
is unique of Indian Shield and North China which prompted Zhao et al. to place the two
alongside each other in his reconstructed Rodinia. A number of mobile belts are present within
the Indian shield which bears the imprint of tectonic movement that is correlatable with
Columbian orogeny as well as Grenvilean orogeny. Columbia assembled at ca. 2.1–1.8 Ga and
grew by long-lived accretionary orogenesis through ca. 1.3 Ga, before disintegration and re-
assembly as Rodinia at ca. 1.0–0.9 Ga (Zhao et al., 2004; Li et al., 2008). Disintegration of
Rodinia took place at around 8.75 Ga with amalagamation of Gondwana through Pan-African
Orogeny at Proterozoic-Palaeozoic transition.
The geology of the Eastern Ghats belt (EGB) explains the evolution of superhot Proterozoic
orogenic system(s) that went through stages of convergence and divergence of continental blocks
of India and east Antarctica. Based on chronological data EGB has been spatially subdivided into
multiple domains. It has been observed that some of these domains have undergone distinct
orogenic events. For example, the Ongole Domain in southern EGB evolved during the ca. 1.7-
1.54 Ga orogenesis (Henderson et al., 2014; Dasgupta et al., 2013; Sarkar and Schenk, 2014;
Sarkar et al., 2014; 2015). The Eastern Ghats Province north of the Godavari rift, evolved during
the 1.07-0.90 Ga Grenvillian orogenesis (Dasgupta et al., 2013; Korhonen et al., 2013). The
northern part of the Eastern Ghats Province and adjacent Rengali Province witnessed orogenic
events during 0.55-0.50 Ga Pan African orogenesis (Chattopadhyay et al., 2015; Bose et al.,
2016).
Metasedimentary rocks of Ongole domain show Paleoproterozoic to Mesoarchean ancestry
(Henderson et al., 2014; Sarkar et al., 2014), but opinions differ regarding the provenance of the
sediments. While according to one group its source was the Dharwar Craton (Sarkar et al., 2014),
the other prefers Napier Complex (Henderson et al., 2014). Dasgupta et al. (2013) were of the
view that this domain evolved as a part of the accretionary belt of Columbia between the Napier
53
and Dharwar blocks around ca.1.8-1.6 Ga. Recent report of a high pressure metamorphism at ca.
1.54 Ga (Sarkar and Schenk, 2014; Sarkar et al., 2014) has been interpreted to result from the
final collision of the Indian and east Antarctic blocks. As there is no record of any major
subsequent tectonothermal event, it is postulated that Ongole domain was cratonized after ca.
1.54 Ga.
The magmatism and metamorphism in the Southern Granulite terrain shows two distinct
episodes. The earlier one close to the Archean-Proterozoic boundary and the later one
correlatable with Pan-African Orogeny. Brandt et al (2016), in their Gondawana
Paleogeographic model has linked the Western Madurai Domain with the Antananarivo Domain
of central Madagascar and the Paleoproterozoic Eastern Madurai Domain with the Trivandrum
and Nagercoil Blocks of southern India, the Anosyen–Androyan domain of southern Madagascar
and the Wanni Complex of Sri Lanka (Fig. 4.1).
There are suggestions that this latest Paleoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic
accretionary orogenesis led to the growth of a Proto-Greater Indian landmass by 1.54 Ga
(Bhowmik et al., 2014). In the context of the continuing debate on the nature of Proterozoic
tectonics between the two supercontinent assembly events (Paleoproterozoic Columbia and late
Mesoproterozoic to early Neoproterozoic Rodinia), these findings from the BBG terrain provide
new insight into two aspects: (a) ca. 1.6 Ga orogenesis is a globally significant crustal
amalgamation event, hitherto unrecognized and (b) the event, nearly 200 My younger than the
main period of Paleoproterozoic supercontinent assembly is unlikely to be the continuation of
Columbia tectonics.
It is suggested that east Gondwana broke out as a single block during Rodinia break up
and different component of western Gondwana was amalgamated with it subsequently.
Amalgamation of Gondwana was completed probably by Pan-African orogeny. Phanerozoic
supercontinent Pangaea was formed during Middle Carboniferous by coalescence of Gondwana
and Laurasia which started disintegrating during Middle Jurassic and the process was completed
by Early Cretaceous. Critical study of evolution of Gondwana basins of different continents
gives an idea about the history of this short lived supercontinent and help in deciphering mutual
disposition of different components of Gondwanaland in a unified map.
54
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