ReprtNo607G-ZA Zambia Specialized Training Study June3, 1986 Education and Manpower Development Division Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office FOR OFFICIALUSE ONLY Document oftheWorld Bank This documenthas a restricted distribution and may beused by recipients only in the performance oftheir official duties. its contents may not otherwise bedisclosed without World Bank authorization. Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
Transcript
Reprt No 607G-ZA
ZambiaSpecialized Training Study
June3, 1986
Education and Manpower Development DivisionEastern and Southern Africa Regional Office
FOR OFFICIAL USE ONLY
Document of the World Bank
This document has a restricted distribution and may be used by recipientsonly in the performance of their official duties. its contents may not otherwisebe disclosed without World Bank authorization.
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CUIRRENCY EQUIVALENT (1986)
US$1.00 Kw 5.75Kw 1.00 - US$0.17
ACRONYMS
CSO Central Statistical OfficeDMUT - Directorate for Manpower Development and TrainingDOA Department of AgricultureDTEVT D Department of Technical Education and Vocational TrainingEHC = Evelyn Hone College-FI Farm InstitutesFTC F Farmer Training CentersMAWD - Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development10M0 Manpower Development OfficerMGEC = Ministry of General Education and CultureMHE Ministry of Higher EducationMOF - Ministry of FinanceMSB Management Services BoardNAMBOARD X National Agricultural Marketing BoardNCDP National Commission for Development PlanningNIPA - National Institute for Public AdministrationNORTEC - Northern Technical College, NdolaNRDC - National Resources Development CollegeTNDP - Third National Development PlanTTI ' Trades Training InstituteT&V Training and VisitTVTC = Technical and Vocational Teachers College.UNZA University of ZambiaZCA Zambia Colleges of AgricultureZCCm -Zambia Consolidated Copper MinesZESCO - Zambia Electrical Supply CorporationZICA = Zambia Institute for Certified AccountantsZIMCO - Zambia Industrial and Mining CorporationZIT = Zambia Institute of Technology, Kitwe
Fiscal Year
January 1 - December 31
F OFFCIL USE ONLY
ZAMBIA SPECIALIZED TRAINING STUDY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
HIGHLIGHTS (i)-(iv)
I. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND 1
II. OVERVIEW OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN _ZAMBIA 8
Ill. ANALYSIS OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Manpower Development Planning 31
3.2 General Education 40
3.3 Technical Education 49
3.4 Agricultural Education and Training 58
3.5 Business Educration and Management Training 65
3.6 Cost of Training and Education 71
IV. ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS, PROPOSED STRATEGY 79
ANNEXES
I - Participation and Unemployment Rates by Sex and Age, 19802 - Secondary School-Leavers, 1981-19903 - Composition of the Labor Force, 1964-19844 - Civil Service Training Policy. Cabinet Office Circular
No. 19/19835 - Zambia Civil Service Salary Scales (October 1985)6 - Structure of the Education System7 - Principal Manpower Planners, Administrators and Trainers8 - Department of Technical Education and Vocational Training
(DTEVT). Organization Chart9 - DTEVT Institutions and Courses Offered10 - Technical Colleges in Zambia11 - Agricultural Training Institutions in Zambia12 - Educational Statistics13 - Education Costs
This report is based on a mission to Zambia in September 1985 by Messrs.J. Segerstrom (Technical Educator/Mlssion Leader), D. Deguefu-Dawit(Agricultural TrainxUgg pecialist - EAPIT), C. Dougherty (Manpower PlanningSpecialist, ILO Contualt~it), C. Fuller (Management Training Specialist, ODAConsultant), A. Johnaon 'Technical Educator, ODA Consultant), and M. Leonor(Education Economist, ;J Consultant).
This document ha a restrcted distribution and may be used by rcipints only in the pRfo eof their official dutis. Its contents may not otherwise be disclosed without World Dnk ao n.
(i)
ZAMBIA - SPECIALIZED TRAINING STUDY
HIGHLIGHTS
Purpose and Scope of Stud-
1. In view of the present financial crisis in Zambia which alsoaffects the education and training system, the Bank, win agreement with theNational Commission for Development Planning (NCDP), has conducted aspecialized study on manpower development and training. Concentrating onan assessment of skilled manpower supply and demand in the -civil service,parastatals and private sector, the main objectives of the study are toexamine the nature of the reported skill gap and recommend policy changesand strategies to bridge that gap in the most cost-effective manner.Special attention has been paid to crosa-sectoral skills in short supply,e.g., accountants and specialized engineers. The key sectors of theeconomy identified as crucial for economic development have been assessed,including agriculture, manufacturing industry, transport, and energy. Themining sector manpower development plan, now scheduled to be completed indraft by June 1986, is expected to provide further useful information,particularly with regard to po.-sible transfers of skilled manpower to othersectors. The study also examines the 0ost implications of existing andplanned training programs and recommends savings and a redirection ofresources with the purpose of improving training standards and quality in arationalized training system.
2. The findings and recommendations provide the basis for (a)discussions with the Government regarding an overall manpower developmentpolicy and strategy, and following such discussions, (b) the preparation ofexternal assistance requests.
General
3. The training system in Zambia was developed during moreprosperous times and originates in the mining sectorts needs for skilledmanpower. As a result of the economic crisis, the demand for skilledmanpower, with few exceptions, is less than the potential supply, and theGovernment's ability to finance the system has been severely reduced.Until now, little has been done to accommodate the training system to alower level of financing or to identify priorities for training in light ofthe changed circumstances. There is scope for better utilization ofexisting resources if wasteful spending were avoided and funds redirected-for priority use.
Manpower Situation
4. The labor force is growing much more rapidly than the long-termcapacity of the economy to generate additional employment in the formalsector. Large numbers of school-leavers every year contribute to an everincreasing youth unemployment. From the mining sector, skilled manpowerwill be released as operations decline due to decreasing deposits of ore.
(it)
In the manufacturing sector prodtction facilities and staff are seriouslyunder-utilized due to shortages of imported raw materials. The employmentin the construction sector has been cut in half during the period 1974-1984and consequently there is an abundance of skilled building craftsmen.
5. To-restructure the ailing economy, the emphasis should be ondevelopment of the agricultural sector. Despite several unsuccessfulattempts to increase production, make use of idle land and enhance theeffectiveness in the sector, the Government will noW direcc more of itsresources to make this sector productive. Such measures will naturallyhave direct impll.cations on the manpower situation, both in terms of formaland nonformal sector employment.
6. In a deep economic crisis, it is naturally more essential thanever to redirect the economy without delay. As the availability ofrelevantly trained manpower is crucial for successful utilization of otherproductive resources, it is of the utmost importance that the nationalmanpower planning system be able to respond quickly to a changed manpowersituation. This requires intense monitoring of the situation at thehighest planning level, with inputs from the key economic sectors,supported by well-processed, up-to-date statistical information. TheManpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP is not fully equipped tocarry out this assignment. Lacking trained and experienced personnel,hampered by continuous staff changes and without a clear idea of its rolein national manpower planning and related decision-making, the Departmentis in no position to direct national manpower planning as required.
7. As regards the coordination of manpower and training needs in thecivil service, this responsibility rests with the Directorate of ManpowerDevelopment and Training (DMDT) under the Cabinet Office. The newlyIntroduced system of seconding Manpower Development Officers (MDOs) toGovernment ministries and offices for assessment of training needs has notyet proved successful, as the MDOs have low status, need more training andshould be brought more into the decision-making process of their recipientministries. DMDT tends to focus on processing requests for overseasfellowship training.
Manpower Development
8. In the absence of relevant information on manpower demand, theintake level of government training institutions depends on theavailability of recurrent funds and on appropriate training facilities,rather than on the employability of graduates. Moreover, the substantialdecline in real terms of recurrent and capital funding has caused thetraining system to deteriorate in terms of the repair and maintenance ofexisting facilities, and to find it ever more difficult to meet the directrecurrent coets of student materials, boarding and lodging. Frequently,existing facilities cannot be fully utilized due to a shortage of recurrentfinancing.
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9. The fact that available financing is too thinly spread isparticularly visible in such high recurrent cost areas as technicaleducation, vocational training, and agricultural education. For manyspecialized institutions, financing has reached such low levels that thequality of instruction is unacceptable, resulting in loss of confidence inthe system on the part of prospective employers. Agricultural educationand training pose a particular problem as this sector has been selected tocarry the country out of the present economic crisis. At the same timethat there would be tremendous training needs if the Government's policy isto be implemented, the available financing has gradually been reduced,causing a curtailment of training places.
10. In addition to these constraints in specialized technicaltraining, there is a paramount need for trained managers at all levels andin all sectors. In a situation where limited financial resources should beallocated according to stringent criteria and highest priorities,management skills are more important than ever. Across the board, Zambiais poorly equipped in this respect and therefore managerial skilldevelopment and upgrading should form an integral part of economicrecovery. Existing training is neither focussed nor coordinated, and thepresence of a large number of institutions leads to duplication ofprograms. It appears that the management training system itself is shortof managerial skills, resulting in slow improvement of the system.
11. Certain specialized training is handled outside the formaltraining system and within industry itself, particularly training forsector-specific skills. No doubt this type of training is more effectivethan the formal one, partly because on-the-job training can be carried outin the actual work environment. The costs are high, however, as evidencedin the mining and energy sectors, for example, and there is scope for costreduction without substantial lowering of quality.
Recommended Strategy
12. The present approach to manpower development in Zambia -- to keepthe outmoded training system going regardless of the availability offinancial resources or the demand for graduates -- is neither logical norcost-effective. It should be noted that over the medium term the financialresources allocated for training would not increase and perhaps the mostoptimistic future scenario would be to assume constant funding inreal terms. It should also be noted that manpower development activitiestake place in all economic sectors in one form or other even though formaltechnical/vocational education is the responsibility of the Ministry ofHigher Education. Obviously, all manpower development activities need tobe coordinated at the national level to appropriately respond to demandboth now and in the future. It is recomended that such coordination takeplace through the creation of a Manpower Monitoring Unit within NCDP.
13. In the short and medium term, agricultural education and trainingshould have -the highest priority if the Government's sectoral policy is tobe implemented. This Will not be possible with existing financialresources, even if they were redistributed in accordance with priority-needs, and hence additional budgetary-allocations to the Ministry ofAgriculture for agricultural training will be necessary.
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14. Industrial training as offered by the Departme.it of Technical-Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT) needs substantial redirection offocus and hence redistribution of existing funds. Technical Collegesshould continue existing programs with modifications as niw technologiesdevelop, but increased attention should be paid to maintenance offacilities and quality of instruction. Close and continuous monitoring isrequired with respect to curricula and course content so that new andexisting programs actually prepare trainees to suit employers' needs. Withregard to the eight Trades Training Institutes (TTIs), the output shouldrespond to manpower demand, which probably means that about half of theexisting programs should not be used for pre-service training. Releasedfunds in terms of teachers' salaries and other recurrent funds should beused for the much needed in-service training.
15. Business education and management training Is in need ofsubstantial improvement, and the first priority is accountancy training atall levels. Management training needs rationalization, and presentduplication of efforts should cease.
16. Inasmuch as the proposed strategy would have implications on thefinancing of the training system, the following major points should beconsidered:
(a) The boarding system should be reduced and boarding costs largely' transferred to parents;
(b) Employers in industry should share in financing training costs byoffering on-job-training that complements institution-basedtraining; and
(c) The teaching force should be reduced whenever the number ofstudents are reduced. The intake level should correspond tomanpower demand.
17. Savings should then be utilized for: (a) repair, maintenance andreplaeement of equipment and other facilities, (b) introduction of morein-service training, using surplus facilities, and (c) improvement ofcentral planning at the DTEVT level and strengthening of the examinationsystem, curricula, the inspectorate and other central services.
Aid Coordination
18. Zambia has been assisted by a large number of donors to developits education and'training system. This trend continnes, and assistance tomanpower development is a high priority In most aid programs. However,coordination of such aid, as well as a constructive policy and strategydialogue with the Government has, by and large, been lacking. Theimportance of allocating scarce training resources according to prioritiesIs a theme throughout this report and, of course applies equally toexternal grants, credits and other assistance to the sector. The majorissue is to adjust the education and training system to suit the level ofavailable resources and to meet Identified manpower demand. In thisprocess, the Bank would be prepared to take the lead, if so requested, tocoordinate external inputs and a'sist in revising, planning and adjusingthe education and training system to suit employers' requirements forskilled manpower.
1. SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
The EScotomy
-1.01 Between independence in 1964 and the slump in the price of copperin 1975, Zambia was considered to be a rich country with every prospect ofmaking good the deficiencies in its infrastructure inherited from thecolonial administration. However, the country is almost wholly dependenton copper for its export revenue and, with that mineral losing more thanSO% of its value in real terms, the balance of payments has been in acritical state since 1975 and payments on external debt have fallen intoarrears. It is unlikely that the country will be able simultaneously tofinance investment for growth and meet Its future commitments, projected at30-40X of exports for the next five years.
1.02 Government revenue, heavily dependent on income from copper andon taxes on imports financed by its exports, bas fallen to roughly half ofits level of the early 1970s. Government expenditure has therefore beenforced to contract, but the combination of a policy to maintain employmentand an increasing need for teachers has caused the payroll to expand. Theburden of adjustment has been confined to a painful reduction in realsalaries and, as-a matter of government policy, those of the more seniorgrades have proportionally been the hardest hit; very generous before therecession, they have fallen by up to 60X in real terms.
1.03 Despite these measures, government expenditure has exceededrevenue by between 20% and 60% each year, and deficit financing has fueledinflation -- the average rates for consumer expenditure and capital goodsbeing 14% and 21% per year, respectively, over the period 1974-1983.
1.04 The decline in export earnings has also had a very adverse effecton industrial production, which is heavily dependent on imports of bothmaterials and spares. So acute is the situation that some enterprises havehad no option but to cease operations for weeks at a time and others arewilling to export at a loss in order to obtain foreign. exchange (50% ofwhich they are allowed to retain). The unpredictability of foreignexchange allocationsl/ has itself had an adverse effect on exportearnings. exporters find it difficult or impossible to quote-reliabledelivery dates and, unable to place orders far enough in advance to takeadvantage of low-cost sources because they cannot pay promptly, they arequoted unfavorable prices.
1/ As the mission field work was completed before the introduction of theauction system (October 1985) for foreign exchange, the effects of thatsystem have not been taken into consideration here.
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1*05 Import-substitution has in some cases done more harm than good;heavily protected producers of intermediate goods having priced theiroutput at levels which render producers of flnished, potentially exportablegood uncompetitive on world markets. Table 1.1 below shows the balance ofpayment and government current accounts for the period 1973-1983.
Table 1.1
Balance of Payments and Government Current Accounts-Kwacha million, 1983 constant prices)
Source: Monthly Digest of Statistics, February/March 1985 and ZambiaCountry Economic Memorandum, April 1984. Copper price in 1982prices. Exports (capacity to import) deflated using theimplicit price deflator for Imports. Government currentaccount deflated by the wholesale prices index fordomestically used goods.
1.06 Until recently, agriculture has been given insufficient support.In an effort to mitigate the impact of the recession on urban incomes, theterms of trade for agriculture were allowed to deteriorate, depressingoutput and stimulating rural/urban migration. This problem has now beenrecognized and agriculture prices have been allowed to rise in real terms,but the economic contribution of the sector remains adversely affected bythe inefficiency of the national marketing board.
1.07 The economic problems of the country have been compounded by thevery high rate of population growth which will make it steadily moredifficult for the Government to inerease the proportion of national incomedevoted to investment without further eroding the standard of living. Thishigh growth rate will also be responsible for mass unemployment if measuresare not taken to reduce it, despite the current priority given togenerating nev jo!. in small-scale agriculture.
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Labor Force and Employment
Labor Sueply
1.08 According to the 1980 census, the population aged 12 or oldernumbered 3.3 million that year, and of these 1.8 million were economicallyactive. For the 20-64 age groups, the participation rate8 for wales andfemales were 95% and 40%, respectively, the corresponding unemploymentrates being 12% and 17%. Youth unemployment is high -- 79% for males and87% for females in the 15-19 age group, despite relatlvely lowparticipation rates of 38% and 41% (Annex 1).
1.09 About 100,000 children are terminating their general education atthe primary school level and about 25,000 at the secondary level (Annex 2).A small minority will proceed to specialized forms of training, includinguniversity, and others will temporarily remain outside the labor force forother reasons, but eventually each cohort will contribute upwards of 85,000new labor force entrants if participation rates do not change. This figurewill increase with each successive cohort and is estimated to reach 110,000by 1990, with the proportion of secondary school leavers rising from 20% to28% by that date.
Sources. Total employment from preliminary data of the 1980 Census; formalsector employment from the Monthly Digest of Statistics.
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1.10 Of the 1,234,000 in employment in 1980, about 381000 were in theformal sector and the remainder in the informal sector. r-ole 1.2 aboveprovides a breakdown by industry, the figures for total employment beingpreliminary data from the 1980 census and those for the formal sector beingtaken from the June 1980 Employment and Earnings Survey. (There areanomalies in the data for the construction and financial serviceaindustries, but these may be attributable to sampling errors in the surveyand to the fact that 69,000 did not state their industry of employment inthe census.)
Formal Sector Employment
1.11 Formal sector employment peaked at almost 400,000 in 1975, fellby 5% in the next two years, and has since, remained virtually static(Annex 3). Zambian employment has fluctuated around 350,000 since 1975with no discernible trend, but within this total there has been asignificant shift towards employment In government services, much of itattributable to increased recruitment of primary and secondary schoolteachers (Table 1.3).
Table 1.3
Formal Sector Employment, 1975 and 1984
1975 1984
Zambian Employment
Government Services
Teachers 18,570 28,660Other 70,090 72,270
Total 88,660 100,930
Other Formal Sector Employment 276,670 250,260
Total Formal Sector Employment 365,330 351,190
Non-Zambian Employment 33,510 14,020
Total Employment in Formal Sector 398,840 365,190
1.12 These trends are likely to remain unchanged in the short andmedium term.- MGEC predicts that the number of primary and secondary schoolteachers will increase by a further 8,900 by 1990, which, accompanied byfurther localization of posts, could bring the numbe- of Zambian teachersup to 39,000. However, in view of the shortage of financial resources, itis probable that the growth rate will be substantially lowe-:. Noting therecent expression by the Government of a commitment to reduee public sectoremployment, the figure for other government services may actually fall.The outLook for increased employment in the rest of the formal sector isnot encouraging, since there is evidence that parastatal enterprises tendto be seriously overstaffed.
Manpower Development
1.13 To compete more effectively in che labor force, school-leavershave increasingly sought to attain higher qualifications, but the number oftraining places has not met the social demand. Table 1.4 below shows thatthe total enrollment in higher education and training courses (except UNZA)increased from 11,103 in 1975 to 13,359 in 1982. Since the courses are oftwo or more years' duration, the number of new admissions each year is 6000at mDst. Thus, only about one-fourth of secondary school-leavers can beabsorbed; in 1975 the proportion was about one third. As a result of thesepressures the number of applicants per training place has been increasingand the qualifications of successful applicants have risen. For examplesalthough the formal admission requirement for the Trades TrainingInstitutes (TTIs) is completion of junior secondary education, many of thesuccessful applicants have completed senior secondary school.
Table 1.4
Enrollments in Teacher Training and TechnicalEucation Courses, 1975 and 1982
1975 1982
Teacher Training
General 3,070 3,843Technical/Vocational 114 352
Technical Colleges (EHC, ZIT, NORTEC) 2,663 2,754
Trades Training Institutes 2,315 2,216
University of Zambia (UNZA)
Degrees 2,507 3,772Other 105 151
Other DTEVT 2/[ 329 271
Total: 11,103 13,359
Source: MHE Educational Statistics, 1983.
- t' Includes Zambia Air Services Training Institute and Kasiya SecretarialCollege.
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1.14 In some specialized courses where there is a direct link betweenthe training provider and the employer, recognition of the poor employmentprospects of the graduates has led to a cutback in enrollments. Oneexample is the training program for agricultural assistants (Section 3.4).But in most cases the leveling off of enrolments is attributable to theunplanned effects of budgetary constraints rather than to any labor marketanalysis. The Ministries of Finance and Higher Education (MOF, MHE) arebeing pulled in two directions. On the one hand the social demand fortraining, coupled with a reluctance to reduce the number of teachers, hasled these rinistries to try to maintain the existing teachingestablishment; on the other hand, faced with diminifhing real resources,MOF has had to reduce in real terms the recurrent budget allocated to thegovernment sector in general and to MHE in particular. Considerations ofthe demand for trained manpower, which ought also to favor retrenchment, donot appear to be a significant factor. The typical outcome is thatpayrolls have been protected in nominal terms (though not real ones) andauthorized non-payroll expenditure has been severely cut, with actualallocations lower still. The consequence is that many training providersare trying to teach an excessively large number of students with resourceswhich are inadequate to maintain the quality of Instruction.
Zambianization
1.15 Although the exodus of non-Zambians has had a relatively smallimpact on aggregate employment, it has had a disproportionately severeeffect on the supply of experienced high-level manpower. This has been-caused by a combination of supply and demand factors, with demand, in theform of an active localization policy, the dominoit factor until the late1970s. Supply factors, however, are more important now.
1.16 Because there was a shortage of Zaubians with advanced technicalqualifications, localization in the earlier period was largely confined toadministrative and managerial occupations. In recent years, with thegovernment and parastatal sectors unable to maintain real salaries.non-Zambian technical staff have also been departing or Joining the privatesector. The gap has temporarily been filled by the recruitment of Asiantechnicians but, with the further erosion of pay, there are signs that itis becoming increasingly difficult to attract replacements from this or anyother source. The inflow of Asian immigrants - over 1,000 per year inmost of the last 10 years - fell to 527 in 1982, 285 in 1983, and 132 inthe first nine months of 1984 (MDS, February-March 1985).
1.17 The foreign exchange crisis has-to some extent masked the -
difficulties in maintaining an adequate supply of high-level manpower, atleast in quantitative terms. Most enterprises employing technical manpowerare also heavily dependent on imported inputs and are running at a fractionof potential capacity. The shortage of foreign exchange is so severe thatsome firms are having to suspend operations altogether for A month or two -
at a time (para 1.04).
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1.18 - At the same time, however, the crisis has thrown into sharprelief some of the qualitative problems attributable to the rapid pace oflocalization and the consequent relative youth of-typical senior aumbianmanagement. In the first place, there a the problem of developingexpertise in the skills associated wit'. senior management, particularly theskills involved in using controls, especially- financial and performancecontrols. Although the principiss behind these techniques may be taught ina formal course, expertise in the- use is developed by the individual ashe rises through junior and middle ranagement. It is during this periodthat he is able first to observe their operation and then to beginpracticing them himself. The accelerated promotion of many Zamblans intosenior management has deprived them Irretrievably of an opportunity tobenefit from this learning process.
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II, OVERVIEW OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN ZAMBIA
2.01 National Commission for Development Planning (NC!MP). TheMinistry of Finance and Planning has two branches, NCVP and-the Ministry ofFinance (MOF), each with its own Permanent Secretary. NCDP is in charge oflong-term planning and is responsible for the impending Fourth NationalDevelopment Plan (1986-90); it also produces the Annual Plan and annualEconomic Report, and vets the public sector capital budget. Its ManpowerPlanning and Research Department has the broad mandate to undertakecomprehensive national manpower planning, including projections of manpowersupply and demand and labor market analysis, and is also responsible forcoordinating the programs of training institutions and for executing ad hocmanpower-related studies. Its establishment and present strength are shownin Table 2.1.
Table 2.1
Manpower Planning and Research Department, NCDP
Professional Staff
PresentEstablishment Strength
Director I 1Assistant Director 2 -Senior Economist 2 1Economist (Planning and Analysis) 1 2Economist (Training Studies) 1 _Economist (Data-Processing) 1 _'Economist (Research) 1 2Economist (Demographer) 1 1Technical Assistance Posts 2 1
Total: 12 8
2.02 None of the present staff appears to have had practicalexperience related to manpower analysis prior to recruitment. Junior staff-have been recruited directly from the University of Zambia and have notalways possessed appropriate qualifications. Most have received or arereceiving in-service training in overseas courses, but these do not appearto be training programs with well-defined objectives.
Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT)
2.03 The Directorate of Civil Service Training was set up in 1961'as atraining section within the Establishments Division. In 1964/65 it wasrenamed the Directorate of Manpower and Training and located in the Officeof National Development and Planning, Ministry of Finance. In 1968/69,renamed the Ditectorate of Civil Service Training, it was returned to the
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E-stablishments Division (now renamed-Personnel Division). This continueduntil 1980 when it was renamed the Directorate of Manpower Development andTraining (DMDT) and placed under the Cabinet Office.
2.04 The responsibilities of DMDT have changed over the years. Themost recent statement of these was in Cabinet Office Circular No.19 of 6December 1983 (Annex 4). All ministries, commissions and provinces shouldbe working according to the civil service training policy set out in thatcircular. It establishes DMDT's role as follows:
(a) A cadre of manpower development staff comprising:
Chief Manpower Development Officers (Grade S/8)Senior Manpower Development Officers (Grade S/9)Manpower Development Officers (Grade S/l1/10)Assistant Manpower Development Officers (Grade 5/13/12)
would be seconded to ministries, departments and provinces atvarying levels, depending on the size of the institutionconcerned. Salary Grades are shown in Annex 5.
(fb) DMDT would take over from NCDP the responsibility for-administering training awards under technical assistance.
(c) DMDT would be responsible for administering all training for thecivil service, parastatals and private sector where this involvedtechnical assistance.
(d) DMDT would participate in all negotiations for technicalassietance for training.
(e) DMDT would hold all funds for in-service training, whileministries and provinces would hold funds for only those traininginstitutions which they controlled. DMDT would allocate funds toministries and provinces according to planned needs.
To assist in this process, committees would be set up as follows:
(i) Each ministry and province would set.up a Manpower-Development Committee chaired by the respective PermanentSecretary. '
(ii) A National Manpower Planning Committee would be set. up byNCDP, as proposed in the Third National Development plan.
M'anagement Services Division
2.05 The Management Services Division is part of the' Cabinet Officestructure, with a total of only 40 Administrative Grade staff. The mainresponsibility of the Division is consultancy services and staff inspectionof the civil service. Weakened considerably in the past two years by theabsence of its director on study leave, the Division has not been able to.carry out all its duties due to the lack of experienced staff.
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General Education
2.06 The responsibility for general education rests with the Ministryof General Education and Culture (MGEC), while the newly establishedMinistry of Higher Education (MHE) handles higher education, technicaleducation and teacher training.
Primary and Secondary Education Prior to the Educational Reform
2.07 Primary and secondary education both used to be divided into twosub-cycles: primary into lower (Grades -1-4) and upper (Grades 5-7), andsecondary into junior (Forms 1-3) and senior (Forms 4-5). In principle,children ought to enter Grade 1 at age 7, but in practice about half enterat age 8 or older. As a consequence of a shortage of places, progressionfrom one sub-cycle to the next has necessarily been selective.
2.08 The Educational Reform document published by the Ministry ofEducation in 1977 envisages nine years of universal basic education, whichfor organizational purposes will be broken down into three 3-year cycles:lower primary (Grades 1-3), upper primary (Grades 4-6) and junior secondary(Grades 7-9). Entrance to the final 3-year cycle of senior secondaryeducation will continue to be selective. Some Grade 9 graduates will entervocational training, for example on courses offered by the Trades TrainingInstitutes (TTIs) or Colleges of Nursing, but others will enter employmentdirectly.
2.09 As a first step towards this new arrangement,-the dividing line-between junior and senior secondary education has been brought forward byone year, the former now terminating with Grade 9 and the latter beginningwith Grade 10. The nine years of basic education are thus already formallyin place. It remains to convert it to a 3-3-3 year set of subcycles, asopposed to the present 4-3-2, and to provide enough places to achieve 100Zprogression from one subcycle to the next. Annex 6 provides a diagrammaticrepresentation of the interim and final structures.
2.10 As a route alternative to senior general secondary schools, MGECprovides an option, focussed on science and technical subjects and intendedfor outstanding students, in two senior technical secondary schools. Thetotal enrollment in the two schools (in Lusaka and Livingstone) is about-750, all boarders, while the teaching force amounts to about 65, includingtechnical teachers. The curricula emphasize science and practical subjects(15 periods of science and 10 periods of practical subjects) with theintention of better preparing students for the science-related faculties inthe University-of Zambia and of offering practical training to facilitatefuture employment for school graduates. MGEC plans to increase the numberof technical secov:dary schools to 11 through conversion of existingacademic senior secondary schools.
University of Zambia
2.11 At independence in 1964 there were fewer than 100 Zambianuniversity graduates. However, within a span-of two decades this numberhas increased dramatically. From 27 in 1968, the annual flow of graduates
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from the University of Zambia increased to 425 in 1975, 703 in 1981, and618 in 1984. There were also a number of graduates in diploma, certificateand post-graduate courses whose supply has been jus-t as-impressive. Intotal, the University of Zambia has produced 7,927 graduates in variouscourses between 1968 and 1984. Current enrollment at the Lusaka and Ndolacampuses is 4,554 students, of whom 246 are in agriculture, 32 in -veterinary medicine, 327 in engineering, 197 in mining, 653 in the naturalsciences, 1,195 in education,3/ 862 in the humanities and socialsciences, and 420 in business and industrial studies. Detaileddescriptions of the various faculties are given in the sections of thisreport covering technical, agricultural and business education.
Technical Education and Training
2.12 The formal system of post-secondary technical and vocationaleducation and training constitutes an important and substantial subsectorin the national education structure. The main responsibility of this sub-sector is to provide edutatlon and training at craft, technician andtechnologist levels to iieet the skilled manpower demands of the economy.Recognizing the need to establish a strong resource base for technicaleducation, the Governmer.t created a Commission in 1969 to implementnational programs in tld'is sector. The Commission later becam theDepartment of Technical Education and Vocational Training (DTEVT)(Organiztion Chart - Annex 8), initially within the Mlnistry of Educationand since 1982 as part of the newly established MHE. The objectives ofDTEVT, as outlined in the Third National Development Plan, are to:
(a) continue to provide high-quality pre-employment certificate anddiploma training programs to meet the manpower requirements ofthe Zambian economy for technicians, technologists, and business,commercial and industrial personnel;
(b) identify manpower needs and to design new training programs, atcertificate and diploma levels in both business and engineeringfields relevant to the needs of rural, industrial and commercialdevelopment;
(c) make qualitative and quantitative improvements in the Department'straining programs;
(d) increase the supply of technical, vocational and commercialteachers In order to accelerate the Zamblanization of staff incolleges;
(e) expand the use of the Department's facilities for extension studies(continuing education for workers) and-provide professionalassistance to other agencies involved in skill training; and
3/ Including 140 part-time and 615 correspondence students (Education 404and Social Sciences 211). -
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(f) redress imbalances'in the physical resources of theDepartment's institutions to make the best use of thefacilities in which investment has been made.
2.13 In its early development stage, DTEVT received substantial inputsof assistance from donor countries, largely in the form of technicalassistance (advisory and teaching staff), provision of buildings andequipment, and awards of scholarships and fellowships, usually tenable inthe donor country. In recent years the scale of assistance for-physicalfacilities has diminished, although staff'development based on overseasawards continues to be a major element.
2.14 DTEVT is responsible for 14 institutions. A list giving detailsof each institution is at Annex 9. Broadly, the teaching institutions ofDTEVT fall into two groups:
- four technical colleges offering technician and technologistlevel courses in mining, construction, automotive, mechanicaland electrical engineering; one secretarial college forparamedical, hotel and catering, secretarial and commercialcourses; one college for air services; and one technical teachertraining college.
- eight Trade Training Institutes (TTIs) offering artisanlevel courses in an overall range of 23 specializations.
Structure and Organization of DTEVT
2.15 DTEVT may be regarded as a ministry within a ministry and indeed,from its early stage of development when it enjoyed a great deal ofautonomy, the Department tended to operate as a free-standingorganization. With the creation of MHE, the work of the Department is nowcontrolled by that Ministry, although this control is principally exercisedby direct high-level contacts between senior staff in the Department andthe Ministry.
2.16 Resources for the three main elements of technical and vocationaleducation and training -- i.e., staff development, curriculum development,and examinations -- and physical resources (buildings and equipment) arecontrolled by appropriate sections,'as shown on the organization chart(Annex 8).
-2.17 - Work by the Curriculum'Development Unit (CDU)'follows a-long-established system of Advisory Committees, with representation fromindustry and commerce. The professional officers of CDU act ascoordinators/secretaries to a number of Advisory Committees, in subjectspecializations appropriate to their experience and qualifications. Intheory, the Advisory Committee system is designed to ensure that thecurriculum content is relevant :i the needs of employers by constantappraisals leading to curriculum renewal. In practice, the system ishandicapped by financial constraints, since travel and subsistence costs ofindustry particip&nts must be met by an inadequate budget.
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2.18 The Standards and CertificAtion Unit (SCU) shares in the workloadof professional support to the Advisory Committees. The work of SCU isconfined to final examinations for TTI students, technician levelexaminations in business studies and paramedical studies- and trade testing(previously undertaken by the Ministry of Labor). Other technician andtechnologist course students are assessed for national awards by theteaching institution, through the use of continuous assessment techniques.In setting examinations with the assistar-ce of Advisory Committees, SCUmakes use of an examination question bank.
2.19 -The main activity of the-Teacher Training and Staff DevelopmentSection is to implement the objectives of the Department's staffdevelopment program, namely:
(a) to Improve the quality of instruction and administration at DTEVTinstitutions;
(b) to replace expatriate-staff in the technical colleges withsuitably qualified and competent Zambians, in keeping witbthe Government's policy of Zambianization; and
(c) to help teaching staff to keep abreast with technologicaladvancement.
2.20 This Section services a standing committee within DTEVT-- theStaff Development Committee. Although the Committee has wide-ranging termsof reference aimed at strengthening staff development, its mainpreoccupation appears to be the selection of candidates for overseastraining awards provided by donor countries. The Section has identifiedkey areas of staff development through consultatlon with principals, and bycarrying out an audit of personnel records to assess staffing strengths andweaknesses. However, little use is made of annual confidential reports andfeedback from the Inspectorate on individnal and common training needs tosystematically plan a comprehensive in-country training program.
* 2.21 The Inspectorate of DTEVT is responsible for ensuring that thequality and effectiveness of instruction, learning facilities, and programadministration are maintained at the highest possible levels. Its staff ofsix inspectors are engaged in a continuous program of inspections so that,ideally, each DTEVT institution is examined every year; however, in recentyears it has not always been possible to maintain this level of inspectionvisits because of budgetary constraints.
Technical Colleges
2.22 - 'Technician and technologist level programs under the aegis ofDTEVT are offered at four purpose-built institutions: Evelyn Hone College,Lusaka; Zambia Institute of Technology, Kitwe; Northern Technical College,Ndola; and the Zambia Air Services Training Institute, Lusaka. A fifthcollege, the Technical and Vocational Teachers College, Luanshya, offers awide range of pre-service and in-service technical teacher trainingprograms. The current total enrollment in the colleges is 2,100 full-timestudents. In addition, part-time students (over 1,000 at-Evelyn HoneCollege) make up a substantial full-time equivalent roll. Details ofstudent population and staffing levels in each college are given inAnnex 10.
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2.23 Development of the technical colleges over the past 20 years hasbeen assisted by very substautial inputs of aid funds. In recent years,the aid has focussed on providing overseas training awards andsupplementing the costs of expatriate staff. -This shift. reflects changedcircumstances, insofar as the development of physical resources has reacheda steady state, and present aid policies generally favor manpowerdevelopment. However, it Is clear that national resources to maintainbuildings, renew equ pment and provide an adequate level of recurrentexpenditure funds do not match the levels envisaged by the Government anddonors during the design and early development stages.
Trades Training Institutes (TTIs)
2.24 The eight TTIs were developed in the 1960s and 1970s Vith-assistance from donor countries. Designed as purpose-built, craft-levelteaching institutions and equipped with industrial type machinery andplant, the TTI system was planned as a substantial national resource forthe education and training of skilled manual workers. The TTI systemoffers a very wide range of courses in civil, mechanical and electricalengineering.
2.25 The number of courses offered at individual TTIs varies from 14(Kabur TTI) to four (Mansa TTI). The more popular trades (i.e., automechanics, electrical, carpentry and joinery) are offered at all TTIs.Subject curricula and examinations are centrally controlled by theappropriate sections in DTEVT, using the system of Advisory Committees(para 2.17). As to be expected in a trade institution, the curriculaemphasize skill training, with 60X of course time devoted to practical workand 402 to related subjects. In practice, this balance is very difficultto maintain because of serious deficiencies in consumable material supplyand unserviceable equipment and machinery.
2.26 The main source of recruitment for TTI instructors is former TTIstudents who have gained several years experience in industry. Given themarked difference between salaries in industry and the teaching service, itis surprising that skilled craftsmen should be attracted to work in TTIs.It appears that security of employment and the provision of housing is animportant consideration. This supply route ensures that TTI instructorshave live industrial experience in their subject area and are thereforecompetent and confident in teaching the practical content of thecurricula. However, they also teach the technology sections and here theacademic gap between instructor and student is narrowed. Although theminimum entry level for a TTI student is Form 3, the large number ofapplications tends to produce a norm of Form 5 entry. Staff developmentfor TTI staff, through in-service training courses at TVTC and overseastraining awards, is producing a steady improvement in technical subject andpedagogical skills.
2.27 The teaching of mathematics, English, and political education isundertaken by 'service sections' staffed by general education teachers.There is deep concern in DTEVT over the teaching of mathematics in theTTIs. Failure rates of 40-50% are attributed to a general weakness inmath of students and to the subject knowledge of teachers who-have beentrained to teach mathematics in secondary schools. The lack of textbooksand good quality learning materials also adversely affects mathematicsteaching.
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2.28 The present state of TTI workshops. is also a cause for concern.At least 502 of installed workshop machinery in the Lusaka and LuanshyaTTms is out of action, and recent reports from the TTIs at Kabwe andLivingstone suggest that this is a general problem in the system. -Coupledwith the severe shortage of consumable materials, it is clear that TTIs areexperiencing serious difficulties In maintaining a proper balance betweentheory and practical work. Employers rightly expect a student who hasspent two years at a TTI to possess basic practical skills and this seriousdeficiency is one of the reasons for poor employment prospects for TTIstudents.
Industrial Training Centers - Parastatal and Private Industry
2.29 Although DTEVT institutions provide a wide range of tectitcaltraining, there are a number of other training centers, parastatal andprivate, which offer training based on DTEVT syllabi, or in-house schemes.In general, such centers (i.e., ZCCM craft schools; Zambia RailwaysTraining School, Ministry of Work's Road Training Center; the automotivesection of ZIM; and the mechanical training center at Kafue textiles) arebetter equipped and resourced than the TTIs in the DTEVT system. To someextent this is due to a ready access to company services and stores, forexample a defective machine tool in a training center is repaired by thecompany's engineering department. It is also due to the importance givenby senior management to systematic off-the-job training. Ia processindustries like Kafue Textiles, the value of a skilled machine fitter isfully appreciated and the quality of the company's training facilitiesreflects this view. These training centers also benefit from externalflows of expertise and teaching and learning material. Some parastatal andprivate companies have access to the training systems of largeinternational companies, and such connections may be regarded as aneducation and training "umbilical cord." Because these training centershave more serviceable equipment and higher inputs of consumable items, theyare in a better position to meet the requirements of the national syllabi.Moreover, the centers are able to augment the practical content of craftcourses with realistic work exercises related to the particular needs ofthe mother company. For example, workshop practice in the electricalcourse at the ZCCM center at Luanshya deals with the type of heavy-dutyequipment used in the mining industry, but still more than adequatelycovers the national syllabus.
2.30 The automobile and agricultural machinery section of the ZambiaInstitute of Management (ZIM) typifies the philosophy and operational styleof industrial training centers. This section takes care of the maintenanceof a fleet of buses, used-for driving instruction, and has a steady flow ofworkshop practice. The equipment-heavy-duty hoists, compressors,electronic ignition testers--are all in serviceable condition. Income frompaid services to the community is used to buy spare parts and consumableitems. The staff exhibit a commitment to general efficiency and appear tohave a greater degree of job satisfaction than their colleagues in theTTIs.
2.31 Despite the high quality of instruction, the industrial trainingcenters remain closed to outsiders. In 1982 there was a move to open theZCCM training facilities to external trainees on - full-cost basis, but theproposal was shelved on the grounds that ZCCM would then be duplicating therole of the TTIs. =-
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Higher Technical and Science Education (UNZA)
School of Natural Sciences
2.32 This School, established In 1965, has five departments(Mathematics, PhysLcs, Chemistry, Biology and Geography) and had a first-year intake ia 1985 of about 500 students for all courses. About 380 ofthe total intake would remain with the faculty for one or two years andwould then be admitted to specialized faculties such as Engineering, Mines,Medicine, and Veterinary Medicine,. Science courses are also offered -through the School of Natural Sciences to admitted students in the Schoolsof Education and Agricultural Sciences. Only about 100 students wouldcontinue their studies in the faculty to become scientists and of these,only about 30 have selected natural sciences as their first choice, Theoverall dropout rate is 14%.
2.33 Staffing of the school is a major problem and vacancy rates areover 50% for certain departments. Also, the proportion of expatriates isnearing 50% and bilateral assistance is given through Japan, UK, Irelandand Sweden. The workload for existing staff is therefore high and focusseson lecturing and laboratory work, while research by and large isneglected. The school also offers a pre-university course for secondaryschool graduates to strengthen their knowledge and proficiency in-mathematics and the sciences.
2.34 With regard to equipment and consumables for the laboratories,the school has, despite foreign exchange shortages, managed to maintaingood standards through direct foreign assistance.
School of Engineering
2.35 This school has three departments: Civil Engineering; Electrical/Electronic Engineering; and Mechanical Engineering. The departments areapproximately equal in size, and the average annual intake of 95 studentsto the second year of a 5-year course (first year is taken in the School ofNatural Sciences) is divided into the three disciplines.
2.36 Engineering was a very popular choice in 1985 - 164 successfulfirst-year students with high marks applied for entry. This level ofcompetition ensures that the entry threshold is maintained at a high level,which is reflected in a high success rate in the final year.
2.37 Students follow a common engineering program in years 2 and 3,and specialize as Civils, Mechanicals or Electricals in years 4 and 5. Theexception to this pattern is-Land Surveying (within Civils) where studentsbegin specialized studies in year 3. The degree of Bachelor of Engineeringis classified in four grades: distinction, merit, credit, or pass. Theschool also offers post-graduate studies leading to M.Sc. in civil andmechanical engineering subjects.
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2.38 Zambianization of teaching posts is steadily increasing asnational staff return from overseas study programs. In 1985 the ratio ofZambian staff to expatriate staff in each department wass Electrical, 2:3;Mechanicals, 2:1; and Civils, 2:3. The school enjoys considerable supportto its teaching establishment from a number of aid agencies, among themSIDA, NUFFIC, DANIDA, ODA, CIDA and the Government of Ireland.
2.39 Vacation trs;ning Is an essential part of undergraduateprograms and students must satisfactorily complete at least five months ofapproved industrial training after the third and fourth years. However,the steady increase in the student population has not been matched byoffers of training from industry. Emplovers have indicated that they areunable to expand vacation training because of (a) underutilization ofexisting facilities due to economic problems, and (b) lack of funds to paytrainees (especially in government ministries). In the 1984 academic year,only 12 out of 62 graduating students had completed the stipulated 21 weeksof training.
2.40 In spite of these difficulties in the Industrial trainingprogram, the employment prospects after graduation are considered to bevery good, although the school has no system to trace graduate careers.Given the high numnber of expatriate engineers working in the government,parastatal and private sectors, it is clear that UNZA engineering graduatesshould find employment.
2.41 The school has established close links with industry, and aTechnology Development and Advisory Unit offers a research, development.,advisory and consultancy service. Projects include work commissioned byinternational agencies, the Zambian Government and parastatals.
2.42 The laboratory and teaching facilities are in good working orderand are well maintained. Substantial inputs of aid for capital equipmentin recent years have increased the school's equipment stock, especially inelectronic engineering. The maintenance staff are well qualified andexperienced.
2.43 The school's long-term plan (1986-1994) envisages an expansion ofthe intake capacity from 100 to 200 students. Considerable investment, onthe order of Kw 10 million, will be needed to implement the proposed- plan.Diversification in the post-graduate programs and the setting up ofchemical engineering facilities will depend on the timing and scale ofcapital inflows.
School of Mines
2.43 This school, established in 1973, has three departmentsvGeology, Metallurgy and Mineral Processing, and Mining Engineering. Thepresent total student intake is about 50, although the capacity is about70. Students are accepted in the second year of the 5-year course, havingspent the first year at the School of Natural Sciences.
2.44 As indicated above, engineering is a favored choice of eligiblestudents. Unfortunately, studies related to mining are not equally popular
-~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~-1
and only seven out of 255 students listed the School of Mines as theirfirst choice in 1985. This results in a high dropout rate, which currentlyis about- 302. Students specialize in one of the three options already Inthe second year, although a number of courses are common. The schoolrelies on the engineering faculty for general engineering courses.
2.45 At present there are no severe staff shortages, and about 40%of the lecturers are expatriates. The school is supported by DANIDA andthe Bank (Export Rehabilitation and Diversification Project, Credit2391-ZA) for the supply of lecturers and laboratory technicians.
2.46 The School of Mlnes maintains very close links with ZCCM, andvirtually all Zambian graduates are absorbed by the mining parastatal.Also, job prospects are good in the short term, considering the largenumber of expatriates (about 1,600) employed mainly in intermediate andsenior technical posltions in the mines.
Business Education and Management Training
2.48 Responsibility for business education rests mainly with UTEVT andU.JNZA. A number of training institutions in the parastatal sector alsooffer this type of education. Management training is offered by a varietyof institutions, free standing, parastatal and private. Publicadministration training is the responsibility of the National Institute ofPublic Administration (NIPA) under the Cabinet Office. The maininstitutions offering accountancy and management training are:
(a) Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Lusaka campus (UNZA)
(b) School of Business and Industrial Studies, Ndola campus (UNZANDO)
(c) National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA)
(d) Business Studies Department of the Evelyn Hone College of AppliedArts and Commerce.
(e) Zambia Tnstitute of Technology (ZIT)-
(g) Management Services Board (MSB)
(g) Management Training Department of the ZIMCO Institute ofManagement (ZIM)
=(h) Accountancy Training College - Chingola:(ATC) of ZCCM
ix) Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation
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University of Zambia, Lusaka Campus (UNZA)
2.49 The Faculty of Humanities aMd Social Sciences offers 4-yearcourses leading to B.A. degrees in African Development Studies, Sociology*Psychology, Economics, and Public Administration. The latter my beregarded as pre-service training in public sector management, and mostgraduates join the civil service. Enrollments for all B.A. courses havedeclined in the past two or three years because the University Is pursuinga policy of increasing the Intake to science-oriented studies. In 1985the final examination results were as follows:
No. of Pass, Credit To Part-timeCandidates and Nerit or Deferred Fail
Public Administration 41 31 8 2
Economics 50 42 6 2
African Development Studies 18 15 3 -
Sociology 6 5 1
Psychology 7 6 1
University of Zambia, Ndola Campus (UNZANDO)
2.50 The School of Business and Industrial Studies is located on thecampus of the Zambia Institute of Technology (ZIT) pending the constructionof its own campus at Ndola. The School offers two programs of four years'duration, one leading to a bachelor's degree in Accountancy and Finance,and the other to a degree in Business Administration. After a 2-yearcommon foundation course, students select their specialization and in thefourth year accountancy students choose between professionally oriented andfinancial management courses, while business administration students arerequired to develop both specialist skills and an appreciation of theinterrelated nature of the various functional areas of management. In1983/84, enrollment was in excess of 400 because of an annual intake of 130in previous years. This will fall to about 200 from 1986 onwards as theannual intake reduces to 60. To date, about 80% of the students have opted-for Accountancy and Finance and about 20% for Business Administration.
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Enrollment in the'School of Business and Industrial Studies' - 1985
Year I - Common Course 90
Year 2 - Common Course 80
Year 3 - Accountancy 70Business Studies 15
Year 4 - Accountancy 70Business Studies 15
Total: 340
2.51 In a faculty of 31 posts, only 12 are in post, seven are onsabbatical or study-leave and 12 posts are vacant. The teaching issupplemented by four Staff Development Fellows (two each in Accounting andManagement). The school has been strengthened further by two lecturers inaccountancy from EDF funds. USAID has agreed to provide an AccountingProfessor for three years from 1985 and a Business Administration Professorfor two years from 1988. ODA (UK) has also indicated willingness toprovile support in accountancy teaching should either EEC or USAID supportfail i:o materialize. Despite the heavy shortfall against establishedposts, the school manages to keep going by using part-time lecturers whoare available in the locality.
2.52 The school is desperately short of reference books, journals andteaching aids for all areas of study. USAID has a program to provideperiodicals, journals, reference books, textbooks, and instructionalequipment.
National Institute of Public Administration (NIPA)
2.53 NIPA is responsible for in-service training of civil servants,particularly those in the administrative grades, and reports to thePermanent Secretary, Personnel Division, Liaison regarding courses is -
directly with ministries and provinces and NIPA determines what courses areoffered. NIPA is also responsible for carrying out training fordecentralization, in conjunction with the Ministry of Decentralization.The three NIPA campuses comprise the following departments and sections:
Main Campus
* Accountancy Training Department 4/* Administrative Training Department* Local Government Training Section.
Health Service Training DepartmentLegal Training Department
4/ Those departmeints, sections and courses'marked with an'asterisk offermanagement and accountancy studies and are outlined below.
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Burma Road Campus
* Executive Training SectionSecretarial Training SectionTechnical Training Unit
Chalimbana Campus
* Elementary Course In AccoUnts* Certificate in Accounts and Business Studies (CABS)
2.54 In the Accountancy 'Training Department, accountancy techniciandiplomas (ATD) are offered as (a) preliminary diploma with enhancerequirement of four '0' levels, (b) intermediate diploma with thequalification of CABS or equivalent, and (c) final diploma requiring theintermediate diploma for entry. Currently the intake capacity is about 25for each course. The ATD is a local award. Courses for the Association ofAccounting Technicians (AAT), Level III, are also offered enablingsuccessful candidates to qualify for membership in AAT,London. Those whopass AAT, Level III, with credit can move directly to ACCA II.,
2.55 Entry requirements for state auditor courses at the intermediatelevel are three "'Q level passes, including English and mathematics. Thecourses are for serving officers in the-Auditor-General's Department, whohave successfully completed (or are exempted from) the Auditor's InductionCourse, and new entrants who have sufficient knowledge of the basicprinciples and techniques of auditing. The intermediate course takes 24persons, selected by the Auditor General's Department, and lasts 18months. Successful students go on to the final course, lasting one year.Both the intermediate and final examinations are internal to the AuditorGeneral's Department and are supervised by the Public Service Commissionthrough a committee. The Accountancy Training Department has an instructorstaff of nine, of whom four are Zambians.
2.56 In the Administrative Training Department, short courses (2-5weeks) are offered to senior civil service staff, including under-secretaries, planning officers, construction supervisors, educationofficers, etc. These courses are offered once or twice a year, with anaverage enrollment of about 20. In addition, the department is responsiblefor longer term diploma courses (2 years) with an intake of about 25 ayear.- The departmental instructor staff totals five, all Zambians.
- 2.57 - The-Local Government Ttaining Section biannually offers courses(2-4 weeks) for-councillors and commercial, industrial and development-secretaries. The number of training places for each course is 25. Inaddition, longer term courses for valuers (1 year) and local governmentadministrators are offered yearly, in which the participants total 15-20.The section employs four instructors, all Zambians.
2.58 The Executive Training Section is responsible for courses insupervision, middle management, personnel management, etc., lasting 2-13weeks~ with a frequency of two to three per year. Trainee places per coursetotal 20, with seven Zambian instructors.
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2.59 Elementary accountancy and certificate courses (CABS) areavailable at NIPAts-Chalimbana campus and have a duration of six months andtwo years, respectively. The annual output per course is about 100 for theshort and 20 for the long-term course.
- Evelyn Hone College of Applied Arts and Commerce
2.60 Established in 1963 this college is the largest institution (interms of enrollment) controlled by DTEVT. The college has sevendepartments: Applied Sciences and Extension Studies; Business Studies;Communication Media; Education; Hotel Catering and Tourism Studies;Paramedical Studies; and Business Studies. Total student capacity is about1,250, but only 75% to 80% of this capacity is used; however, over 1,000students attend evening classes for extension studies. Of the staffestablishment of 167, 128 posts are filled, more than half by Zambians.
2.61 Paramedical Studies is the largest department, offering 3-yeardiploma courses in Environmental Health, Medical Laboratory Technology,Pharmacy, Physiotherapy, and Radiography. There are strong links with theMinistry of Health and other employers of paramedical personnel.Zambianization is almost completed with the exception of the Laboratory,Technology and Pharmacy Departments.
2.62 The Secretarial Studies Department offers regular shorthand andtyping courses at certificate level. These courses are a popular choiceand consequently the employment market demands are well satisfied.Possible extensions to programs (e.g., advanced secretarial courses andspecialist secretary work) are being considered. The department suffersfrom equipment shortages and a lack of teaching materials.
2.63 The Hotel and Catering Department facilities include an 80 bedCollege Hotel. Courses include a four-year diploma in hotel management andcertificate level work in food and beverages, reception, cookery, andhousekeeping. Employment prospects for students are reasonably good,although there is evidence that some employers'are critical of thestandards being achieved. Shortages of consumable items, aggravated by alack of financial autonomy (generated income is to be handed over to theTreasury), are causing serious constraints to the practical work programs.
2.64 The Communication and Media Department's printing section is notoperating because of machinery breakdowns and the high cost of materials,although it is hoped to re-start the certificate course in 1986 withassistance from industry.
2.65 The Business-Studies Department has 181 students: 117 are studyingaccountancy; 59, marketing; and five, personnel management. This is mainlya response by students-to the availability of jobs in accounting. Thedepartment no longer offers its Diploma in Business Administration norCertificate courses in Stores Supervision, Accounting, and PersonnelAdministration because of diminishing demand from sponsors and students(due to lack of finance and scholarships) as well-as a shortage of staff.
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2.66 Difficulty in attracting and retaining competent Zambian staff is
common to all public sector institutions and Evelyn Hone College is noexception. Thle main cause of this appears to be inadequate salaries,unsatisfactory housiiig, and poor staff development prospects. ThreeZambian staff who obtained one-year scholarships in Ireland (one in
accountancy, two in marketing) recently resigned to take up more lucrative-assignments in the private sector. The department maintains close informal
relationships with the Administrative and Executive Training Departments ofNIPA. Some Evelyn Hone lecturers teach part-time at,NIPA and there are
short, informal exchanges of lecturers between the two Institutions inareas of short supply. The department has 15 lecture rooms and anunderstocked library. There is urgent need for reference books, textbooks
and journals, which to some extent are provided by the Irish Government.
Management Services Board (MSB)
2.67 MSB started in 1970 as an UNDP/ILO project to strengthen the
Business Studies Department of Evelyn Hone College in the training ofmanagerial personnel. The nine ILO staff were later joined by only four
Zambian professional staff. In 1978 ILO pointed to the failure to appointa Zambian Director and counterpart staff. By the end of 1978 only sixZambian staff had been recruited, although this rose to 12 by 1981. By Actof Parliament, MSB was formed in 1981 but without sufficient and
experienced staff. Despite this unhappy start, MSB, with the help of theCabinet Office and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Cooperation (CFTC),
has begun to equip itself to fulfill its role as set out in the Act, whichemphasized "fostering sound management and organizational development inthe parastatal and other sectors of the economy." A Zambian Director hasbeen appointed along with two long-term CFTC consultants. An extensive
review of MSB's role, structure, organization, staffing, conditions ofservice, etc., has been carried out and presented to its Board of
Directors, whose Chairman is the Secretary to the Cabinet.
Zimco Institute of Management (ZIM)
2.68 ZDM is a multi-occupational training center serving the ZambiaIndustrial and Mining Corporation Ltd (ZIMCO) and its subsidiary and
associate companies. Originally a low-level training institution (for
drivers, mechanics, typists), it has now developed short (4 weeks)
management and accountancy courses for supervisory, middle-management andsenior executive level staff. In 1985 the Management Training Department
offered supervisory (15), management development (11), functionalmanagement (10) and accountancy courses (6). Additional courses are
available on request; these include Marketing Management, Salesmanship,,,Physical Distribution Managementj Training for Trainers, Work Study, ind
Industrial Safety. However, since the number of classrooms available tothe Management Training Department is 1imited to three (each catering for a
maximum of 25 students), there is already a shortage of teachingaccommodations to mount even the-regular courses offered.
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2.69 ZIM would like to upgrade its accountancy training facility toand including-ACCA I, but does not have the staff. However,-ZIMCO hasearmarked Kw 3 million for construction and staff development in ZIM. Mostof this will be spent on expanding management training where, as noted
-above,42 out of some 80 short courses are mounted. Although the ManagementTraining Department of ZIM has only seven trainers, including the head ofthe department, ZIMCO's investment is likely to be supplemented byassistance from ODA (UK).
2.70 The management at ZIM is concerned about possible conflict withthe Management Services Board (MSB) in areas where they offer similartraining programs. It is looking forward to re-activation of the JointPrograms Committee (which has not met for two years) so that there can bedialogue and cooperation with other management training institutions suchas MSB, NIPA, UNZA, Evelyn Hone College, the President's College,training units of ZCCM, PTC, Zambia Railways and NRDC, Mindolo.
Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines, Ltd. (ZCCM)Accountancy Training College - Chingola (ATC)
2.71 The Accountancy Training College mainly serves ZCCM and itsaffiliate companies. It is administered by ZCCM's Manpower Services andTraining Division (MST) at Kitwe and offers a series of accountancycourses. The College Certificate in Accountancy (CCA) is a two-yearcertificate which is taken by recruits to the mining industry fromsecondary-school. Those who pass this examination go on to take ACCA I andthen ACCA II. Successful ACCA II students go abroad for ACCA III and AAT1I and then AAT III. These courses are mainly for in-service employees ofthe mining divisions, together with a few students from other parastatalorganizations.
2.72 CCA was developed by ZCCM, with the help of ACCA, to preparestudents for admission to ACCA, whose minimum requirement for admission is-'A' level, which is not available in secondary education. The quality ofoutput from ATC's CCA course may be judged by its first 11 graduates in1983 who took ACCA I in June 1984. Seven of the 11 passed in their firstattempt and the remainder at their second, which indicates that the levelof performance is outstanding particularly since the international averageis a pass rate of 40%. In 1982, two of the top five students in ATT'sworldwide examinations were from the ATC at Chingola.
2.73 In addition to the principal, who is Zambian, ATC has seventrainers, five of whom are expatriate. The library'is barely adequate andmany of the reference books are old editions, and textbooks are in shortsupply, especially in taxation, economics and accounting. There is aparticular need for texts in financial accounting.
2.74 Five classrooms (which can take up to 24 students each) are fullyutilized and the hostels, designed for 75 in single study-bedrooms, nowaccommodate 150. The result is overcrowding and the students must findother places to study.
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Mindolo Ecumenical Foundation
2.75 The Mindolo Ecumenical Foundalion offers commercial trainingcourses for private, parastatal and goverament organizations up tosupervisory level. Courses vary betweeu one and four weeks and are offeredat an a-verage of twice per year; they include such topics as basicsupervision, materials management, personnel management, costing, andbudgeting. In 1984, a total of 309 participated in this training. TheFoundation also mounts In-plant programs. In 1984, five of these weregiven-to 120 participants,- using three or four lecturing staff. Inaddition to its core staff, the Foundation receives assistance fromcompanies and parastatals, sometimes on a fee b8si% and sometimes free.
Correspondence Courses
2.76 Administrative staff have a great interest in correspondencecourses leading to the acquisition of overseas, sub-professionalqualifications. In some cases the students simultaneously enroll indomestic evening classes, and local examination centers may be organized(for example, Pitmans at NORTEC), but In others they are expected to workon their own. Little is known about the volume, value, cost or graduationrates of these courses. Some carry weight with employers but others donot, and the introduction of regulation needs to be considered.
Agricultural Education and Training
2.77 The overall responsibility for the organization and management ofthe training functions in the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Development(MAWD) is delegated to the Training Section of the Department ofAgriculture (DOA). Until now, administration of overall MAWD training hasbeen under the Office of the Training Chief, who is seconded to MAWD by theDirectorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT). The mainfunctions of the Chief Training Officer (CTO) are overall coordination ofthe administration of the existing training institutions under MAWD,coordination of scholarship arrangements, and liaison with traininginstitutions in Zambia and abroad. At the DOA level, however, the TrainingSection and the Extension Service are integrated for administrativepurposes and are under the Director General of Agriculture (DGA), with theDeputy Director of Extension (DDE) assuming broad responsibility for allfield services to the farmer and the Senior Extension Training Officer(SETO) assuming specific responsibility for the Farm Institutes (FIs) andFarm Training Centers (FTCs).
2.78 At the level of each of the eight provincial headquarters theProvincial Agricultural-Officer (PAO) assumes overall responsibility, whilethe Provincial Extension Training Officer (PETO) is responsible for thedaily routine administration of training lnstitutions. At the districtlevel, both the extension and training staff function under the authorityof the District Agricultural Officer (DAO). The organization of theTraining Section of DOA is shown in the following chart:
2.79 MAWD has the responsibility for training two broad categories oflearners: (a) farm families and extension vorkers, and (b) research andmanagerialpsupport staff. Agrncultural training Is at present offered byeight FIs and 32 PTCs (Annex ll). Both the Fls and PTCs are managed by theTraining Section of the Department of Agriculture (DWOA). Staff training topresently carried out through one diploma and 10 certificate grantingInstitutes, all of which are managed by MAWD. In addition, higher ordegree level training is the responaibLlIty of -UNZA, while short- andlong-term post-graduate and non-degree training i8 offered abroad, mainlythrough fellowships.
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Farm Institutes (FIM)
2.80 There are eight FI, one in each province. As the total auimberof camps supervised by Fla is about 540 and the total number of field staffin these camps is about 450, there is roughly one staff member per camp,and since the total number of farm families covered in all the eight campsIs approximately 660,000, each staff member, on average, deals with about1,220 farm families. The major function of the Fla is to train field staffand also farmers where no FTC exists.
1Farmer Training Centers (FTCs)
2.81 While the total number of FTCs is 32, very few are effective.The few which are operating train as many students as an-Fl, though withcomparatively less efficiency. Even where FTC8 are operational, theyfunction at less than 50% capacity and at present the obvious trend is torely on a modified T&V (Training and Visit) system instead. Under a T&Vsystem, farmer training functions focus on practical, 'hands-on' typetraining right in the farmers' fields, through demonstration. At presentthe FTCs, like the FIs, use little demonstration and resort to lectures.Feedback from the farmer is not well registered, as discussions are rare.This ineffective method of teaching is worsened by the fact that FTCs areconstrained by (a) the lack of recurrent funds, (b) farmers' reluctance tocome to the centers, (c) lack of adequate transport, (d) shortage of watersupply, (e) the need to refurbish existing buildings, and (f) shortage ofteaching materials.
Zambia Colleges of Agriculture at Monze and Mpika
2.82 Pre-service training is offered mainly through the twocertificate granting institutions, the Zambia College of Agriculture atMonze (ZCA-Monze) and the Zambia College of Agriculture at Mpika(ZCA-Mpika), and through the Natural Resources Development College (NRDC),all of which are under DOA management. In addition, DOA relies on theUniversity of Zambia (UNZA) for degree level training of its staff andtrains a selected few research, extension and managerial staff at degree,non-degree and post-graduate levels overseas.
2.83 The former Monze Agricultural Training School became the ZambiaCollege of Agriculture In 1965 and shifted to its present campus. Sincethen there has been continuous improvement in the college buildings,laboratories and farm facilities. Improvements are evident in the qualityof students, and enrollment is increasing. The course content, teachingmethodologies and practical training also have improved considerably. Someimportant changes were the introduction of a two-year certificate course, afoundation course for veterinary students, and admission of femalestudents. In 1976 a sister college was established at Npika in NorthernProvince. These two Colleges of Agriculture have similar curricula and
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produce certificate holders of the same standard. The combined output ofthe Monze and Mpika colleges is about 150 graduates per year. The mainsubjects in the curriculum are Animal Husbandry, Crop Husbandry; ExtensionMethods, Farm Engineering, and Farm Management. At Monze, female studentstake Home Economics in place of Farm Engineering in the second year. Allthe Departments have fairly good facilities for training. Entryrequirements for the colleges are Form 3 junior secondary schoolcertificate with four passes and at least one year of practical trainingand experience in the field as Commodity Demonstrator (CD). The CDs aregiven three months' introductory training at the provincial Farm Instituteand are then sent to a camp to work with camp officers. A CD with goodpotential and one year's work experience may be recommended by theProvincial Agricultural Officer for further studies.
2.84 The Monze college accommodates about 230 students, averaging 25years of age. The college has its own farm of 657 hectares, including anarable farming area of about 70 hectares and about 570 hectares of grazingland. Maize, soyabeans and sunflowers are the principal crops grown.There is a herd of over 50 cows and a beef herd of 100 breeding cows. Thecollege meets almost all of its subsistence requirements for students andstaff through its own resources. Staff and student morale is high, and atpresent the college is attempting to clear all the backlog of CDs ao thatsome may be selected for further training. The intake is about 100graduates per year. The staff consists of six senior lecturers, eightlecturers, and 10 practical instructors. Normally a few staff members areallowed to take training courses every year; this boosts staff morale andincentive. The table below shows the rise in the number of graduates from1971 to 1983.
The instruction consists of 50% theory and 5OZ practice. Each student isgiven a plot of land, animals and fruit trees to provide firsthandexperience in farming. Field vislts to commercial and traditional farmsare included in the program.
Natural Resources Development College (NEDC)
2.85 The first cohort of students was admitted In 1965 for a two-yeardiploma course and a one-year diploma course in home economics. Sincethen, considerable changes have been made in the curriculum and the collegenow offers a three-year diploma course with majors in crop science, animalscience and agricultural business management, agricultural education,agricultural engineering, nutrition, and water engineering. There isconsiderable emphasis on practical training in laboratories and on thecollege farm and ranch. The students are expected to gain field experienceduring at least one long vacation. The college campus is located on 300hectares of land, about 12 km outside of Lusaka. The college farm isprimarily a teaching farm with an irrigated area and also has pig, poultryand dairy cattle units and a ranch of about 1,500 hectares, which hasindigenous Angoni beef cattle and various exotic breeds and crossbreeds,along with flocks of sheep and goats.
2.86 The college admission is of two types: direct entry soon after"O" level; and in-service candidates who, in addition to earlier formalagricultural training, have worked for some time and gained experience andare recommended or sponsored by their departmental heads. Once admitted,both categories of- students have to undergo the same type of training andmeet the same academic requirements. The maximum training capacity of thecollege is about 160 students per year, of whom about 130 receive thediploma. About 80% of the students are fresh from school ("0" levelgraduates) and 20% are in-service candidates. Generally, a diploma holderof NRDC joins the Extension Branch of MAWD as an agricultural supervisor.About 10 diploma holders every year go for B.Sc. (Agriculture) courses atthe UNZA School of Agricultural Sciences. Most of the facilities forteaching soil, chemistry, botany and zoology are less than adequate andneed replacement.
University of Zambia
School of Agricultural Sciences
2.87 The School of Agricultural Sciences of UNZA was officiallyestablished in 1971 at the Lusaka campus. The present program for thedegree of-Bachelor of Agricultural Sciences is of five years' duration andcovers five basic agricultural science disciplines: Crop Sciences, AnimalScience, Agricultural Engineering, Rural Economy and Extension Education,and Soil Science. At present, the maximum intake at the School ofAgricultural Sciences is 70, and the entry requirement is completion ofsecondary school with five passes at "O" level. In the fifth year, thestudents are offered optional subjects in their areas of special interest.
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All students are required to do a mlnimuu of 30 weeks of farm work beforethey graduate in order to gain practical skills in farming and to getexposure to the rural community and to existing farming systems. Up to1983, the School of Agricultural Sciences had produced 163 B.Sc.(Agriculture) graduates, 125 of whom have joined MAWD and agriculturalparastatals. Since 1983, an average of 60 students graduate each year.
2.88 Apart from the B,Sc. (Agriculture) degree program, a new B.Sc.(Agricultural Economics) program was recently approved by the Senate of theUniversity. The main objective of this new program is to produce studentswho are technically sound in agriculture and are also well versed inagricultural economics. A B.Sc. (Agricultural Engineering) program with-specialization in farm power and machinery, farm structure, and soil andwater conservation is also likely to start soon. Diseussions are alsounderway to start an M.Sc. program in selected subjects, but financialconstraints may delay these plans.
2.89 Besides teaching, faculty members undertake research projects andassist in the development and maintenance of the university farms. TheSchool of Agricultural Sciences has its own farm of 600 hectares.
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
2.90 In order to meet the challenge of its own increased animalproduction and the need to identify and effectively control the majorlivestock diseases in the country, UNZA is in the process of establishinga Veterinary Medicine Faculty at the Great East Road Campus in Lusaka.Locating the new faculty at the Lusaka campus has the advantage ofutilizing the existing interim premises and research laboratories as wellas using the services of academic staff whc are already available in theSchool of Natural Sciences and would teach basic sciences during the firstand second years of the six-year program. While the level of veterinaryeducation would be at the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine (B.Vet. Med.)degree, it would consist of theory and field and laboratory practicalwork. Although the faculty is starting with only 15 students, the aim isto produce about 40 every year, starting from the 1986/87 academic year.Current total enrollment is 32.
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lII. ANALYSIS OP NJOWER DEVELOPMENT
3.1 Manpower Development Planning
Central Planning Authorities
NCDP
3.1.1 The Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP (para 2.01)is at the center of manpower development for Zambia and has anestablishment of 12 professional staff. Nevertheless, in common with mostsuch units in other countrles, it is doubtful whether it has anysignificant impact on decision-making within its domain.
3.1.2 There are two reasons for this. One is shortcomings in itsstaffing. It appears that none of the present officers of the departmenthad work experience in the manpower sector prior to recruitment. Most ofthe junior staff joined the department directly after completing a firstdegree at UNZA, and their academic training was not always in relevantfields. There has been a high rate of turnover of directors, the averagetenure since the establishment of the department in 1980 being less thantwo years. The latest director has been in post for only two months. Witheach new director requiring training overseas, the effective length ofservice has been shorter still. As a consequence, the department haslacked sustaiued experienced leadership since its creation. For some timeit has been operating with less than half of its nominal professionalstrength, several of the officers being absent on overseas trainingcourses, and four posts (including the two Assistant Directorships)remalning unfilled.
3.1.3 There is some expectation that when the officers who are abroadhave completed their training the department will be in a position tofulfill Its responsibilities, but such optimism does not appear to beJustified. The second reason for the Ineffectiveness of the department isa fundamental misconception of the role that it should play in manpowerdevelopment planning - a misconception shared by most such unitselsewhere. In general terms, the objectives of the department are welldefined: the formal statement of its functions and the job descriptions ofthe indlvidual posts are uncontroversial and together cover most of theactivities that one would expect of such a unit. What is lacking, both onpaper and in practice, is any notion of how these objectives might beachieved. The department has adopted information processing (data in,reports out) as its primary modus operandi, with no clear idea of how thiswill help it to achieve its goals.
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3.1.4 To overcome this problem, the department has to recognize thatits func't on is to improve the quality of decision-making in the manpowerdevelopment sector and those sectors related to it. It needs to make aninventory of key decision-makers in the sector (employers, trainingproviders, other planning agencies), to become well informed about theirdecision-making processes and the more Important decisions made by them ona regular basis, and to work backwards from this analysis to a pragmaticinterpretation of the Job descriptions of its own officers.
3.1.5 This would involve the'adoption of a less office bound, lessdata dependent and more eclectic work style. The department would'have totake the initiative in taintaining contact with key dectsion-makers on aregular basis. It would have to acknowledge that most decision-making inthe sector is necessarily based on qualitative rather than quantitativeinformation. And it would have to recognize the value of many activities--entrepreneurial, managerial, catalytic-- that are not information dependent(e.g., establishing lines of communication between training providers andemployers, and coaching key decision-makers in effective decision-makingpractices, checking that new training facilities are designed withsufficient flexibility so that they can adjust their training mix tochanges in demrnd).
3.1.6 The current and past training programs of the officers of thedepartment are not likely to foster this kind of reorientation. Althoughit is mostly a matter of common sense, external technical assistance willprobably be required. Ideally, this should be in the form of an initialsmall input followed by coaching in short installments over the next fewyears. However, since the department has been provided with technicaladvisers in the past with limited results, particular attention should begiven to the likely effectiveness of any future assistance. USAID isplanning to provide the department with very generous technical assistancein the form of a long-term adviser, who should have been in place in early1985.
3.1.7 The Manpower Survey undertaken in 1983 is expected to furnishdata for a major program of analysis by the revitalized division. This isan illusion. Indeed, by absorbing more of their time, it will certainlyhave a net negative effect on their contribution to sectoral decision-making. From a statistical viewpoint, the survey appears to have beenundertaken with a high level of professional expertise,but from an economicviewpoint its value is marginal. It was not designed with specificdecision-making in mind and as a result it may not be useful for thispurpose. The one-digit occupational classification used in most of thepublished tables renders them of negligible interest to a manpoweranalyst. Even the minor code classification is too highly aggregated to beused on its own, e.g., accountant assistants and accountants are lumpedtogether, as are engineers and related technicians. It will be necessaryto cross-classify by educational level before one can home in on aparticular qualification, but even then the data would be of little valueunless supplemented by a practical familiarity with the corresponding
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labor markets. Of the data published in the preliminary volume, only thoserelated to posts currently filled by expatriates and to training are ofobvious use. The former should be available more cheaply, more quickly,more accurately and in greater detail from the Zambianization Office ofDMDT. The date on training are too broadly classified to be of muchvalue.
3.1.8 In a recent submission to the Bank, NCDP proposed a trainingprogram for its officers for the next five years which included thefollowing degree courses: M.Sc. in Mieroeconomics (two), M.Sc. inEconomics (six), M.A. in Development Economics (25); M.A. in ProjectEeonomics (one), Ph.D. in Economics (seven). The Manpower Planning andResearch Department could benefit substantially from having on its staff anofficer with a rigorous two-year M.Sc. in Economics to act as an anchormanfor its economic analysis, but only if the reorientation described abovewere implemented. It would also benefit from recruiting one or two staffwith an M.Sc. in Labor Economics, or by sending existing staff abroad forin-service training in that field. In view of the cost of such training,the staff members concerned should be carefully pre-selected for aptitudeand should be expected to remain in post for at least five years aftertheir return.
Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT)
3.1.9 For the purpose of making efficient use of the training resourcesavailable to the civil service, DMDT has introduced a system which hasparallels, both in terms of its execution and of the problems encountered,with that used by the Ministry of Finance (MOF) for allocating financialresources. Like MOF, it has established its own cadre of specialists,Manpower Development Officers, and has seconded them to the variousbranches of the civil service. The MDOs, each of whom services an averageof 1,500 established staff, are not in a position to evaluate directly thetraining needs of their host branch. Their role is one ofconsciousness-raising and organization, the objective being to stimulatethe responsible senior officers of the branch to set in motion and maintainan assessment process for their staff and to see that this results in-regular and appropriate training bids.
3.1.10 In 1984 this process of training needs assessment wassupplemented by a formal survey which was extended to the parastatal andprivate sectors. Although the immediate purpose of the survey was tosatisfy the requirements of a major donor agency, it also served as a pilotexercise for an annual budgeting procedure for training resources similarto-that employed by MOP for allocating financial resources.
J.1.ll Civil service branches and other employers were asked to nominatecandidates for training awards, having first evaluated them according to apoints system devised by DMDT which took ,t'io account such factors as theage of the candidate and the priority rating assigned to his or heroccupation by a DMDT classifieation based on a 1976/77 survey.
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3.1.12 Although there was a disappointing response from the privatesector and a weak one from the parastatals, probably caused in both casesby a failure to publicize the survey, the ratio of bids to availabletraining opportunities was on the order of 3:1. The same overbiddingproblem used to be encountered by MOF when soliciting bids for budgetallocations, and the survey report proposes the same solution, i.e., toindicate to the bidders their likely total allocation before asking themfor nominations.
Planning by Employers
3.1.13 Enterprises typically make long-term recruitment plans for onlythose types of specialized manpower for which they are the dominantemployer. Since they are usually either directly responsible for thetraining, or indirectly responsible through a sponsorship scheme, theirrecruitment plans simultaneously generate training plans for these types oflabour.
3.1.14 The most important example of a closed labor market is providedby primary and secondary school teachers. Their training and recruitmentare the separate responsibilities of MHI and MGEC, but in principle thesetwo ministries should be coordinating as if they were a single unit (whichthey used to be). Other examples of dedicated in-house training programsare the technical training facilities at ZCCM, the statistician trainingschool at CSO, the various training programs operated by the Ministry ofHealth, the Forestry School operated by the Zambian Forestry and ForestIndustries Company, and the technician training program at Posts andTelecommunications. Although at one end of the spectrum the courses may beas formal as those offered by MHB, at the other end they may be little mDrethan Induction courses with a substantial on-the-job training component.
3.1.15 When the volume of specialized training is too small to Justifyan in-house program, sponsorship is the usual alternative; overseas if nosuitable domestic facilities exist. Attachments overseas may be a furtheroption for firms with permanent commercial links with overseas firms, forexample, those participating in joint ventures, those with minorityexternal shareholdings, and those which have established licensingagreements.
3.1.16 From the point of view of national manpower development planning,in-house training and sponsorship schemes should be encouraged, on twogrounds:
(a) They decentralize the hurden of planning from the ManpowerPlanning and Researeb Department of the NCDP (which has neitherthe know-how for detailed planning nor the required resources)to the enterprises employing the manpower. This can be expectedto have a beneficial effect on both the quality of thedecision-making and the speed of response to changingcircumstances.
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(b) They generally transfer the financial burden of training fromMHE to employers, whose training schemes may in any case be morecost-effective.
3.1.17 The Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDP shouldtherefore en"-urage the establishment of in-house training programs whenjustified in terms of unit costs and sponsorship, and sponsorship schemes,
helping to arrange technical assistance when appropriate. The departmentshould regularly monitor unit costs of major programs and the quality oftheir output.
3.1.18 Since the quality of the output depends critically on the qualityof instruction, the department should keep itself well informed concerningthe factors affecting the recruitment and wastage of instructors and shouldtake remedial action where appropriate. In Zambia as elsewhere, there is achronic problem of a high wastage of instructors to other relatedoccupations offering superior pay and other conditions. The only lastingsolution is to increase instructor salaries, reducing the scale of thetraining program if necessary in order to reallocate the required funds.This solution, though obvious, is typically not adopted because it involvesgiving instructors salaries larger than those of employees with greaterline responsibility and higher status. The department should take theinitiative in persuading the administrators of the training schemes that
the realignment of salaries is necessary and justified. For example, atZCCM and also at Posts and Telecommunications, the training divisions,which are exceptionally well organized in other respects, have chronicproblems in retaining instructors. At ZCCM the training division is unableto compete with the operating divisions with respect to pay and workingconditions, and as a result there is a high rate of internal wastage. AtTelecoms the lose is to the private sector.
3.1.19 These remarks apply particularly to the parastatal sector, wheresalaries are determined relatively rigidly. The little flexibility thatdoes exist appears to be influenced more by a desire to maintain an orderlyhierarchy of salary scales in enterprises of different sizes than torespond to the signals emitted by the labor market.
3.1.20 To some extent this reluctance to acknowledge the realities ofthe labor market has been encouraged by the willingness of donor agenciesto sponsor the overseas training of new Instructors. The continuous inflowof new staff has mitigated the problem caused by the wastage of existinginstructors, but this is nothing more than a palliative and an expensiveone at that. Even if the company operating the training scheme does nothave to bear the direct cost of training instructors, it normally isresponsible for their salaries -and is constantly replacing experiencedinstructors with inexperienced ones. Donor agencies are right in assigninghigh priority to the quality of instruction, but their contribution could
be more effective if part of their budgets were diverted from sponsorshipto the provision of incentives for existing instructors to remain in post,for example, by supplementing their salaries.
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3.1.21 In some of the larger companies, particularly in the parastatalsector, the establishment of a specialized personnel department has led tothe neglect of on-the-job coaching. Whether this Is because the personneldepartment is preoccupied with formal schemes and has overlooked its value,or because the operating divisions have been too willing to shed even thistraining responsibility, the process by which new graduates acquire usefulexperience and practical competence has very often not received theattention it deserves. The Manpower Planning and Research Departmen- canplay-a useful role in making employers more sensitive to this issue. Onepractical measure would be to require a coaching element to be included inthe job description of posts held by expatriates and for thisresponsibility to be borne in mind when expatriates are recruited.
3.1.22 For types of labor which are not enterprise-specific, theemployers typically rely on the open labor market, with short-term planningat most. For such types of labor, the burden of planning should be shiftedto the training provider.
3.1.23 Three employers of high-level manpower merit particularattention: MGEC, the ZIMCO Group, and its subsidiary, ZCCM.
Ministry of General Education and Culture (MGEC)
3.1.24 MGEC is by far the largest employer of high-level manpower inZambia, its 30,000 teachers representing over 30% of all professional andtechnical workers.
3.1.25 The Planning and Statistics Divisions of MGEC should have up-to-date time-series data on the current stock and utilization of teachers andon- attrition rates by cause of attrition, and it should also maintainannually updated projections of the demand for teachers by location andqualification, and corresponding teacher-training requirements.
3.1.26 While two divisions do collect data and make projections on theselines, the lack of detail limits their usefulness for decision-making. Thedelay in compiling the statistica further detracts from their value. Theweakness of the data-processing capacity is primarily attributable to thefact that the staff have to travel to UNZA, four miles away, to use thecomputer there. In-house facilities, either in the form of terminalslinked to the UNZA computer or stand-alone equipment, are urgently needed.It is understood that SIDA is currently considering providing them.
3.1.27 -The second priority is to improve the data on the existing stockof teachers. MGEC compiles data on the stock of trained and untrainedteachers by qualification and nationality, but does not appear to have dataon the age-structure of the teaching force, their length of service ortheir geographical location of employment. MGEC needs to computerize keydata from personnel records with two purposes in mind: monitoring theutilization of teachers, and monitoring their attrition rates. Prematureattrition of teachers is a major problem for MGEC, but there does not
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appear to be any daca which would promote an understanding of the problemand which would-be useful in finding a remedy. The data on the utilizationof teachers should be complemented by geographical data on educationalquality and the number of over-size and under-size classes so thatgeographical imbalances in the employment of teachers may be detected andremedied.
3.1.28 A third priority for MGEC is the establishment of computerizedforecasting model which takes as inputs demographic projections of childrenaged 7 and assumptions concerning dropout repetition and progressionrates, and whose outputs are^projections of enrollments by grade, teacherrequirements by qualification, and the implications for recurrentexpenditure. Such a model is becoming a standard feature of a well-organized Ministry of Education planning department, and it is cheap toestablish and to run.
Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines, Ltd. (ZCCM)
3.1.29 Faced with a long-term decline in its mining operations, ZCCM isin the process of reviewing its activities and drafting a long-term plan.In the field of labor, it intends to establish a formal manpower planningsystem which will include a computerized inventory of its workforce,integrated with the payroll, and a job classification system. This shouldimprove its ability to forecast its own needs and, in part-icular, toachieve the necessary reduction In its labor force in an orderly mannerthrough normal wastage and early retirement schemes. The inventory wasalmost finished by September 1985, and the-demand side exercise is expectedto be completed in draft by June 1986.
3.1.30 ZCCM's links with training providers are long established andefficient. At the highest levels (the University and TechnicalInstitutes), its sponsorship of future employees eliminates the need fortraining institutions to forecast the demand from this source. Itswillingness to sponsor some students for overseas training makes itunnecessary for domestic institutions to adapt abruptly to short-termvariations in demand and reduces the pressure on them to deviate fromlong-term development plans.
3.1.31 In addition to its technical training facilities ZCCM operatesan Accountancy Training College (ATC) at Chingo'a. The college works atfull capacity and its courses are invariably over-subscribed. Planning atATC therefore consists of ensuring that it has the staff and resources tocontinue operating at full capacity. Policy for ATC is determined by theparent company and its plans to meet its own needs. A few places at thecollege are offered to other parastatals when there is spare capacity.
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ZIMCO Group
3.1.32 The parastatal labour force totals approximately 140,000, most ofthe 80,000 outside ZCCM being employed by enterprises in the ZIMC0 Group.Manpower planning is executed both at the level of the individualenterprise and collectively at ZIMCO headquarters. Each firm is requiredto undertake a systematic annual review of the training needs of itsemployees and these, together with data on vacancies and the employment ofexpatriates, form the basis of a ZIMCO Group training program.
3.1.33 Some of the better managed firms have well-developed in-housetraining and/or sponsorship scheme. Typical among these are Zambia Postsand Telecommunications and the Kafue Textile Company, both of which have anin-house training center and a training plan fully integrated with thecompany development plan.
3.1.34 The main functions of the headquarters unit are to monitor thecompliance of individual companies with ZIMCO conditions of service andpolicy on the localization of posts, supervise overseas training, andorganize an internal Group labor market for senior positions.
3.1.35 While these functions are valaable, the centralization ofpolicymaking for such a large and diverse collection of enterprises doescreate some problems which are not adequately appreciated. First, thecentral determination of pay scales and the linking of these pay scales tothose for government service undermine the ability of the parastatal sectorto respond to the realities of the labor market and places it at adisadvantage with the private sector, with which many of its companies haveto compete. Adjustments in salary scales for a large group are necessarilymade more slowly than those for an independent company and there is agreater risk of influence by non-economic factors, such as inappropriatevalue judgements with regard to the worth of specific ocupations. Failureto pay technical instructors adequate salaries is a case in point. Thereluctance to pay the market rate for a job is doubly damaging: on the onehand it leaves the parastatal sector with unfilled posts or posts filled byindividuals unattractive to the private sector -- the incompetent and theinexperienced; on the other hand, the artificial depression of salariesreduces the incentive for individuals to undergo the necessary training andcontributes to perpetuation of the shortage.
3.1.36 Second, centralized manpower planning has a tendency to be overlyconcerned with numbers and insufficiently concerned with qualitativeconsiderations. At the headquarters unit it is apparently felt that thelocalization of posts should take place as rapidly- as Zambians can betrained and that the training program should be accelerated, financespermitting. At the level of the individual firm, however, the problemsarising from promoting inexperienced Zambians too rapidly into seniorpositions are more clearly perceived.
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3.1.37 Related to the issue of pay is the problem of low productivity.It is clear that there is a tendency in the parastatal sector, and also insome private companies, to forego potential increases in productivity inorder to protect jobs. In some cases this policy has been adoptedexplicitly. The number of jobs so protected is undoubtedly trivial by
comparison with total employment or even the annual increase in the laborforce, but the resulting inefficiency contributes to the lack of
competitiveness of Zambian industry in world markets - directly if thefirm is a potential exporter, indirectly if it is a supplier of potentialexporters.
3.1.38 Third, centralized coordination and vetting of overseas trainingare beneficial only if executed effectively. The weak response of ZIMCO
and other parastatals to the recent DMDT training needs evaluation is noted(para 3.1.12).
3.1.39 Notwithstanding these problems, a centralized unit can play a
strategic role in improving decision-making related to manpower planning inthe sector, and the Manpower Planning and Research Department of NCDPshould establish a stronger working relationship with it.
Private Sector
3.1.40 Private sector firms typically satisfy their manpower needs asbest they can on a short-term basis from the labor market, specializedin-service training being confined to on-the-job training, secondment tooverseas firms with which they have commercial relations, and equipment-specific instruction provided by suppliers. The absence of formal in-housecenters and the low incidence of the use of sponsorship are explained bythe fact that private firms tend to be small and their employment ofprofessional and technical workers relatively low. Only about 7% of theirworkers are so classified, as opposed to 25% of parastatal workers. Thereare indications, however, that the private sector wishes to be moreinvolved in manpower development including training program design andsharing in the financing of training.
-Planning by Formal Training Providers
3.1.41 It is important to distinguish between planning carried out bytraining providers -- i.e., institutions and organizations actually engagedin training work -- and the planning activity in entities and organizations
that control or advise the training providers. This section of the reportis concerned with the former category.
3.1.42 In the formal technical education sector, there is littleevidence that systematic planning takes place. The colleges and TTIs tendto adopt a passive role in a highly centralized system in which theinstitutions respond to intake levels Imposed centrally. The planningprocess is guided more by available financing than by actual manpower
needs. A similar situation exists in the technical training institutions,since they take no part in the selection and placement of students and are
often faced with last-minute problems concerning staff deployment andaccommodations.
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3.1.43 Uncertaincies in the scale and availability of capital budgetsfor new equipment or refurbishment, and also recurrent costs reduce thewill and commitment of technical institution staff to initiate and sustainsystematic planning mechanisms. This is unfortunate because planning takeson a special value in situations of tight resources and it is a useful toolin the management of lean budgets.
Efficiency of Labor Markets
3.1.44 To the extent that labor markets allocate manpower efficientlyand provide appropriate signals to training providers in the form of wagelevels and other indicators of demand, the Manpower Planning and ResearchDepartment can delegate decision-making to those directly involved.Instead of becoming directly involved in planning, it can afford to adoptthe less resource-consuming role of monitoring the general operation of thelabour markets for different types of labor and of taking correctiveaction, when appropriate, on detecting distortions. This function isrecognized in the internal document defining the objectives of the ManpowerPlanning and Research Department but it has not been exercised.
3.1.45 At present the markets for high-level manpower in Zambia are in astate of disequilibrium, with the government service paying lower wagerates than the parastatals and the private sector paying more than either.Since the government service is the dominant sponsor of high-level trainingand is the major beneficiary of donor-agency training, the majority ofhigh-level trainees enter its service on graduation, remaining in thatemployment during the period of bonding. After the bonding has been workedoff, some transfer to the parastatal sector where pay and other benefitsare theoretically on a par with those in the government service but inpractice are frequently significantly superior. After having gainedfurther experience, those with superior ability may migrate a second timeand take up employment in the private sector. As a result of theGovernment's efforts to protect the lowest paid workers in the economy,wages for middle and lower skill categories are presently higher in thecivil service than in the private sector.
3.2 General Education
Primary Education
Enrollments
3.2.1 The two Third National Development Plan (TNDP) objectives forprimary education were the enrollment of all children aged 7 in Grade 1 and100% transition of lower primary graduates (Grade 4) to upper primary. Onthe surface the statistics suggest that the first objective has beenachieved: it was estimated that 196,000 children reached the age of 7 In1984 and 198,200 were enrolled in Grade I that year. However, of thelatter, no fewer than 114,560 were over age (and 7,520 under age). Only76,110 were actually aged 7.
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3.2.2 The backlog of over-age children is attributable to the shortageof Grade 1 places in past years, especially in urban areas. Repetition isnot a significant factor: only 403 children were repeating the grade in1981, the most recent year for which data are available. Since thepresence of over-age children in Grade 1 means that children currently aged7 are denied entry, the backlog is self-perpetuating. It can be eliminatedonly by temporarily allowing Grade 1 enrollment to run ahead of the age 7population, and this would appear to be ruled out for the present by a lackof resources. It follows that for the foreseeable future a substantialproportion of children will not have access to education duriug one oftheir mest formative years.
3.2.3 The increase in enrollment has been made possible only by highlyintensive use of the schools. In the TNDP it had been hoped to phase outtriple sessions, but the opposite has happened and they have now becomestandard practice. The pressure in urban areas has been aggravated by theinflux of population from rural areas.
3.2.4 The transition rate from Grades 4 to 5 remains approximately 85%,well short of the second TNDP objective. Multigrade teaching of upperprimary education may be introduced in lower primary schools-in rural areaswhere the transition rate is particularly low.
3.2.5 The TNDP document projected that total enrollment in primaryeducation would be 1,154,000 in 1983; this target was exceeded by 40,000.Recent data on the proportion of primary school-age population enrolled inschool are not available. The proportion declined marginally between 1974and 1980, but may have improved since then (Annex 12, Table 3.2.1).
3.2.6 The student-teacher ratio has stabilized at about 33:1 for bothlower 51 and upper primary education. This is substantially below thenorm of 40:1, but is is likely to reflect imbalances in the distribution ofchildren and teachers among schools, particularly between urban and ruralareas, rather than a general over-provision of teachers. The quality ofprimary education leaves much to be desired. Entrants to teacher trainingschools for primary education have hitherto been required to have completedonly Form 3 (Grade 10). In practice, with increasing competition forplaces in the training schools, many have completed Form 5, hut thetraining syllabus remains orientated to Form 3 leavers.
5/ However; In lower primary education a teacher normally handles twoclasses per day, amounting to a teaching load of about 10 periods.
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Employment Prospects for Primary School Leavers
3.2.7 Annex 129 (Table 3.2.2) provides data on the gross output(graduates plus dropouts) from primary education for the years 1981-1984and projections to the year 1990. (Gross output in any year is most easilycalculated by subtracting the increase in total enrollment in Grades 1-7from new enrollment in Grade 1). The table also presents data on netoutput, i.e., the number of primary school-leavers who do not entersecondary education. -Net output has averaged just over 100,000 per yearfor the past four years and is likely to rise quickly to over 120,000 peryear. Since MGEC is unlikely to be provided with the financial resourcesrequired by the projected rapid growth of Grade 8 enrollment, the netoutput may well approach 150,000 by 1990.6/
3.2.8 Only a negligible proportion of these will find jobs in theformal sector. It follows that they will have to be absorbed by theinformal sector if mass youth unemployment is to be avoided. TheGoverrment is acutely aware of the problem and has accorded the developmentof small-scale agriculture a high priority in the Guidelines for the FourthNational Development Plan. Land as such is not a problem since 72% ofcultivable land in Zambia is not at present utilized, but the provision ofthe necessary infrastructure and the aspirations of young people who prefernon-farming occupations and urban living will pose major problems.
6/ A lower rate of increase in Grade. 8 enrollment will not automaticallylead to an increase in net output. It is likely that many children whocould otherwise secure Grade 8 places will return to Grade 7 to awaittheir turn, as is the practice now. For example, there were 147,100children-enrolled In Grade 6 in 1983 and 162,200 enrolled in Grade 7 in1984, at least 15,000 of whom must have been repeating the year. The-enormously high projections-of gross and net output for 1985 areattributable to an unrealistic assumption that this practice hasstopped as of this year. The estimate of the increase in primaryenrollment for 1985 should probably be closer to 45,000 than 30,000,and this implies a need for 400 more teachers than would otherwise bethe case. MGEC urgently needs a computerized simulation model whichwould help it to evaluate the consequences of altering assumptions ofthis kind.
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Secondary Education
Enrollments
3.2.9 Enrollments in secondary education have outstripped TNDPprojections, the projected and actual totals for 1983 being-88,600 and115-,100, respectively. Enrollments in all grades exceeded predictions, butthe greatest excess was In Grade 10. According to the Educational Reformproposals of 1977, Grade 10 was due to be transferred from junior to seniorsecondary education In 1981. Since the progression rate from junior tosenior secondary education is less than 50%, it was anticipated that thetransfer would save some 11,000 places (22,000 places would be saved injunior secondary education, while 11,000 extra places have to be providedin senior secondary education). In fact, the transfer has taken place fouryears late. It will now be responsible for a net savings of 15,000 placesand this should temporarily reduce the pressure on the secondary schoolsand permit some progress to be made towards three objectives: nine years ofuniversal-basic education, Zambianization of the teaching staff, andemployment of teachers with appropriate qualifications.
Universal Basic Education
3.2.10 With the improvement in the retention ratios in primary schools,the main obstacle to the objective of universal basic education is theshortage of places in Junior secondary schools. Enrollment in juniorsecondary schools is increasing rapidly and the TNDP target of 27,400enrollment in Grade 8 in 1983 was exceeded by 10%. Some junior secondaryschools are being financed by donor agencies: three schools financed underthe Fifth Education Project (Credit 1251-ZA) should be completed In 1985,and the construction of another five started; three schools financed bythe African Development Bank (AfDB) should also be completed in 1985; andthe Government is currently negotiating a loan for another five. But thegreatest impetus, in terms of volume, Is coming from the self-help schemeunder which local communities provide buildings and MGEC is obligated tosupply teachers and assume responsibility for recurrent expenditure. Bythe end of 1984 there were 4-5 such schools in existence, 22 of themestablished in 1984 alone.7/ Some of them were built from scratch butmany have been converted from other use&, for example, hostels of formerboarding primary schools. As a result, deterioration in the progressionrate from primary Grade 7 to junior secondary Form 1 has changed; itgradually fell from 23% in 1970 to 20% in 1980 and is now about 23% again.According to MGEC projections it will reach 41% by 1990, but this target isalmost certainly overly ambitious.
7/ NCDP Economic Report, 1984. The data in the report do not provide adirect estimate of the quantitative impact of self-help schools onenrollments, but the report does state that the 22 new schoolsestablished in 1984 hold 88 Grade 8 classes, i.e., approximately 10% ofthe total in that year.
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3.2.11 The overall student-teacher ratio for secondary education hasrisen from 21.6:1 in 1974 to 25.0:1 in 1984, and is therefore currentlyclose to its target level (Annex 12, Table 3.2.3). Undoubtedly this ratiowill vary between and even within schools, but in the absence of data onnumbers of over-size and under-size classes it is impossible to assess thegravity of this potentially serious problem. The published MGEC data donot even discriminate between junior and senior secondary level teachersand it is therefore not posslble to estimate overall student-teacher ratiosfor the two levels separately, or to estimate the proportion of teacherspossessing the required qualifications for each level.
3.2.12 The quality of secondary education is in need of improvement.The entrance requirement to the two secondary teaching colleges, Nkrumahand Copperbelt, is Form S graduation. In principle, upper secondary schoolshould be taught by university graduates but in practice many of theteachers hRve lower qualifications. Mathematics teaching in particular isreported to be declining in quality. Many upper secondary school childrenreceive no instruction at all in mathematics or science.
Secondary Technical Education
3.2.13 The two senior secondary technical schools although staffedaccording to establishment, operate at about 60% of capacity, mainly becauseof inadequate funding. This means that costly equipment in workshops andlaboratories is underutilized and physical facilities are left empty whileawaiting repair and maintenanee.
3.2.14 The concept of senior secondary technical education appears to beto prepare students for (a) further science based studies at the same timeas (b) some pre-vocational practical subjects are offered to seek toenhance employment possibilities immediately after graduation.
3.2.15 First, practical subjects as they are offered would hardlycontribute to the employability of graduates, particularly in a situationwhere TTI graduates experience difficulty in finding jobs in the formalsector. Second, they occupy valuable time in the curriculum that could beused to strengthen knowledge in mathematics and science, which areimportant subjects for student survival in tertiary education. Third, theteaching of practical subjects is costly in terms of equipment, spacerequirements and consumables, and if that investment cannot be justified interms of-a better qualified graduate, those subjects should be abolished or-reduced rather than expanded.
Internal Efficiency of General Education
3.2.16 The transition rates in the first four primary grades seem high.For every 1,000 seven year old children entering Grade 1, about 834 reachGrade 3 three years later. This number drops to 765 in Grade 4 and to 553in Grade 7. This implies that only about half of the children enteringGrade 1 reach the terminal year of primary school in seven years.
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3.2.17 The transition rates seem to be higher if under-age and over-agechildren are considered in the calculation. out of every 1,000 Grade Ipupils, 9i3 reach Grade 4 in four years and 765 reach Grade 7 in sevenyears. These figures imply that in purely numerical terms the primaryschool system has achieved an internal efficiency of about 76%.
3.2.18 However, the rates from primary to secondary schools are muchlower. Out of the 765 in Grade 7, only 145 continue their studies in -Form I and 143 in Form 2. These numbers suggest that out of every 1,000school children in Grade 1, only 143 eventually complete nine years ofbasic education. This achievement is far less than the target foruniversal basic education.
3.2.19 From Form 2 onwards the rates are much lower than in thepreceding years. Of the 143 students in Form 2, only 140 continue inForm 3, 68 in Form 4, and finally only 64 In Form 5.
3.2.20 Without doubt these rates reflect a screening and recruitment ofan elite rather than a broadly based education for the masses. The figuresalso reflect an allocation problem of shifting boarding cost to parents whocan afford it. According to estimates by MGEC, boarding cost alone takesup more than half of the total recurrent cost per pupil in secondaryschools. If this boarding cost were spared, it could be used to open -mreschools, especially in the rural areas.
Teacher Training
Primary School Teachers
3.2.21 The training and recruitment of primary school teachers are notwell coordinated. For the period 1975-1982 the average annual supply oftrained teachers (those who graduated from the teacher training collegesthe previous year) was 1,087, but the average net recruitment of trainedteachers was only 729. As a result, the employment of untrained teachersactually rose by 269 during the period.8/
3.2.22 Since the trained teaching force is relatively young, thediscrepancy between the supply and employment figures is in the mainattributable to resignations and/or a failure of teacher-training graduatesto enter the teaching profession. It was not possible to discriminatebetween these two-factors in quantitative terms. Anecdotal evidencesuggests that It was common for students to regard teacher-training as aform of employment insurance policy: they are guaranteed employment by
8/ Localization is not a significant issue. There were only 497non-Zambian teachers in 1974. By 1982 this figure had fallen to 316.
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MGEC upon graduation and are thus supported while they embark on a searchfor a job with more ar-tractive pay or prospects. At ZCCM, for example, itis reported that many non-technical staff are former teachers.
3.2.23 Year-to-year data on the employment of trained teachers suggestthat recently there has been an Improvement. During -the period 1974-1979,net recruitment averaged only 300 per year but has increased since 1979 to1,260 (Annex 12, Table 3.2.5). However, it is likely that this change islargely attributable to the continued deterioration of the external labormarket and that it would be reversed if the economy revived.
3.2.24 There are other aspects of teaeher utilization which give rise toconcern. Despite the failure to retain new trainers, the student-teacherratio has fallen to about 33:1, for upper primary grade the target being40:1, implying that there would already be a surplus if enrollments andteachers were distributed optimally (1982 data). Of course, as in mostcountries, the distribution is uneven, but there are indications that theimbalances could be more carefully controlled. There are reports thatteachers are too easily given transfers from rural to urban areas, andthat as a consequence urban schools tend to be overstaffed while ruralschools may have to make do with untrained teachers.
3.2.25 If the wastage of teachers wre- more carefully controlled, beingreduced to, say, 2% per year, no more than 850 new graduates would beneeded each year. This implies that the resources devoted to primaryteacher-training, (approximately 5% of recurrent expenditure on education)could be reduced by approximately 50% in the short term.
Secondary School Teachers
3.2.26 MGEC norms for class size in junior and senior secondaryeducation are 40 and 35 respectively, and at both levels MGEC aims to have1.5 teachers per class. These figures imply student-teacher ratios of26.7:1 and 23.3:1, respectively, and about 25:1 overall. The publisheddata do not disaggregate teacher employment by level, but the overall ratio-has risen from 22:1 to 24:1 during the past ten years and is thereforeclose to the target (Annex 12, Table 3.2.3).
3.2.27 The number of Zambian teachers has grown rapidly during thisperiod. Initially, recruitment kept pace with the increase in enrollmentsbut since 1.978 it has accelerated in response to the exodus of expatriates,the-proportion of expatriates falling from 76% in 1974 to 22% in 1983(Annex 12, Table 3.2.6).
3.2.28 Nevertheless, as in the case of primary education, recruitmenthas been-greatly exceeded by the supply of new trainees. In the period1974-1977 net recruitment was 1,050, while supply was 1,435. Even in 1978,the first year in which expatriates resigned in large numbers, netrecruitment was barely 50% of supply and the total teaching force actually
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fell. Since that year the situation has improved, with net recruitmentaveraging 822 of supply; but again, as in the case of primary schoolteachers, this may be largely attributable to the deteriorLting externallabor market and the trend could well be reversed If the state of theeconomy improved.
Graduate Teachers
3.2.29 In princlple,- senior -secondary school'teachers should beuniversity graduates. Since data on the employment of teachers byqualification are not published separately for junior and senior secondaryeducation, it is not possible to assess how well this norm is observed inpractice. However, the total stock of graduate teachers In employmentgreatly exceeds the number that would be required by the senior schools,assuming a class size of 35 and 1.5 teachers per class (.nnex 12,Table 3.2.7).
3.2.30 For two reasons, this position is likely to alter rapidly.First, the extension of senior secondary education to three years willautomatically convert the surplus into a deficit of at least 400 if Grade10 is taught by graduate teachers and if the progression rate fxom juniorto senior secondary school is maintained.
3.2.31 Second, the present surplus of graduate teachers is entirelyattributable to the employment of 1,542 expatriates. During the period1974-1980 the net outflow of expatriates averaged only 30 per year; butsince then during 1981-1983 (data for 1984 are not yet available) it hasaveraged 190. If this higher rate is maintained, there will be a deficitof graduate teachers by 1986 on this account alone.
3.2.32 The supply side is not encouraging. Durlng the period 1974-1980the average number of UNZA-trained graduate teachers was 148 per year, butnet recruitment averaged only 35. In retrospect it is clear that moststudents who enrolled in the two graduate teacher-training programs, theBachelor of Arts in Education and the Bachelor of Science in Education, didso either because they were denied access to their first choice of facultyor because the subsequent guaranteed employment provided them withfinancial support during a risk-free search for a job outside the teachingprofession. As with other teAchers,net recruitment has recently Improved,but the change has almost certainly been caused by a deteriorating externallabor market and it has not been sufficient to offset the resignations ofexpatriates.
3.2.33 In the absence of appropriate data, it is not possible to make aquantitative assessment of the requirements and recruitment of graduatemathematics and science teachers, but it is known that the situation iscritical. In recent years the number graduating from UNZA has beenfluctuating around 35-40, and most of these have either not entered theteaching profession or have done so temporarily before moving on to otherjobs.
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3.2.34 It is reported that as a consequence many senior secondarymathematics and science classes are taken by teachers qualified only for-teaching junior secondary school (diploma holders from the Nkrumah andCopperbelt Teacher Training Colleges). EEC is currently considering thefinancing of an in-service training program which would bring the skills ofthese teachers up to the required standard. There is a risk that some ofthese teachers may subsequently be lost to other employers, but the wastagecan be expected to be lower than that of the B.Sc. in Education graduates,for two reasons: the teachers selected for this training will be those whohave settled down within the service and thereby have displayed acommitment to it, and they will not be given degrees or other formalqualifications which would assist them in securing alternative employment.
University of Zambia (UNZA)
3.2.35 UNZA may face difficulties in maintaining the present enrollmentat the same levels and standards. First, the supply of well-qualifiedschool-leavers seems to be low and so far admission to the university hasbeen confined to outstanding secondary school-leavers with "O"-levelpasses. The rather poor level of instruction in the secondary schools isperhaps part of the reason why students take much mwre time than normallyrequired to complete their degree courses. Second, in Zambia universitystudy (as is study in secondary and primary schools) is highly subsidized.Literally, the Government pays students to study by providing themallowances, room and board, and in some cases even transportationo Thissubsidy reduces the number of students who can be given further access toeducation. Third, the financial crunch in government expenditure programshas severely cut down university budgets, while a high inflation ratereduces the purchasing power of these budgets.
3.2.36 With sharply reduced funding the University of Zambia cannotoperate efficiently at full capacity. This in turn increases unit costswhich on average is already more than Kw 8,200 per student year.
3.2.37 This cost has a wide range. It varies from one course toanother, from a little more-than- Kw_5,500 per student year in education,humanities and social sciences to as much as about Kw 8,800 in courses inmining.
3.2.38 The range becomes even wider when time to complete a course isconsidered. About five school years are required to complete courses inthe humanities and social sciences, which normally need only four years,but a much longer time, i.e., seven to eight years on average, seems to beneeded in the sciences and engineering. Even a four-year, science-biaseduniversity degree in education seems to take about seven and a half schoolyears to complete. The extra time spent beyond what is officially requiredrepresents large sums of money, not only to the university but also to theeconomy-in terms of time lost in production-(Table 3.6.10).
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- 3*3 Technical Education
3.3.1 Guidelines for formulation of the Fourth National DevelopmentPlan (FNDP) issued in March 1985, envisage that the Plan should attachhigher priority to skill formation and thus increase the local supply ofskilled manpower to correspond with demand for manpower in variousfields." The guidelines further state that this objective should beachieved through increasing the intake and out-turn capacities of technicaland- vocational training and institutions of higher learning.
3.3.2 In the process of-continued work on the FNDP, It should berecognized that the likelihood of any substantial growth of formal sectoremployment is remote for the near future. In the past formal sectoremployment has been more or less static and has declined rather thanincreased. There is also evidence that trained technical manpower isunderutilized and that some in the craft categories are unemployed.
3.3.3 Consequently, DTEVT should concentrate on upgrading the qualityof existing trade training rather than aim at an expansion of the intakelevel, Most DTEVT institutions are operating below capacity, not becauseof an awareness of the demand situation but as a result of reducedfinancing, following the general economic crisls.
3.3.4 For the future it will be necessary to accept a lower level offunding and avoid wasteful spending and direct the scarce resources towardsmaximum benefit. Given that the manpower demand will pot increase, studentintake should be adjusted to the likely absorbtive capacity of the labormarket. This would reduce the salary allocation, which could be utilizedfor improvement and maintenance of physical facilities and equipment whichare in poor condition. Also, a rationalization of existing facilities inaccordance with adjusted intakes would free additional resources.Technical training should gradually focus on much needed in-service andupgrading training, and as this also concerns pre-service training,improvement of quality rather than quantity should be the target.
3.3,5 Advisory Committees, It is vitally important to sustain stronglinks with industry, and such contacts should be informal, continuous andspread across a wider range of industrial specialists in order to becomemore effective and complement the work in the committees.
3.3.6 Curriculum Development. A great deal of staff time is used inthe design and preparation of standard curricula. The final versions,especially in ce.rtain subject areas, have a very marked similarity toexisting craft and technician syllabi developed by external national andinternational examination entities. Although a nacional curricula shouldreflect the specific training needs of a country, the development ofsome specialized syllabi is nothing more than a "wheel re-inventing"exercise. In the international ma-rket there is a wealth of high-qualitycurriculum material, often available at low purchase or copyright feecosts. There is little evidence that UTEVT is aware of the nature and
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range of such resources which, if carefully used, could streamline thepresent system of curriculum development,thereby releasing staff andmaterial resources for essential tasks related to actual curriculumimplementation.
3.3.7 Examinations. The system of standards and certification now inuse is ponderous. Although some use is made of banked items, the settingand marking of examination papers makes undue demands on staff time andlean budgets. There is evidence from the 1984 Report of the Standards andCertification Unit (SCU) that problems caused by lack of transport,lack of interest of external examiners, and heavy workloads imposed on theprofessional officers are having an adverse effect on the system. The 1984examination results for TTI students show a 30% failure rate. Althoughsuch poor performance raises questions about the efficacy of studentselection, standards of teaching and curriculum implementation, it alsoposes a question as to whether the examination system is merely testingindividual student performance rather than the total effectiveness of twoyears of technical education. Thus, there are doubts about the proper roleof SCJT and a more modern approach would certainly prove more cost-efficientover time.
3.3.8 Inspections. The Inspectorate is expected to carry out an annualfull inspection of each DTEVT institution, as well as non-DTEVT technicalinstitutions recognized by MHE. Due to financial constraints, theInspectorate cannot discharge this responsibility; for example, three majorinstitutions (NORTEC, ZIT and TVTC) were not inspected in 1984 and in thatyear only 60% of private/parastatal training centers were visited.However, in 1985 all but one Institution was inspected and it is plannedthat all will be assessed in 1986. DTEVT staff are concerned about thiscut-back in the inspection program but it is perhaps more pertinent toraise concerns about the effectiveness of inspections that do take place.The present style of the Inspectorate includes the use of narrow guidelinesset out in standard checklists, following a mechanical process in whichroutine checks and subjective judgements are made. This mode of operationis far from the modern concept of an inspectorate, staffed by experiencedsubject specialists who-advise principals and counsel teaching staff, andwho constantly feed information to curriculum developers, planners, staffdevelopers and other professionals. The present system lifts certainresponsibilities from principals and heads of department; for example,inspection reports appear to be preoccupied with standards ofrecord-keeping and examination of lesson plans-essential tasks whichshould be the responsibility of institutional senior staff.
3.3.9 The thrust of DTEVT's staff development program is directedtowards the use of overseas award-bearing courses. Such courses are seento satisfy the need to replace expatriate staff, improve the quality ofinstruction, and renew subject knowledge. Given that the provision ofoverseas scholarships is a form of aid favored by donor countries, it isnot surprising that external training is regarded as the main staff
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development energy. The substantial program of overseas awards 91 isproducing a steady increase in qualification levels and the ratio ofZambian instructors has risen from 35% in 1979 to 60% in 1983a The scaleof staff time and money devoted to overseas training greatly exceedsresources available for internally based staff development. This imbalancebetween external and internal training seriously constraIns in-countrybased staff development. The Government and the donor countries shouldconsider the possibility of diverting a proportion of national andtechnical assistance resources from external training to fund a muchstronger in-country staff development program. Ways to strengthen thisprogram could include: in-country workshops using specialists from overseasinstitutions, and inputs to provide a capacity at UNZA to mount in-servicecourses at levels equivalent to overseas diplomas.
3.3.10 Technical Colleges. The main problems at these colleges arerelated to a deterioration in the quality of education and training causedby depreciating levels of plant serviceability, lack of consumable items,and a paucity of teaching and learning materials. Technician education andtraining are essentially practical in character, but the resourceconstraints described above are Inevitably upsetting the proper balancebetween-theory teaching and practical training. Evidence from DTEVTreports indicates that the lack of adequate resources is having ademoralizing effect on staff, particularly those who have studied atoverseas institutions.
3.3.11 Boarding. Boarding costs represent a heavy drain on recurrentbudgets. For example, at NORTEC the 1984 allocation for boarding costs wasKw 174,741 while the actual expenditure was Kw 253,846--- an overspendingof 50%. However, in the same year the student requisites allocation was Kw88,274 while the actual expenditure was Kw 58,561, a cut-back of 30%. Theinexorable high-cost demands of the boarding school system, established inbetter economic times, are stifling the educational process and measuresshould be taken to reduce the number of boarders. As a first step,students living near a school should be enrolled as day students.
3.3.12- TTIs. Craft training is also constrained by severe shortages ofresources. Indeed, the quality of education and training in TTIs is underserious threat because of unserviceable workshop equipment, inadequateprovision of consumable items, and poor teaching materials. The wide range
9! In 1985, 400 applications were received for 25 fellowships in UK.
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of pr^grams established during a period of growth and sustained by morefavorable economic conditions cannot be maintained on present levels ofresource inputs. There is urgent need to rationalize this program so thatlimited resources can be effectively utilized.
3.3.13 There is also need to examine the established pattern of craft-training, i.e., two years of institution-based training, followed by12 months of related industrial experience. TTI graduates are finding itincreasingly difficult to obtain related industrial experience andaccordingly they fail to qualify for the final certificate. It is perhapsan opportune time for DTEVT and its industrial partners to reassess theirrespective contributions to a fully integrated training program.Alternatives may include an initial year of broadly based training,followed by specialist modules and in-plant exposure provided by TTIs andindustry. This would also transfer part of the training cost to employers.
3.3.14 There is little doubt that a gap is appearing between thetraining value of TTI courses and those of a similar kind mounted inparastatal and private training centers. While it is true that there aremarked differences in the serviceability of equipment, levels of financialinputs, and perhaps staff morale, it is also clear that the other centersbene'.it from a closer relationship with the world of work. The industrialtrailaing center student is constantly aware that for the purpose of histraining program he will be involved in limited production runs or beinstructed by specialist staff from the parent company.
Technological Studies at University Level
3.3.15 Three of the schools at UNZA -- Natural Sciences, Engineering,and Mines -- educate and train high-level skilled manpower for mainly theindustrial sector. The School of Natural Sciences provides the foundationfor the three streams; successful first-year students of the school go onto study engineering or mining, or stay in the school to becomescientists. Accordingly, the School of Natural Sciences has a crucial rolein bridging the academic gap between secondary education and specialiststudies in engineering, mining or science. It sI.>'tdd be noted that theschool also provides a foundation for studies in medicine, veterinarymedicine, and agriculture and acts as a service department of science andmathematics for other schools.
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3.3,316 In its foundation role the School of Natural Sciences is necessary-because of the poor performance in mathemati-cs and science in secondaryeducation. Although there are advantages in providing pre-degree studiesin close collaboration with other schools, and also in the use of a generalfir-st year as a diagnostic period, the question remains as to whether theuse of full university facilities for advanced secondary school studies canbe justified. Given that the vacancy rates in some departments are over50%, thus imposing heavy workloads-on staff, it is not surprising thatresearch -- a fundamental activity in a school of science - Is beingneglected.
3.3.17 The School of Mines was established much later (1973) than itssister School of Engineering as a result of a decision that therequirements of the mining industry exceeded the scope and output of theDepartment of Mineral Engineering within the School of Engineering. It isclear that in terms of student choice the School of Mines is far lesspopular than the School of Engineering; in 1985 seven students opted formining as their first choice compared with 164 for engineering. Therelative long-term career prospects as well as the nature of work, mayexplain the low attraction rate for mining studies.
3.3.18 Given that the mining industry parastatal absorbs nearly all thegraduates from the school, and considering that the industry employs alarge number of expatriates, it would seem that the employment prospectsfor Zambians with degrees in mining are good. However, it should be notedthat expatriate mining engineers generally occupy senior positions andthere is a time-scale for industrial experience before graduate engineersare ready to fill such posts. As the mining industry eontracts over thenext decade, the career prospects of mining engineers will become lessattractive.
3.3.19 Unlike the School of Mines, the School of Engineering has nodifficulty in attracting high caliber students from the foundationprogram. Plans to diversify post-graduate programs and establish chemicaland process engineering programs cannot be implemented unless the schoolexpands its.laboratory and teaching fac lities. Although such initiativeswould considerably extend the range of modern technology programs, it isunlikely that the necessary capital and recurrent funds would beavailable. However, resources could be released by merging the Schools ofEngineering and Mines. The case put forward 12 years ago for creating aSchool of Mines was based on the perceived needs of the industry at that
.-time. Furthermore, in 1973 the resources to sustain a new school were morereadily available. In 1985 there is an equally strong case, in terms of-the industry's requirements and the need for the most cost-effective use ofuniversity resources, to return the three.mining departments to the Schoolof Engineering.-
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Demand for Technical Manpower
3.3.20 The Fourth National Development Plan guidelines assigning higherpriority to skill formation do not in fact constitute a departure fromexisting policy. The Third National Development Plan placed such greatemphasis on training that the supply of new graduates during the period1979-1983 was projected to be approximately double the projected demand.
Demand and Supply for Technical Manpower, 1979-1982
Supply SupplyDemand (Projected) (Actual)
Technologist/Technician 1,645 3,410 1,530
Craftsman 3,290 8,600 2,950
Source: Projected demand and supply from TNDP document; actual supply fromMinistry of Higher Education Educational Statistics, 1983(technologist/technician, ZIT and NORTEC graduates only).
3.3.21 While the actual supply figures relate only to the first fouryears of the Third Plan, it is evident that the output of technicalmanpower has been very much lower than expected. The annual output ratehas been little different from that in the years immediately preceding theThird Plan.
3.3.22 In view of the uncertainty about future changes in the variousfactors affecting the market for technical manpower, demand projections areat best speculative guesses. In the present case the projections werebased on an assumption that formal sector employment would grow by 26%over the period 1976-1983; in fact it fell 3%. Nevertheless, it appearsthat there has been little open unemployment of new trainees, employers inaggregate evidently having taken the opportunity to upgrade the quality oftheir labor force but with no overall increase in numbers.
3.3.23 Discussions with employers reveal that most would, in principle,wish to recruit more technical manpower but are constrained from doing soby one or more of three factors: static or declining demand for theiroutput, a shortage of foreign exchange for purchasing raw materials and anInability to pay the market wage rate.
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-3.3.24 Declining demand has particularly affected -the constructionsector, where employment has fallen from 70,580 in December 1974 to 33,610In June 1984. Employers report that there is no shortage of craftsmen
employed by the industry. If the future level of construction activitydoes not improve, the operati.on of the already underutilized TradesTraining Institutes should be further curtailed and mergers might beconsidered.IO/
3.3.25 Employment in the mining industry has likewise been declining butat a slower rate. It peaked at 67,800 in June 1985 and is now 58,500workers, almost all of whom are employed by ZCCM and its subsidiaries.This decline will continue. The Kabwe mine, mostly producing lead andzinc, will become uneconomic in a few years and will close with a loss of
2,600 jobs. In the remainder of the company, a steady annual decline of2-3% per year can be expected in the mining divisions. The non-mining
subsidiaries are expected to grow, but with only 5,000 jobs, they accountfor a very small proportion of the ZCCM labor force.
3.3.26 Despite this decline, ZMCM is expected to remain a substantial
recruiter of high-level technical manpower. At present there areapproximately 2,000 expatriate workers and nearly 400 outright-vacancies in
technical fields, mostly in engineering, metallurgy and maintenance, butalso in other areas such as geology and chemistry. If the expatriatescontinue to be replaced at the present rate, the graduates of thecorresponding courses at UNZA, ZIT and NORTEC are assured of employment for
the foreseeable future. There is, however, a risk that in the long termthese jobs will disappear again as the operations of ZCCM continue to
contract. ZCC4 is in the process of developing a formal long-termproduction plan and no doubt the resulting manpower plan, as yet notavailable, will address itself to this issue.
3.3.27 In addition to the replacement of expatriates, there will be acontinuous need to replace high-level technical manpower lost to the
private sector and related technicians. The recruitment and training oflower-level technicians and artisans in general do not pose a proolem torthe ZCCM, as the company possesses its own training facilities.
3.3.28 Manufacturing employment increased from 44,100 in 1974 to 48,200in 1984. There are no data on bow the employment structure within theindustry has altered over the period, but it is unlikely that the increasein the demand for technical manpower in manufacturing will have done muchto offset the decline in construction and mining.
10/ Under the TNDP, the number of TTI graduates was projected to rise to1,990 in 1982 and 2,230 in 1983. The actual number of graduates in1982 was 658 (1983 data are not yet available).
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3.3.29 The two growth areas-for technicians have been electricitygeneration and telecommunications. There are no published data onemployment in either industry but electricity generation, which rose from6,000 million kilowatt hours in 1974 to 10,600 in 1982, may be taken as acrude proxy. Much of this increase (3.8 million kwh) is attributable tothe Kariba hydroelectric project coming on stream in 1976 and reachingcapacity three years lacer. But 1982 was the peak year and output fell to9.8 million kwh in 1984. This decline is attibutable to a decline in theoutput of ZESCO, which is responsible for all electricity generated outsidethe Kariba project, and the negligible output of the C6pperbelt PowerCompany.
3.3.-30 The demand for additional technical manpower at ZESCO is nowslackening. The company, which has a total labor force of approximately5,000 (not including classified daily employees), still employs 80expatriates and has a further 25 vacancies, but the posts in question areeither not easily filled or are posts where the company feels expatriatrescan make a special contribution. As elsewhere, there is a shortage ofexperienced senior engineers; many of these positions are filled withAsians who are expected to be replaced over time. Localization of theespecially responsible protection engineering posts is also proceedingcautiously. The company continues to employ a substantial number ofexpatriate technologists and expects to continue doing so, placing specialvalue on their role in the transfer of technology. -
3.3.31 Zambia Posts and Telecommunications, based at Ndola, also employsabout 5,000, of whom nearly 3,000 are on the telecoms side where output isgrowing at approximately 20% per year. There are only 30 expatriates stillin post; 14 are engineers, 12 are technicians, and the remainder areadministrative staff. As at ZESCO there is a shortage of senior engineers,eight of the 15 senior technical posts being filled by expatriates andanother two being vacant. However, the company expects to be able tolocalize most of these and other unfilled senior technologist posts throughinternal promotion and recruitment-from UNZA, despite chronic losses to theprivate sector which offers better wages and benefits.
3.3.32 With an average of 10 applications for each post, the company hasno trouble in recruiting for higher levels. For those who, on beingconfirmed in post, start at the entry-level Technician III, the "0"-levelrequirements are almost as stringent as those for university admission,good marks in both mathematics and science being required. Theirpre-service technical training is provided at the in-house training collegeon a modular basis over a period of 18-24 months. At present, 187 of the191 established posts at this levei are-filled, only one by an-expatriate. -
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3.3.33 The main growth in technical employment at Telecoms will come atthe lower technical levels, particularly on the external side(cable-laying, etc.). Despite lower academic requirements, nearly a thirdof the posts graded Technician IV or lower are unfilled. But this shortagedoes not imply a potential demand for graduates of DTEVT institutions.Telecoms also recruits graduates of general-secondary education, providingthem with pre-service technical training in-house, and the failure to fillthe posts is a reflection on the quality of mathematics and scienceeducation in the schools.
3.3.34 Joint Ventures. Links with overseas firms are of particularvalue when major items of equipment embodying new technology areinstalled. Prior to installation, Zambian employers may be sent to plantsbelonging to the overseas partner for on-the-job training in the use of theequipment. The overseas firm will later send engineers to Zambia tocollaborate in settiag up the lines and to provide further equipment-specific on-the-job training. These types of training may also be providedby suppliers who do not have other commercial links with the Zambian firm,but if the supplier does not have a long-term commitment the training maynot be as effective.
3.3.35 The other major manpower benefit accruing to a firm with anoverseas partner Is access to managerial expertise. This may be direct,the overseas partner filling senior managerial posts where appropriatelyqualified Zambian candidates are lacking or are not attracted by thesalaries that are offered. Such an arrangement is especially valuable forparastatals whose salary scales are linked to those in the governmentservice and constrain their ability to compete with the private sector inthe labor market. Even if it does not second its own employers, theoverseas partner may make an indirect contribution by monitoring andthus supervising the performance of the management of the Zambian firm.Although direct intervention may not be feasible, it may be able to remedymanagerial weaknesses with training arrangements similar to those fortechnical training.
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3.4 Agricultural Education and Training
General -
3.4.1 In view of the declining role of copper production in theZambian economy, higher priority will be given to the agricultural sector,for both maintaining aggregate output and providing employment for therapidly growing labor force. The Government considers that agriculturalproduction should be given top priority in the next Plan period(1986-1990). This policy includes self-sufficiency in major food crops andlivestock products through increased production and enhanced productivity.Higher export incomes are anticipated through placing more emphasis oncoffee, tea and tobacco production. Also,further development of agro-basedindustries is part of the Government's strategy.
3.4.2 Investments in the sector would be channelled to reclamation ofland, acceleration of large scale farming and ranching with provision ofirrigation, and the development of local manufacturing units for thesupply, maintenance and repair of farm implements. In addition, localfertilizer production and food processing, for both domestic consumptionand export, would have high priority for investment.
3.4.3 Obviously, realization of these plans depends not only onfinancial investment but also on-the availability of trained manpower. Atpresent, large numbers of young people (100,000 in 1985) leave school atvarious levels of the education system and relatively few would have anopportunity for further education or to be absorbed in the-formalindustrial and other sectors. In 1985 the net addition to the labor forcewas about 85,000. To avoid mass youth unemployment, it is evident thatformal or informal employment, mainly in the agricultural sector, togetherwith relevant training, would have to be provided for this group. However,skilled agricultural manpower requirements have received detailed attentionin recent years, although sectoral expansion needs to be reflected infuture training requirements.
Manpower Considerations
3.4.4 Predicting with a fair degree of accuracy the size of theagriculturally trained manpower for the country as -a whole continues to bea problem. In order to implement the Government's policy, it would bedesirable in principle to increase technically trained manpower by about3,000 by the year 2000, with most of it to be utilized in the formalsector. However, an associated problem is the Government's inability inthe short term to allocate the funds needed to employ such numbers even-though their presence would be necessary for production growth. Thisnaturally has implications for the intake levels of UNZA, NRDC and thecertificate agricultural institutes at Monze and Mpika. For the present(1985), the number of existing degree and diploma holders appears to beadequate to fill the existing skill gap and to replace wastage. On top ofthis, two cohorts are to graduate from Monze and Mpika in 1986 and 1987 atthe rate of 110 per annum per college. This development, when viewed in
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light of the saturation of the established ptositions of MAWD in particularand the i.imited absorptive capacity of the labor market in generalt poses areal dilemma for the Government. Consequently, new cettificate graduatesshould be encouraged to seek employment in private companies andparastatals. Also, the provinces are instructed not to employ moreComodity Demonstrators (CDs), and the Extension Branch of- MAWD has adopteda policy of employing only degree and diploma holders for higher leveljobs.
3.4.5 MAWD's present established professional-teebnical scale poststotal about 2,100. The corresponding total established administrative andsupport scale posts total 2,226. Open-scale posts, secretarial scale postsand medical scale posts total 133. Of the 2,138 professional-technicalscale posts established, the Extension Branch accounts for 2,066. Of thistotal, 1,013 staff are assigned at the Camp and Block levels. These CampExtension Workers (CEWs) work directly with the 600,000 farm families andtheir service is crucial. Since one CEW covers only about 80% of his camp,or 480 farmers, due to the shortage of trained CEWs and to logisticsconstraints associated with extension, in order to reach the remaining 20%,an additional 250 CEWs are required, assuming a maximum practicable ratioof 1:480. Complementary services in the form of technical andadministrative support would be expanded and upgraded at the sam time.The 1:600 ratio compares unfavorably with the 1:300 ratio indicated by FAOas a reasonable guideline, and if the ratio were to narrow down to thatguideline, the number of incremental CEWs would reach a total of 1,000 byyear 2000.
3.4.6 MAWD also needs to increase the number of its research staff andto upgrade the skills of existing staff through ln-service training. Atpresent, MAWD has two Ph.D., four M.Sc., nine B.Sc. and 24 non-degreeholders. By the year 2000, MAWD projects will require an additional 32Ph.D., 60 M.Sc., 62 B.Sc. and 152 non-degree holders. Because the natureof the research task which the staff have to perform is not original, well-rounded M.Sc. degree holders with adequate relevant experience could managethe task of adaptive research, which would reduce- costs. The above viewtakes into consideration an assumption that all of the existing 62expatriate degree holding staff in research (55 donor supported and sevenGovernment funded) would be phased out by the year 2000. MAWD may seizethe opportunity to identify available donor support for training, redirectsuch support to strengthen the capability of local training institutions,and occasionally promote post-graduate degree training overseas whenin-country training is not feasible.
3.4.7 Water engineers are in short supply and the total establishmentis 25. Seventeen of these positions are held by expatriates and seven arevacant. The one position held by a Zambian is the post of Director of theWater Affairs Department. At present, UNZA does not offer specializeddegree training, in water engineering although a five-year course in civilengineering is available. MAWD plans to sponsor three 4th yearagricultural students per year to pursue water engineer training at UNZA,leading to a B.Sc. degree.
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3.4.8 Veterinary Science posts constitute another serious area ofcrucial manpower needs. There are only about 13 Zambians with basicdegrees in veterinary medicine. The number of vacancies, including postsheld by expatriates, is 25, which constitutes the incremental minimumrequirement of Zambian trained manpower. The Zambia Institute of AnimalHealth (ZIAH) at Mazabuka, with astraining capacity of 150, offers a2-year certificate course for veterinary assistants, veterinary laboratoryassistants, Tsetse control assistants and Tsetse control scouts. Thecountry urgently needs trained veterinary scientists at the degree level.
3.4.9 Through its new efforts to diversify the economy, the Governmentis aiming at realizing potential yields through new interventions. Theproposed interventions include a revitalized focus on: (a) improving theoperational quality and efficiency of the research and extension branchesof the Department of Agriculture so that these branches can provide a moreappropriate technological set of production packages, especially in thesmallholder sector; (b) improving the functions of the existingparastatals; (c) improving the operational efficiencies of the existingmarketing agencies, of which NAMBOARD and the provincial cooperative unionsare the major ones; and (d) strengthening the management skills andfinancial controls of the existing cooperative unions through bettermanagement and supervision. Fuller utilization of the heretofore untappedportion of farm land and water resources and the provision of an improvedand integrated package of production inputs, especially in the smallholdersector, are the two major methods which the Government has proposed to usein order to achieve its objectives of improved agricultural production.Toward this objective, the Government recently initiated a more iatensiveeffort to encourage the upgrading of about 120,000 small-scale farmers tothe level of "emergent farmers" who would use limited methods of improvedtechnical know-how in producing marketable agricultural commodities on alarger holding of 10-20 hectares of land per farmer.
- The Training Scheme
3.4.10 As part of its long range future plans, MAWD is consideringproviding training to research scientists throughout Zambia and toextension staff through in-service and pre-service programs and at graduateand post-graduate levels, both in Zambia and abroad. Selected researchtechnical officers and junior field extension agents, both male and female,would receive in-service and on-the-job training while professional levelextension agents and research scientists, as well as research and extensionmanagers, would receive in-service training abroad varying (6-12 weeks)according to requirements. locally provided in-service training would beconducted during the non-peak production season and would focus on thepriorities set by the Research and Extension Branches. Training wouldemphasize the attainment of skills indispensable for achieving productiongoals; hence, particular attention would be given to skills in fertilizerapplication, pest and weed control, hybrid seeds, land management, anddisease control. In-service training emphasizing technical managementwould also be provided for non-technical personnel to enable them toperform the routine administrative and management tasks which now take upabout 40-50 of the time of research scientists and senior extension staff.
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3.4.11 In-service extension training would be provided iri both Zambia
and abroad and would comprise both theory (orientation) and practice(laboratory and field training).
(a) Staff who possess the M.Sc. degree would be encouraged toinitiate new programs; such staff would be relieved -of theirday-to-day routine of administrative duties which hinder themfrom being innovative in their extension functions.
(b) In-service training provisions would be arranged throughworkshops for Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs), so that they'would be able to upgrade and update their skills in the latestinnovations in technical agriculture and extension methodology.Along with such staff incentives as scholarships, subsistenceallowances, improved salaries and transportation, improvement oftraining conditions would be undertaken.
(c) While the two colleges at Monze and Mpika should reduce theirpre-service enrollments, they should iaprove the quality oftraining and introduce in-service training. To improve thequality of in- and pre-service training, curricula should berevised to make training more relevant to agriculturalproduction, both in appropriateness of content and quality.MAWD would then employ only some of the graduates, thus absorbingnew staff at a level that suits its demand, and the remaindershould be absorbed in the private sector.
3.4.12 The followiug specific strategies for trained manpower inextension are now being considered by MAWD for extension during the nextfive years:
(a) Orientation training: During the 1986-1989 period, short-termorientation training would be provided for about 200 provincial,
district,and field staff.
(b) In-service training: During the 1986-1991 period, in-servicetraining would be provided for the same group and would consistof (a) pre-season, short-term technical training comprisingtraining in planning extension strategy at district level forabout 500 staff; (b) fortnightly 3-day field staff training forabout 5,000 staff; (c) extension methodology one week of trainingfor about 900 BSs and Camp Extension Workers (CEWs); (f) one week offarm management training for 200 BSs; and (g) selected training
for about 120 staff in specific subject matter areas, i.e.,monitoring and evaluation, work planning, and management. The
local in-service training would be conducted by provincial anddistrict senior staff and would include provincial and districtSMSs, Research and Extension SNSs, the University ofZambia--Faculty of Agricultural Sciences (UNZA-FAS) staff,research and extension senior staff, and headquarters and-provincial agricultural extension methodology specialists.Management training would be conducted by local training
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institutions, including private ones. The orientation trainingwould generally be for one or two days, the in-service trainingfrom one to I$ days, the exchange 'iisits from one to six weeks,'the short-term fellowships from one to three months, and thelong-term fellowships (Ms.Sc. degree) from 18 to 24 months.
(c) Exchange visits to other districts in Zambia would be made toabout 500 of the total extension staff, to observe and evaluateextension methodology implementation performance both with andwithout technological and methodology inputs. About 40extension staff, mainly middle-level and senior extension staff,would undergo overseas training, including visits to extensloncenters in selected international agricultural institutions ofhigher learning.
(d) Degree and Post-graduate Degree Training: Whenever possible,degree and post-graduate training for extension staff would beconducted at UNZA; however, based on the recommendationof the Extension and Research Branches and evaluation by theResearch and Extension Training Unit (RETU), the need andjustification for such training abroad would be supported.(Under MAWD's proposed Bank-financed Agricultural Research andExtension Project, four extension staff with B.Sc. degrees wouldbe trained abroad for the M.Sc. degree during the 1986-1990period.)
Research Staff Training
3.4.13 The objectives of upgrading research staff by MAUD are to(a) increase the number of research scientists with degrees; (b) upgradeall professional, administrative and technical staff through continuousIn-service and on-the-job training, degree and post-graduate training; and(c) promote staff development through career ladder incentives by rewardingprofessional competence and excellence in achievement.
3.4.14 Although training to the Ph.D. level is desirable and possiblyjustified in exceptional cases, it is generally not necessary in theinitial phase. Although Zambian aspirations for such Ph.D. degree holdersis understandable, the level of present needs and the nature of researchand extension services to be provided in the next five years could behandled adequately by staff with M.Sc. degree training.
FTCs and FIs
3.4.15 The average population per FTC and FI in the areas where theyprovide training is about 80,000. Management of these institutions restswith MAWD's Department of Agriculture. Advice to the rmral population isprovided by field staff of the department; hence, these staff representthe major link between residential training institutions and the ruralpopulation. They also provide the linkage between the farmer, the NationalAgricultural Marketing Board (NAMBOARD), the Agricultural Finance
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Corporation (AFC), and other government services. The training section ofthe department has about 35 agricultural assistants (AAs), 38 senioragricultural assistants (SAAs) and seven technical officers (TOs),representing 8% of all field staff (AAs) and about 12X of all technicalstaff (SAAs and TOe) of the department. Nearly all of the training sectionstaff have had one year of training in general extension, and less thanone-third have more than 10 years work experience.
3.4.16 Ake recruited from Form 3 are given a brief induction course atan Fl, a probationary period as a CD in the field, and a 2-year course atNonze or Mpika. Then, in due course the Aks are promoted to SAA level.T08, on the other hand, are recruited after completion of Form 5 and threeyears t instruction at NRDC. The training provided for both extension andtraining staff contains more basic technical topics than educationalmethodology. In general, the utilization rate of the FTCs and FIs is verylow, due mainly to shortage of funds. Teaching is authoritarian, conductedthrough lectures with the help of some demonstrations. Blackboards arevirtually the only visual aids used, and available film and slideprojectors are rarely used due to shortages of software and operationalknowledge. Some of the FTCs and FIa have unused land, since theinstitutions use only a small portion for demonstrations. In farmertraining, the more prosperous households now receive a disproportionatelylarge share of attention as these households benefitted greatly from
-previous courses for improving their operations. Consequently, trainingofficers wish to continue their successful involvement in this area and arereluctant to recruit subsistence farmers.
3.4.17 Thus, while MAWD's original intention in establishing 32 FarmerTraining Centers (FTCs) with 150 extension staff was to conduct courses forfarmers, rural female population, cooperative staff, local leaders andother community groups, the results have proved to be poor, for tworeasons: (a) funds for FTC operations were reduced in real terms over thepast few years and a number of centers are now non-operational; and (b) theexisting system requires farmers to travel long distances to attendcourses, As part of MAWID's future plan, FTCs would be phased out andreplaced by frequent visits by extension staff, supplemented by mobiletraining units.
3.4.18 For the future, several factors would contribute towards makingthe task of training farmers more achievable: (a) provision of improvedlogistIcs for farmer training, e.g., mobile units and mass media equipment;(b) upgrading of the skills of extension staff through in-service andon-the-job training; (c) training of contact farmers and the farmingcommunity in farmers'-fields and in camps through demonstrations; and (d)provision of adequate transportation for use by extension staff.
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3.4.19 Diploma level training is handled by NRDC, which plans to developin-service training for diploma holders in consultation with the Extensionand Research Branch of MAWD. For this training, however, NRDC wouldrequire support in the areas of student and staff accommodation, dininghall extension, classroom space, workshop space, library expansion,transport, and recurrent funding. Funding for other capital support toNRDC would also be required, possibly through bilateral assistance.
Research and Extension Training Unit
3.4.20 In order to introduce an effective staff development program forthe Research and Extension Branches, MAWD is considering establishing aResearch and Extension Training Unit (RETU). This unit would have directlinks, through DGA's office with the Research and Extension Branches,training institutions in Zambia and abroad, and DOA's Training Section.RETU would be responsible for administration and coordination of thetraining program.
Incentives for Staff Retention
3.4.21 Efforts are being made by MAWD to promote professional staffdevelopment through fellowship arrangements. To be eligible, candidatesneed to have a B.Sc. degree and two years of government service. Inaddition, a candidate is required to obtain release by his or her sectionchief, which depends on the availability of a replacement.
3.4.22 A number of incentives are required to ensure professional staffretention upon completion of training. Although staff are entitled toreceive an extra "qualification allowance' on an incremental basis, oncethey complete a training period of up to 12 months or more, the existingsalary scale in extension is low and needs urgent revision. The existingstrategy which MAWD uses to retain staff is the bonding arrangement wherebystaff are obligated to serve for as many years as they were supported inschool. The creation of an atmosphere that enhances the development ofcreativity and initiative should also be a motivating factor in staffretention. In-service training in the field, laboratories and workshopswould provide the staff with continui-ng opportunities for upgrading theirskills and "catching up" with innovations. This would improve staffperformance and morale.
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3.5 Business Education and Management Training
Accountancy
3.5.1 Accounting, being a profer.sional/technical service, is a key areain all economics and public services, and is particularly important in thepresent difficult economic situation in Zambia. However, becauseaccounting information is frequently deficient or lacking, any analysis ofshortcomings in the management of public sector organizations must, in manyareas,-remain one which deals with symptoms rather than the actualunderlying problems. The problem has been exacerbated by the fact that thepresent structure of accountancy training does not adequately reflect theneeds of certain interest groups and institutions. Hopefully, the currentEEC study of the accounting sector should indicate, with some precision,the nature and extent of the deficiencies in accounting in order toidentify areas for remedial action.
Accountancy Training
3.5e2 Among the institutions offering accountancy training there aresignificant variations in the standard of tuition which are partlyattributable to management, partly to the competence and availability oftrainers, and partly to the quality of the student intake. Chingola'sresults have been outstanding and mark it as possibly the best accountancytraining college in the region. It has a small, highly qualified andexperienced staff of seven (five expatriate) and the most able students(with the possible exception of UNZA Business Studies). This has been agood recipe for success.
3.5.3 The results of the Accountancy Training Department at NIPA havenot been equally good, but this is probably due to student ability, whichis partly a reflection on the quality of the intake into the civil serviceaccountancy grades. Civil service employment is a third choice afteremployment in the private and parastatal organizations because of wagedifferences. NIPA's Accountancy Training Department has a staff of nine(five expatriates) and three of its local staff are due to go overseas forstudies in accounting and4finance.-
3.5.4 The other accountancy training provider is the Chalimbana Campusat NIPA. Both courses offered are low level (an elementary course andCABS). Of its staff of eight (one expatriate) plus one an secondment fromthe Accountancy Training Department of NIPA's main campus, only two haveaccounting qualifications. In terms of the quality of its staff, theChalimbana campus cannot provide--for more than a fraction of theaccountancy training needs of the District Councils and what is provided isat a very low level.
3.5.5 The Business Studies Departments of Evelyn Hone College, UNZA,and Z-IT have proportionally fewer expatriate trainers and a higher -
percentage of vacancies for staff.
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Structure of the Accountancy Profession
3.5.6 The future structure of the accountancy profession in Zambia is.likely to have three-levels, beginning with CABS, successful completion ofwhich will qualify candidates for the next higher stage (at technicallevel) such as ATD or MAT, and the final stage (at professional level)should be ACCA.
3.5.7 ZICA has not yet stated the details of its regulations for theadmission of registered students as members, but it is likely that ZICAwill require a qualifying professionail examination with subject exemptionsfor those who have a diploma at accountancy technician level or who areuniversity graduates in accounting. ZICA will also require a period ofpractical accountancy experience, probably of three years. In order tofully establish ZICA as a professional organization, external assistancewould be required.
3.5.8 High priority should be given to establishing a suitablequalification for the State Auditors in the Auditor General's office and,separately, for accountants in Rural and Urban District Councils. Both arespecialized areas of accounting for which special arrangements should bemade.
Staff of the Auditor General's Office
3.5.9 The present State Auditor's course (in the Accountancy TrainingDepartment at NIPA) does not fit into the three-tier scheme describedabove, but it is desirable that staff of the Auditor General's officeshould have equal status with their colleagues in other parts of theaccountancy profession in Zambia. Too many staff in the Office of theAuditor General have an inadequate educational background for coping withthe increasing complexity and difficulty of the more advanced aspects ofauditing. The minimum entry standard should not be lower than that for theATD (at least four GCE 'O' levels which must include English language andmathematics). Ideally, a period of full-time study should precedepractical experience and on-the-job training. An alternative would be asandwich-type course. In either case, work experience should be closelyrelated to the theoretical studies. A competent body should determineexamination standards, appoint qualified examiners and moderators, andassess the results.
Staff of the Rural and Urban District Councils
3.5.10 Before 1978/79, local government in Zambia was centrallyadministered by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government. It was thenplaced under the Provincial and Local Government Division (PLGD) of thePrime Minister's Office, with the Prime Minister as its head. Localgovernment also had its own training center at Chalimbana, which was takenover by NIPA. Now a third possible phase, following absorption of PLGD intothe recently formed Ministry of Decentralization, would be the amalgamationof authority staff into the civil service by January 1986. In themeantime, local authority staff remain under the control of the PersonnelDivision of the civil-service.
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3.5.11 - Accountancy training for local authorities at NIPA is notadequate either in numbers or quality. Furthermore, NIPA does not have thestaff to train valuers for local authorities. It is therefore recommendedthat local government have its own training institution, as it once *id,so that adequate attention can be given to the special training needs ofRural and Urban-District Council staff. -
3.5.12 The parastatals under ZIMCO are responsible for 70% of productiveeconomic activity in Zambia, and many are acutely short of qualifiedaccountants. ODA (UK) has already agreed to provide the services of anexperienced trainer in financial management and accountancy, who will setup and initially head a new Accountancy Training Department at ZIM. Whileit is appreciated that support in this sector is necessary and that ZIM isconsidered to be one of Zambia's most dynamic training institutions, it ishard to see the logic of assisting in the establishment of a completely newfacility when existing institutions (EHC, ZIT and UNZA) which provideaccountancy training are badly in need of support.
3.5.13 In conclusion, it is recommended that:
(a) additional support should be given to the ATC at Chingola;
(b) priority support should be given as technical assistance to thetraining of accountants and valuers for the Rural and UrbanDistrict Councils;
(c) support should be given as technical assistance (books, manuals,etc.) to the providers of accountancy training for the parastataland private sectors; and
(d) support should also be given to accountancy training for thecivil service and the Office of the Auditor General in terms ofstaffing for the Accountancy Training Department at NIPA.-ODA(UK) has confirmed its continued support to this department.
Management Training
3.5.14 The survey of training offered in Zambia and of training receivedby Zambians overseas clearly shows the predominance of professional and,technical courses. This training was and still is necessary, evidencebeing the existence of large numbers of expatriates i professional andtechnical posts and the number of posts held by underqualtfied andinexperienced Zambians. However, training in management -- the management.of people and institutions, of systems and procedures, of information andresources -- has been neglected. Even in the few areas where resourceshave been put into the training of line managers (such as the courses forAssistant Secretaries and Under Secretaries at RIPA) there is evidencethat much of the content of such training is unlikely to meet the needs ofthe participants or of the organizations in which they work. The qualityof line management (para 3.5.16) suggests that senior officials have notbeen trained, or if they have, it has had little or no effect on theirperformance.,
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3.5.15 This neglect of-training for line managers applies equally toprofessional staff. The problem here is mainly attitudinal and is notconfined to Zambia. It is one which assumes that professional staff, suchas engineers, accountants, teachers, or agricultural officers need trainingat increasing levels of specialization in their particular professions. Itis obvious that with the growth of knowledge and skills required ofprofessionals due to advances in technology, etc., they need to developtheir professional skills; but as they are promoted to increasingly higherlevels, the nature of their work changes. While at the lower professionaland technical levels there is need for specialization, at the highestlevels there is additional need for management skills. Directors ofagriculture or chief accountants are primarily administrators rather thanagriculturalists or accountants. The failure of many development projects,and the low morale and staff wastage in public service organizations arejust as much attributable to poor management as to professional ortechnical mistakes. However, very few in-country management trainingopportunities exist for professionals.
3e5.16 It is evident that the Zambianization of management -- e.g.,personnel and line manager posts - frequently has proceeded too rapidlyand has caused problems in both the civil service and parastatalorganizations. As in most other developing countries worldwide, thesepositions were the first to be localized on or after independence. Forpolitical reasons, an especially high priority was given to thelocalization of line managers in the civil service, particularly at themost senior levels. Localization of personnel staff also was implementedquickly because it was assumed that such staff did not require advancedacademic or professional/technical qualifications. This policy would nothave had adverse consequences for senior management if line and personnelmanagers had been given training appropriate to their functions; however,in Zambia most of them have not received essential basic training and manyhave been rapidly promoted to senior positions in which they considerthemselves to be competent and no longer in need of training.
3.5.17 This situation is not helped by the existing mltiplicity oftraining institutions, programs and courses, many of which aim at similarclienteles. The main weaknesses of these institutions are (a) lack ofcommunication with prospective clients, (b) lack of training experience,(c) unfamiliarity with the organization they are supposed to serve, and
-(d) interest in "empire building" and expansion rather than the trainingneeds of the clients. These are some of the reasons which senior officersstate in response to their reported reluctance to enroll in trainingprograms. Another reason is probably that senior managers may think it is
- demeaning to participate in training. --
3.5.18 The chart in Annex 7 shows the main organizations responsible forthe planning, administration and training of manpower and some of thelinkages between them. A general observation is that organizationalstructures and systems, although logical per se, do not and cannotguarantee harmony within or between organizations. Incompetent,under-motivated staff may make well-designed -structures and systemsineffective, whereas competent, well-motivated staff will somehow produce
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results without such guidance. Attitudinal and motivational changes inpeople are difficult to bring about and require more than organizationcharts and flow diagrams. This is perhaps why administrative reformexercises and institution-building are usually concerned with artificialstructural change and rarely address the real, underlying problems;whichhave to do with people and their attitudes.
3.5.19 Acceptance of the need for changes in behavior and attitudes is aprecondition for the improvement of managerial effectiveness, and there canbe no doubt that the Government and its top officials are aware of the lackof accountability and the attitudinal problems which exist throughout the
public service.ll/ Sending senior officials on traditional trainingprograms likewise is of little long-term benefit in this respect. There isevidence, however, that arganization development seminars or workshops canbe an effective way to tackle this problem. Two of the reasons why thiscan be much more successful than more traditional training methods are(a) it requires participants themselves to identify what factors hinder orprevent effectiveness and efficiency in their organizations; and (b) itdemands from them that they determine the measures they should take toovercome the problems they have identified.
3.5.20 The key to the organization development (OD) method iscommitment. When in a traditionally structured training program thecontent is determined by "outsiders" whether they be consultants ortrainers, there is a tendency for participants to resist any message whichis "painful" and to assign disfunctional factors or behavior to otherparticipants or other parts of the organization. The OD method attempts toobtain commitment to both the problems and their solution by asking theparticipants to diagnose the problems, identify solutions, and indicatetheir role in implementing the solutions (action planning). It may beworthwhile to organize OD seminars for public servants, starting with top
officials and then moving to successively lower staff levels.
3.5.21 Reference has been made to the provision by training institutionsof courses which reflect their own needs and aspirations rather than thoseof the organizations they are supposed to be serving. A prime example of
11/ As an example of this, the two national daily newspapers' main leadingarticles recently reported on a meeting called by the Prime Ministerthe previous day for all top government officials. On the subject ofaccountability, he was quoted as saying that it is "a vital componentof any position of responsibility. I am afraid I must state here thatyou have not done well in this respect. I must say that you have donequite badly and was it not for the presence of the press 1 would have-said a lot more-on this." Later, he added, 'You have spent too muchtime on the things for which you sre not paid and little time on thosefor which you are paid. You have failed to ensure efficiency in yourministries and departments because you are not efficient yourselves."He then demanded a change of attitude on the part of government staff.
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this is NIPA, whose motto is 'Service before Self.". A large proportion ofthe civil servants interviewed expressed dissatisfaction with coursesoffered by the Administrative Training Department, the Local GovernmentTraining Section, and the Executive Training Department. The maincriticisms were that much of the course content was irrelevant to the workneeds of participants, that time was wasted by offering longer courses thannecessary and that the trainers were inexperienced and/or unfamiliar withthe realities of work in the civil service. NIPA's own Annual Report for1984 refers to other problems: in the Administrative Training Department,to shortages of staff in some specialized areas and, conversely,underutilization of staff in others due to under-enrollment, and in theExecutive Training Section, to staff shortages which affect training ingovernment accounts, personnel management, and office administration.
3.5.22 There is strong support for holding a national conference onmanagement and organizational development, which would bring togethersenior managers in the public and private sectors, the training andeducational institutions which serve them, the professional associations,and donor agencies. Such a conference should be organized without furtherdelay as the first phase of action which is necessary to bring relevance,system and harmony to management and accountancy training. A suitableinstitution with the necessary expertise for this purpose is the ManagementServices Board. Without prejudging the result of such a conference, itshould be followed immediately by working groups, such as the donoragencies, the civil service and ZIMCO, to ensure that what is recommendedby the conference is not undermined by indecision and procrastination.
3.5.23 With regard to the 2-year Diploma Program in Personnel Managementand Public Administration, it is questionable whether NIPA possesses thecompetence for mounting such a course and whether the program isappropriate. The main training function of a civil service traininginstitution should be to mount short, highly relevant and practicaltraining courses geared to the needs of client organizations. The sectionsof NIPA referred to above are facing criticism from their clients and havestaffing difficulties, and yet energy is devoted to the mounting of diplomacourses which may be better placed at UNZA. It is recommended that athorough and independent course review be carried out, inclusive of an --
assessment of existing instructor capability.
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3.6 Cost of Education and Traiaing
Aggregate Expenditure on Education
3.6.1 The decline in government revenue over the past 10 years(Annex 13, Table 3.6.1) has necessitated a cut back in all forms of publicexpenditure and the education budget has suffered along with the rest.Aggregate recurrent expenditure on education has been halved in real termssince the price of copper began to fall in 1975; aggregate capitalexpenditure has collapsed to a token amount. Since enrollments in primaryand secondary education have increased by 50% over the same period,expenditure per student has declined even more.
3.6.2 The structure of expenditure within the education sector,disaggregated by type of education, remained relatively stable over theperiod, the only significant changes being an increase in the share ofuniversity education and reductions in the shares of technical educationand general administration. Disaggregated by type of expenditure, however,these were shifts usually associated with severe budgetary constraints: an
increase in the share of salaries and corresponding reductions in theshares of other expenditure. In primary -education, teacher salaries rosefrom 77% of total recurrent cost in 1975 to 91% in 1983. In secondaryeducation where administration overheads are higher, they rose from 24% to55% over the same period. The cuts tended to fall disproportionately,iainly on expenditure for student requisites -- a particularly vulnerablecomponent of a budget during a recession. In -secondary education thiscomponent appears to have been protected, but in primary education it fellfrom 9.9% in 1975 to 2.0% in 1983 (Annex 13, Table 3.6.8). In DTEVT, perstudent expenditure for requisites is much higher, but even here the levelis now so low that it is severely affecting the quality of instruction.
3.6.3 Despite the increase in the share of salaries, much of the burdenof the retrenchment of recurrent expenditure has been borne by teachers andother staff-, who have seen their real salaries eroded to a fraction oftheir former levels. The salary compression has been exacerbated by theneed to increase the number of teachers to keep pace with risingenrollments.
3.6.4 Most training institutions have done their best to maintain staffmembers and student enrollments despite the decline in financial support.However, the contraction has been so severe that this is no longer anappropriate response. It is now time for most -training institutions torecognize that their budgets are unlikely to improve in real terms in -theforeseeable future and that they should therefore undertake a morerealistic assessment of the desirable scale of their operations and thevariety of courses that they can offer. At the same time there is- urgentneed to explore non-government sources of support.
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Unit Costs
3.6.5 The cost figures in this study were obtained partly fromaggregate data collected from secondary sources and partly from micro leveldata obtained directly from training institutions and parastatalcompanies. The institutions were chosen in such a way as to coverrepresentative courses at different levels. Many of these institutionsfall under the administrative control of DTEVT. In some cases systematicrecords had been kept and the quality of the data was-good. In others,however, records were incomplete, not in a usable form or simplynon-existent, and full-costing was consequently not possible.
3.6.6 In general, it was not possible to secure reliable data oncapital costs, investment having taken place so long ago that book valuesbore little relation to current values. In such cases the estimates havebeen confined to recurrent costs. When it was possible to estimate capitalcosts, amortized annual costs were calculated using a 10% real rate ofinterest and an amortization pertod of 25 years, both of those beingarbitrary choices adopted in the absence of any objective criteria. Theamortization rate was therefore 11%.
3.6.7 When recurrent cost items were not clearly demarcated by courseor specific category, averages from aggregate costs were calculated. -Estimates of recurrent costs include the administrative costs incurred bythe central office or ministry responsible for the program.
Primary Schools
3.6.8 Recurrent Cost. The total expense bill in primary schools islarge but, because of the large number of pupils (see Section 3.2), perpupil recurrent cost is small. At 1983 constant prices, Central StatisticOffice (CSO) estimates of this cost fell from Kw 127 in 1975 to Kw 82 in1980. Estimates for 1982 and 1983 are Kw 110 and Kw 89, respectively.These estimates include a small "administrative expense" incurred byheadquarters and regional headquarters of MGEC, but not that of the Officeof the Prime Minister, which controls the funding of primary schools.
3.6.9 Government expenditure on instructional requisites per pupil arethe following: Kw 3.2 in 1982, Kw 1.5 in 1983 and, according to MGEC, Kw1.81.in 1984. This level of expenditure is wholly inadequate, but it isincreasingly being supplemented by parental contributions. Only a verysmall number of primary school children now board (1,200, or 0.1%).Boarding costs, not included in the above figures, were Kw 139 per studentin 1983.
3,6.10 Capital Cost. MGEC has no information on per pupil cost ofcapital used ii primary schools. However, indirect estimates show that thecapital cost of establishing a single stream primary school with supportfacilities for seven claases of 40 pupils each is about Kw 485,000 at 1984prices. This amounts to Kw 1,732 per pupil place, or Kw 190 per amortizedpupil year on average, or Kw 133 in Grades- 1-4 (double session) and Kw 266per pupil year in Grades 5-7. -
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Secondary Schools
3.6.11 Recurrent Cost. CSO estimates of per student recurrent costconverted to 1983 constant prices are as follows:
1975 1976 1978 1979 1980
Kv 807 Kv 797 Kw 520 Kw 456 Kw 447
Our estimates, which include an administrative cost incurred by MGEC (netof boarding cost), are KW 434, Kw 331 and Kw 333 for 1982, 1983, and 1984,respectively; of this, expenditure for student requisites was Kw 15.5 in1982, Kw 29.0 in 1983, and Kw 31.8 in 1984, Boarding costs for the sameyears were Kw 169, Kw 165 and Kw 152.
3.6.12 Capital Cost. According to MGEC, a two-stream junior secondaryschool -- I.e., for about 400 students in Grades 8 and 9 -- costs about Kw3.0 million to build. The school includes a student hostel, teachers'houses, equipped laboratories and workshops, and other buildings forsupport services. Kw 3.5 million is required for a senior secondary schoolIn an urban area and Xw 4.5 million for one in a rural area (the additionalmillion is to cover the higher construction cost in rural areas.) At thisprice the amortized costs of capital per student year in junior secondaryschools and senior secondary schools are about Kw 825 and Kw 1,250,respectively. The latter figure would be Kw 1,600 if the school were to bebuilt in a rural area.
Teacher Training
3.6.13 Recurrent Cost. Per student recurrent cost in teacher trainingin general education was Kw 1,422 in 1982 and Kw 1,221 in 1983. Details onexpenses for boarding, student requisites and allowances are as follows:
1982 1983
Kw Kw
Boarding 226.0 203.0
Student requisites 14.1 14.0
Student allowances 138.0 93.0
3.6.14- Capital Cost. No detailed information on the capital cost ofbuildings and equipment was available. However, it may be assumed to be ona par with that of senior secondary schools.
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Technical Education
3.6.15 Technical education and training in state schools are provided byUNZA and schools administered by DTEVT, A survey of recurrent costs oftraining in these institutions, shown in Annex 13, Table 3.6.3., reveal8wide cost variations between levels of training and between courses-at eachlevel. It was not possible to arrive at satisfactory estimates of capitalcosts.
3.6.16 In terms of recurrent costs, a university education in mining-orengineering costs between Kw 7,800 and Kw 8,400 per student year.Technologist or technician training provided by ZIT ranges from Kw 5,043 inindustrial science to as much as Kw 5,850 in mining. Technical teachertraining at LTVTC costs between Kw 4,132 and Kw 4,813 per student year,while the cost of craftsman training at Lusaka TTI Ls between Kw 2,090 andKw 2,490 per trainee year.
3.6.17 The variation in cost is wide and seems to be caused by severalfactors: (a) class size, (b) enrollment, (c) qualification and salaries ofinstructors, and (d) cost of instructional requisites or consumables. Lowenrollment underutilizes the physical facilities of the school andincreases the unit cost of training, which seems to be the case in ZIT. Toa certain degree this observation also holds true for the technicaltraining at UNZA and LTVTC. The somewhat low (recurrent) cost ofinstruction in LTTI is the result of a combination of factors such as thelow qualification of teachers (i.e.,- ex-TTI trainees with some in-servicetraining) and the low allocations for training expenses Workshopinstruction in this iustitution has to make do with whatever consumablescan be obtained, most of which are obtained from recycled materials.
University of Zambia (UNZA)
3.6.18 A C$S estimate of the recurrent cost per student in UNZA for 1985is about Kw 8,200. This cost is an average taken by dividing totalrecurrent cost by total enrollment. Average recurrent-costs were estimatedby faculty level whenever possible. Otherwise, averages were taken fromaggregate costs.
3.6.19 The results for 1984 show that per student costs vary widely fromone faculty to another. As expected, the unit costs in the faculties ofeducation, humanities and social science are not as high as in the naturaland engineering sciences. For reasons of large class size and relativelylarge enrollment, the recurrent costs in the "soft" sciences are lower. Inaddition these courses do not require very expensive equipment. Thus therange of recurrent costs varies from around Kw 5,500 in education andKw 5,800 in humanities and social science to as high as Kw 11,900 inmedicine. As shown in Table 3.6.4, a high proportion of these costs is inadministration and general services. A good part of the latter is room andboard which is about Kw 1,400 per boarding student, and salaries for themore than 3,000 general workers employed by the university.
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Business Studies and Management
3.6-.20 There is an acute shortage of competent accountants and managersat all levels. This shortage cannot be judged by numbers but byimpressions on the quality of business service and by the precision offigures and neatness-of reports supplied to clienth. In many cases theaccounting appears to be inadequate even In some schools that teachbusiness studies. Hence, there Is a belief that the place to start toimprove business services is in business schools, although the problem ofimproving management and public administration requires a much moreprofound solution than more and perhaps better management tratning,
3.6.21 However, if the supply of good business school graduates has tobe increased, this should be done cost-effectively. The solution cannoteasily be found in information on costs, as shown in Table 3.6.5, unlessthe quality of graduates can be determined. Quality may be judged by theresults of standardized examinations and by performance in the labormarket, i.e., in employment and earnings over a period of time. Untilevidence of quality is available, it may be assumed that, by and large, thebusiness studies in ZIT and In ERC are identical. At least these schoolsuse the-same syllabus and their business graduates are employed by theZambian civil service at identical starting salaries in the same grade.However, there are wide differences In recurrent training costs, mainlycaused by variations in the salaries of administrative and academic staff,training expenses (mostly room, boarding, and instructional requisites),support services, sundries, and enrollment size. The last factor plays animportant role in determining per student cost.
3.6.22 There are no unit cost estimates for management and publicadministration training because full information could not be obtained.However, annual financial reports of the Government reveal that the countryhas been spending large sums in this fIeld. NIPA, for example, spentKw 1,257,000 as recurrent cost in its training facility in Lusaka andKw 240,000 in Chalimbana in 1983.
Agriculture
3.6.23 The recurrent cost is about Kw 9,100 per student year in theSchool of Agriculture (SA) at UNZA. In addition to one year at the Schoolof Fatural Sciences, students in agriculture take four years to complete aB.Sc. degree, which implies that the cost of a full degree course is aboutKw 45,000. The cost of a student year in the recently established Schoolof Veterinary Medicine (SVM) is quite high, as the school is in the processof being built up.-
Training in Private Industry
3.6.24 There is a wide variety of training courses provided by employersin the private sector. Some courses are common to a wide range ofindustries, and they follow the syllabi and certification requirements of
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DTEVT. Other courses are employer or firm-specific. The latter courseslast from a few days to a few weeks or months, and they are conducted onsite, i.e., in factory workshops, management offices or even inunderground mineshafte. The main features of these courses are that theyare flexible, ad hoc, and tailor-Made to immediate requirements. As suchthe courses are relevant to the needs of employers. The total cost ofthese training courses is very large. In the mining company (ZCCM) alone,the training c0ot in 1984 was Kw 23,553,000, an amount almost twice therecurrent cost of DTEVT training programs in that year. A survey of therecurrent cost of training in one of the d-ivisions of ZCCM is given inAnnex 13, Table 3.6.6. Average costs per trainee show a wide range -- fromKw 81 for a first aid course and Kw 654 for metallurgical productionoperators, to Kw 5,315 for craftsman improvement and Kw 13,284 for graduatedevelopment. The last two mentioned are induction courses for newrecruits.
Levels of Cost -
3.6.25 The amounts spent per pupil, student or trainee are shown inAnnex 13, Table 3.6.5. Where a firm comparison is permissible, the datashow -that recurrent cost in secondary schools is about five times as highas in primary schools. This ratio is almost 12 times higher in teachertraining and about 90 times highef in the university. Another feature ofthe data is that the costs are much higher in technical education andtraining than in general education. The recurrent cost of technicalteacher training is about four times higher than academic teachertraining. The unit recurrent cost of craftsman training is more than twiceas high as in primary teacher training.
Internal Cost Efficiency and Cost Overruns
3.6.26 If transition rates can be interpreted as input-output conversionrates or internal efficiency rates, then their residuals may be used asproxies for inefficiency or "wastage." (The quotation marks are usedto note that the loss may not be a complete waste if pupils learn somethingbefore failing or quiting school, before completing a school cycle.) Atransition rate of 76 suggests a wastage of 24%. This means that for every1,000 pupils in Grade 1, about 240 failed or dropped out before completingthe primary school cycle. At a per pupil cost of Kw 89 per year, the 240figure represents-an expense of about Kw 26,360 "down the drain."
3.6.27 In secondary schools the loss is much greater because of high perstudent cost. A "smoothing" of transition rates per 1,000 for 13 cohortsgave a wastage of 265 student years in secondary education. At Kw 411 perstudent year, the wastage means a financial loss of Kw 109,000.
3.6,28 In UNZA, we show financial wastage in terms of cost overruns.This is calculated on the basis of per student year cost times the extranumber of student years that the university has to provide In order toproduce a graduate. The total actual cost less the cost of what isnormally required is the cost overrun. The calculations given inAnnex 13, Table 3.6.10, show that the overruns per graduate range fromabout Kw 7,300 in agriculture to as much as Kw 18,900 in mining. If theseoverruns were expressed in multiples of 1,000 graduates or students as inthe estimates for secondary and primary schools, the sums involved would bevery large. Earlier reports had already indicated certain wastages inuniversity education. The reports also mentioned probable causes for thesewa8tages, namely, the level of preparation of school-leavers for universitystudies and certain institutional features of the higher education system.
3.6.29 As a result of the general economic crisis, financial supportdecreased and the scarce resources were spread thinly, if not too thinly inmany cases. Programs for building new schools were cut back, repairing oldones postponed, and buying new equipment or spares foregone. Allocationsfor student allowances, room and board were reduced, while the level ofspending for instructional requisites was too far below minimum thresholdsto be of much educational value. Technical education and vocationaltraining suffered immensely from budgetary retrenchment. For lack offoreign exchange to buy spares, many expensive machines and items ofequipme-t could neither be repaired, maintained nor utilized. Allocationsfor room and board are excessively high for a country in a financialcrisis. Moreover, from the point of view of a broad society, the high perstudent cost of training courses or degrees seems to defy economic logic.Indeed, the costs represent a large investment in people, but on the basisof existing wages and salary scales, the income streams from such aninvestment can hardly pay a good financial return. From the point of viewof the individual, however, such a public investment is an economicwindfall for the fortunate few who are-students or trainees.
3.6.30 At present, tuition is virtually free, while room and board,student allowances and even transportation in some cases are provided.This level of subsidy to education and training may be imperative for thepolitical goal of rapid Zambianization (but it also touches on allocationproblems and distributional issues that are beyond the scope of thisreport). However, as the financial crisis continues and support foreducation and training declines, the quality of instruction deteriorates-and Zambianization in the qualitative sense may be beyond reach.,
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Conclusions
3.6.31 Over the long term the Zambian economy may have to shift from aheavy dependence on mining to self-reliance in agriculture and export-oriented manufacturing industries. This observation implies a need fororienting the country's schools and training system towards a strongemphasis on science and technical skills and towards developing a certaindegree of flexibility to respond to progressive shifts in the composltionof manpower demand.
3.6.32 The direct cost of primary schooling may still-be a majorGovernment responsibility,but the costs of secondary and further levels ofgeneral education and training may be increasingly shared with parents,based on ability to pay. Boarding cost, for example, should be graduallyshifted to parents or abolished whenever possible, and the savings fromthis expense item should be allocated for certain essentials such asequipment snares and instructional requisites.
3.6.33 The costs of occupational- or job-specific training may be sharedwith employers, such as the large employers and perhaps an association ofmedium and small employers. During a labor shortage, some employers arewilling to underwrite these costs to assure themselves a good manpowersupply of desirable quality. In fact, some private companies are aware ofthis responsibility, as shown by their preparedness to provide bursariesand sponsorships to a certain number of students as prospective employees.This is being done, for example, by ZCCM for students in mining courses atZIT, UNZA and even at institutions overseas. In all probability this is
also being done by ZESCO and other large and responsible employers. Whatseems to be necessary at this stage is to encourage these employers to do
more by increasing their level of spending for occupational andjob-specific training. In any case, not doing so can work to theemployers' disadvantage.
3.6.34 Moreover, foreign aid for schools and training institutions maybe sought to top-up whatever financing that parents and employers arewilling to share and whatever savings can be obtained by improving internalefficiency and minimizing wastage and costly overruns. In the short run,
external financing is necessary to give the Government room for maneuverand some lead time In a political process of sharing the financial burdenof education and training along rational lines. Advice may also benecessary in restructuring the existing specialized manpower trainingprograus along cost-effective lines.
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IV. ISSUES ANDi RECOMMENDATIONS, PROPOSED STRATEGY
Labor Force
issue
4.1.1 The labor force is growing much more rapidly than the long-termcapacity of the economy to generate additional employment in the formalsector. Large numbers of school-leavers every year contribute toincreasing youth unemployment (para 1.09).
Recommendation
4.1.2 In the long term, only a reduction of the birth rate wouldimprove the situation. However, given the Government's policy to increaseagricultural production, efforts should be made to genarate agriculturallyrelated jobs, particularly, in the informal sector.
Manpower Planning
Issues
4.1.3 National manpower planning is the responsibility of the ManpowerPlanning and Research Department of NCDP (para 2.01). The department isunderstaffed and existing staff lack relevant training and experience.Departmental activities are not sufficiently related to decision-making Inthe planning of manpower development.
Recommendations
4.1.4 The departmental term of reference need revision to focus ondecision-making and to include close monitoring of demand and supplythrough a sectoral rather than an overall national approach. This wouldrequire intensive coordination with employers, planners and trainingproviders. Hence, there is an initial need for technical assistance andtailor-made staff training to establish a manpower development monitoringunit within NCDP to undertake these functions (para 3.1.8).
Manpower Needs Coordination
Issues
4.1.5 The Directorate of Manpower Development and Training (DMDT),under the Cabinet Office, handles-assessment of manpower and training needsfor the civil service and serves as a clearing house for its trainingrequests. A system of seconding manpower development officers (MDOs) fromDMDT to various ministries and government agencies for assessing trainingneeds has recently been introduced. This system, however, has not got offto a good start because of-the low status of the MDO and their need formore training. Moreover, the strategy vis-a-vis in-service trainingemphasizes training grants abroad rather than utilizing and building upthe in-country training capacity.
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Recommendations
4.1.6 The MDOs need additional training and improved knowledge of theentity they are serving to enhance their ability to advise on manpowerdevelopment issues (paras 3.1.9-3.1.12). They should be more activelyinvolved and have increased authority with respect to the screening oftraining requests. In-service training should be carried out in-country,except for highly specialized training, and the Government and all donorsshould focus on establishing an in-country capacity in lieu of continuedreiiance on extensive overseas training which consumes large sums of hardcurrency.
General Education
Issues
4.1.7 Specialized training and higher education require a good qualityinput from the general education system to avoid repeating simple topics inhigher learning institutions at much higher cost. The quality of secondaryeducation is low, however, particularly with regard to the key subjects ofmathematics and science, and this seriously hampers progress in science-oriented further studies (para. 3.2.12).
Recommendation
4.1.8 This-issue can only be addressed through inputs with long-lastingeffects, including improving mathematics and science teacher training,updating curricula, upgrading laboratory facilities and providing relevanttextbooks and laboratory manuals. In light of the present shortage ofqualified science and mathematic teachers, the Government should alsoconsider providing incentives to such teachers.
Secondary Technical Education
Issues
4.1.9 At present there are two secondary technical schools enrollinggifted students and offering an option with emphasis on science,mathematics and trade-oriented subjects. The facilities are underutilizedand there is no evidence that examination results correlate with the higherstandard of intake. The Government's plan to expand this type of educationwould fall short of remedying the existing situation, as the focus is onpractical rather than science subjects. Under current financialcircumstances, the Government cannot afford the luxury of offeringpractical subjects at high cost for which a return is, to say the least,doubtful.
Recommendation
4.1.10 The Government should not expand secondary technical education inits present form, but rather should use allocated resources to strengthenthe teaching of secondary school mathematics and science (para 3.2.15).
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Teacher Training
Issues
4.1.11 The total supply of trained teachers at the secondary levelexceeds demand and there is a very high wastage rate of newly trained orrecently trained teachers. Even so, a number of untrained teachers areused, especially in primary education. The Government guarantees alltrained teachers employment and a salary but not necessarily a teachingassignment. The distribution of teachers is uneven, with overstaffed urbanand understaffed rural schools and a surplus of arts-oriented teachers -anda shortage of those in mathematics and science.
Recommendations
4.1.12 (a) Cooperation between MHE, responsible for teacher training,and G4GEC at the receiving end, must improve, particularly in terms ofplanning future outputs of trained teachers. The Planning Unit of MGECneeds strengthening to be able to maintain up-to-date statistics thatfacilitate the planning of teacher supply and distribution. A dataprocessing capacity would support this effort.
(b) Measures should be taken to reduce the scale of teacherwastage and hence make it possible to reduce the volume of teachertraining. This would result in major savings in training resources (paras3.2.24 and 3.2.25).
Technical Education/Vocational Training
Issues
4.1.13 The existing training system was built up during times ofprosperity when the country's continued economic growth and industrialexpansion were anticipated. At present there is no significant growth inemployment in the industrial sector or, indeed, in the formal sector as awhole. The large mining sector is expected to shrink gradually as a resultof the progressive exhaustion of ore deposits and this will further reduceformal sector employment. Government policy focuses on the development ofagriculture and anticipates transfers of trained manpower to this sector.
4.1.14 Training provided by DTEVT is generally costly and inefficientand does not fully respond to employers' requirements. The necessarydialogue with employers is not effective. The TTIs are under-financed andoperate below capacity. Curriculum development, inspection, examinationprocedures, and staff development policy have not adjusted to existingcircumstances. Technical education at the university level is costly, withlow utilization of staff and facilities. Further, the economic recessionnecessitates constant or lower levels of expenditure for training.
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Recommendations
4.1.15 (a) DTEVT should concentrate on the Improvement of trainingquality rather than on the expansion of pre-service training, with renewedefforts to eliminate wasteful spending.
(b) The operations of the TTIs should be rationalized since theyare running much below capacity and employment- opportunities for itsgraduates are not encouraging (para 2.28). The released training capacityshould be used for much needed in-service trainins. The number ofinstructors should be selected accordingly and the surplus assigned toother tasks inside or outside the sector.
(c) In order to maximize efforts to supply employers with therelevant types of skilled manpower, VTEVT should improve the dialoguebetween employers and industrial training centers so -that the latter mayrespond mDre quickly to changes in the demand for skills. The existingAdvisory Committees have not proved effective in this respect and shouldeither improve or be abolished. Close monitoring of the employmentopportunities in the industrial sector, including availability of skillsresulting from technological innovation, should complement the improvedAdvisory Committees. DTEVT, in cooperation with NCDP, DMDT and employers,should take the lead in introducing such a system. -
(d) A modern approach to curriculum development should beIntroduced with measurable target-oriented syllabi. Also, already existingdeveloped modern curricula should be considered to avoid wasteful "wheelre-inventing' exercises (para 3.3.6). Inspection of institutions shouldconcentrate on the quality of technical and practical instruction. TheInspectorate needs additional resources to be able to carry out itsassignment properly (para 3.3.8). The examination system should be totallyrevised, adjusting to new curricula and Introducing standardized proceduresfor examination preparation and correction. Examination of practicalcourse segments should be performed practically (pars-3.3.7). Staffdevelopment should be oriented more towards in-country training and shouldinclude school management as well as professional upgrading (psra 3.3.9).
(e) Better utilization of university staff-and facilities shouldbe aimed at improving cost efficiency. This should include increasedteaching load and extra shifts in workshops and laboratories. The Schoolsof Mines and Engineering should merge (para 3.3.19), eliminating theirsubstantial overlaps and duplication of administrative costs.
Agricultural Education
Issues
4.1.16 A continuing effort to increase farm productivity in Zambiarequires improvement in the development of manpower, with relevant trainingin agriculture. The availability of such agriculturally trained manpoweris crucial in mobilizing the rural population to increase food production.
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Successful transfer of technological messages to rural communities and therendering of such services as research and extension, agriculturalmarketing, agro-industries, processing of raw primary products, and timelydelivery of the appropriate production input package as well as the needfor the supervisory role associated with it, would warrant the availabilityof such personnel. The Government would hope to achieve this objectivethrough a combined strategy of tapping the country's heretofore unused
cultivable land and through optimizing the use of modern technologicalproduction inputs. Moreover, incentives should continue to be given toprivate investment in the sector. Appropriately trained staff areindispensable for this effort. In the case of farmer training, thetraditional system of using the Farm Training Centers (FTCs) did not proveto-be a successful operatica, as farmers had to be away from their farmsfor extended periods of time.
Recommendations
4.1.17 To achieve the above long- and short-range goals, the followingoptions should be considered:
.(a) Provide incentives to selected young farmers; such incentivesshould include the provision of irrigatible land, an improvedpackage of production inputs, and training.
(b) Relax MAWD's existing guaranteed employment and bonding policy,and encourage graduates to seek employment in an expandingprivate sector (para 3.4.4).
(c) Emphasize upgrading of the quality of trained manpower throughin-service training at UNZA and other agricultural traininginstitutions, rather than expand pre-service training. Activelyinvolve UNZA and other Zambian agricultural training institutionsin rural development activities; and complement this effort bymaking improved production packages available.
(d): Phase out the FTCs in their present form and adopt a modifiedversion of the Training and Visit (T&V) approach (paras 2.81 and3.4.17), or alternative methods-.,
Business Education and Management Training
Issues
4.1.18 in a situation of economic crisis currently facing the country,the need for well-trained managers and administrators is more pronouncedthan ever for all sectors. Unfortunately, Zambia is poorly equipped inthis respect and is extremely short of accountants at all levels.Also,managerial skills are lacking, particularly in the civil service andthe parastatals. A large number of training Institutions for this purpose
exist, but their activities are not planned nor coordinated and thetraining offered is of poor standard. No doubt, the management trainingset up is Itself short of managerial skills.
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Recommendations
4.1.19 The Government should take stock of all training offered in thisarea, assess course content, trainees and staff qualifications, andcoordinate training activities to suit employers' needs. In particular,auditor training and training for District Councils should be examined aswell as the relevance of training offered by NIPA (para 3.5.11). In orderto establish accounting standards and policies, the newly founded ZICAshould be supported (para 3.5.7).
4.1.20 As a first step towards the improvement of managerial skills, theGovernment should consider arranging organization development workshops andseminars requiring active involvement of the participants (paras 3.5.19 -3.5.20). This should be coordinated with similar workshops to be heldunder the proposed Second Technical Assistance Project.
Education and Training Cost
Issues
4.1.21 As this study has shown, the economic crisis in Zambia hasseriously affected education and training. The simple solution to reduceexpenditures is difficult to implement, as the system was designed to besupported by a larger budget. With regard to financing the generaleducation system, the study on Implementation of the Education Reform(scheduled for completion in January 1986) will be of great value. Thetask ahead is to maintain an education and training system relevant to thecountry's skilled manpower requirements.
4.1.22 During recent years, education and training budgetary allocationshave been reduced in real terms, and standards and quality have not beenmaintained because available resources have been spread too thinly. Acontinuation of the existing policy will erode earlier investment, withfurther deterioration of the system.
Recommendation
4.1.23 To meet skilled manpower needs, a reduced system may besufficient, thereby releasing resources to maintain the remaininginstitutions (para 3.3.4). Certain costs should be shared with parents,particularly the very high boarding costs in secondary, technical andhigher education. With regard to vocational training, costs should beshared with employers, which could take the form of extended periods ofon-the-job training in industry; this would also ensure enhanced quality oftraining, with exposure to real work experience. The reliance on overseasfellowships cannot be justified in the long term, and donors should beencouraged to assist in developing In-country training as a complement totraining abroad.
4.1.24 To implement new policies and strategies, the Government needsexternal assistance in the short term, which should be geared towardsrehabilitation, maintenance, and increased efficiency. As the systemadjusts to respond to actual demand and eliminates unnecessary expenditure,the need for external financing would be less.
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4.1.25 As a number of other donors are now involved and will continue tobe involved in manpower development, it Is essential that:-externalassistance be well coordinated and.allocated for priority use. Underforthcoming aid operations, the Government should seriously consider thisissue, and if so requested, the Bank could take the lead in coordinatingfurther development in this-important sector.
Proposed Strategy
4.1.26 In line with the above recommendations, we would brieflyelaborate on a proposed strategy for the technical/vocational educationsubsector. The discussion is limited to formal technical education andvocational training and focuses on DTEVT activities.
4.1.27 The scope of future agricultural education and trainingactivities clearly depends on the rate of implementaiton of theGovernment's agricultural policy. Under the assumption that agriculturaldevelopment will becom more successful than in the past, there will be aneed for increased funding for agricultural training. Rather thanresorting to pre-service training of large numbers for that sector, itwould make more sense to primarily draw from existing sources of skilledmanpower such as the mining sector, from which large numbers of workerswill be transferred over time due to the decline of mining operations.These workers may not, however, be readily available without retraining inspecializations relevant to the agricultural sector, but retrainingworkers with similar skills would be more cost-effective than pre-servicetraining. In this respect, the question of wages needs to be resolvedbecause the mining sector, by tradition, offers higher wages than anywhereelse, while the agricultural sector underpays its staff in relative terms.
4.1.28 In DTEVT and in other sectors. the assumption would be thattraining and manpower development in the future would be financed, at best,at the current level in real terms. This would mean that wasteful spendingmust be avoided and funds utilized in accordance with establishedpriorities. Consequently, the mast optimistic scenario would be constant.-financing in real terms, including redirection of funds to meet trainingpriorities in line with manpower demand.
4.1.29 University education costs in Zambia, as In uDst sub-SaharanAfrican countries, is high, particularly when compared with other levels ofeducation (average unit recurrent cost at UNZA is about 90 times higherthan that at primary schools). Although this study is concerned only withthose faculties serving the key economic areas as identified previously(paras 3.4.1 and 3.6.31), some proposed general policy changes affect theuniversity in its entirety. It is obvious that the generous number ofsupport staff, including janitors, messengers and gardeners, could bereduced substantially since UNZA currently employs about 3,000 such staff- actually on a par with the number of enrolled students. Studentboarding should be reduced to encompass only those students coming fromoutside Lusaka and who cannot find-accomodations elsewhere. In any case,
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boarding costs should be absorbed by parents or by the studentsthemselves. Optimal use of teaching and learning facilities with expensiveand sophisticated equipment should be made, even through usingdouble-shifts in workshops and laboratories. In particular. the Schools ofMines and Engineering should intensify their cooperation3 with a view tomerging them to achieve higher utilization of facilities and reduceadministrative costs. The School of Agriculture should play a moredominant role in graduate and post-graduate agricultural education to avoidto the extent possible university education abroad drawing on scarceforeign exchange. An added advantage Is that agricultural studies benefitimmensely from being carried out in the environment where the prospectivegraduate will be professionally active.
4.1.30 Under the responsibility of DTEVT, technician and craftsmantraining is offered. In general the system should abolish boarding andlodging gradually and strive towards a boarding rate of about 202. Thiswould mean that about Kw 1.0 million could be saved in 1983 prices,constituting about 152 of DTEVT's recurrent budget. All remaining boardingcosts, however, should be met by parents or prospective employers.
4.1.31 The existing cooperation between employers and the trainingsystem needs substantial strengthening, and more training activities shouldbe transferred to employers as on-the-job training. Employers would bewilling to finance this training if given more influence in the design oftraining programs. Assuming that about six months of the technicianprogram and about one year of the craftsman program would be handled inindustry as in-plant training, the savings would total about Kw 1.1million, or about 20% of DTEVT's recurrent budget (1983 figures), lessassumed savings for boarding.
4.32 The TTIe, operating much below capacity, should be rationalized.A logical solution would be to assign perhaps half of the facilities topre-service crafts training in accordance with manpower needs and with areasonable utilization rate (802) of workshops in particular. Remainingfacilities could then be remodeled to accommodate in-service tralning asneeded. Consequent savings would be in the order of Kw I million, assumingthat boarding will have been abolished and part of the training programtransferred to in-plant training with employers.
4.1.33 Savings, as proposed, should be used for improving centralplanning and administration at the DTEVT level including strengtheningcurriculum development, the examination system, the Inspectorate, and thedomestic staff training program. In addition, some financing of in-servicetraining over and above what employers are taking on should be considered.Finally, it is essential that funds are allocated for the repair andmaintenance of facilities, including replacement of spare parts andoutdated training equipment.
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Aid Coordination
4.1.34 Zambia has been assisted by a large number of donors to developits education and training 8yatem. This trend continues and assistance tomanpower development is a high priority in mst aid programs. However,coordination of such aid, as well as a constructive policy and strategydialogue with the Government, has, by and large, been lacking. Theimportance of allocating scarce training resources according to prioritieshas been a theme throughout this report and, of eourse,applies equallyto external grants, credits and other assistance to the sector. The majorissue is to adjust the education and training system to suit the level ofavailable resources and to meet identified manpower demand. In thisprocess, the Bank would be prepared to take the lead, if so requested, tocoordinate external inputs and assist in revising, planning and adjustingthe education and training system to suit employers' requirements forskilled manpower.
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ANNEX 1
PARTICIPATION AND UNEMPLOYMENT RATES BY SEX AND AGE, 1980
Participation Rates Unemployment RtatesAge Group Males Females Males Females
12-14 19 24 98 98
15-19 38 41 79 87
20-24 83 39 27 31
25-29 97 38 12 18
30-34 98 36 8 12
35-39 98 36 7 12
40-44 93 38 6 11
45-49 98 42 7 11
50-54 98 47 6 12
55-59 96 50 8 13
60-64 97 57 8 13
65-69 .65 24 6 5
70-74 58 22 5 .7
Total: 72- 37 - 21 38
Source: Census Population, 1980, preliminary data.
89 -
ANNEX 2
PROJECTED SECONDARY SCHOOL-LEAVERS, 1981-1990
Grade 8 Increase in TotalEnroUuant Secondary enrollment Gross Output.
1981 26,091= 4,267 21,824
1982 27,279 5,997 21,282
1983 30,906 10,229 20,677
1984 35,098 10,720 24,378
1985 40,000 10,910 29,090
1986 41,300 11,652 29,648
1987 46,800 14,400 32,400
1988 54,500 18,550 35,950
1989 64,500 23,550 40,950
1990 76,400 29,150 47,250
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ANEX 3
COMPOSITION OF THE LABOR FORCE1964-1984
Zambian Non-Zambian Total
1964 232,000 32,100 264,100
1965 267,760 33,840 301,600
1966 284,480 28,880 313,360
1967 274,650 29,080 303,730
1968 290,800 28,930 319,730
1969 291,630 29,820 321,460
1970 310,320 27,430 337,750
1971 331,670 26,680 358,350
1972 338,750 25,990 364,740
1973 342,990 34,650 377,640
1974 351,190 35,060 386,270
1975 365,330 33,510 398,840
1976 346,310 33,090 379,400
1977 345,320 27,310 372,630
1978 344,480 24,830 369,310
1979 348,290 23,380 371,670
1980 360,980 -20,510 381,490
1981 355,220 18,500 373,720
1982 350,050 17,460 367,510-
1983 348,270 15,53Q 363,800
1984 351,190 14,020 365,190
Source: Monthly Digest of Statistics, Vol XXI,Nos. 2-3, February-March 1985, Table 6 andSupplement, Table 11. Data for 1981-84 provisional.
All Ditict Executive SeetwW;SKretadim AD Svic Commiidons;Nc. and Incm c* Motnullon;Commsion for Investigtions;AMt-C p Comson;Reistrar of the ish Court;AU lads of Depamts.
CIVIL SERVICE TRAIING POLICYDe to rent devlopments in matters reatin to training in the cii Srvic, the polcy
traing tatement ied under Establish t Circular No. B of 1970 haw bee revised.2 No doubt the Party and its Govrnment recognise the importance of human riur
a a factor for economic and socil develoPAMe. To this end it is _sgtial that a systematic andcoordinated manpower development and nng established. Tbisb i paticuarlyimpoTnt because the CTil Sevie s ib f p ad Iplemeaio of Py Govement policies.
a. Consequently the foRowing aan_gemt shal apply wit eft from the date of thisCircular:
(a) a cadre of power development sta which hs ben ceated hl be secondedto minies depar s and Prvnes at vabgjve depending m thesi dof the institution concered as follos:
The Naonal Commission for Development Planning must surrnder respondbityfor ad ng training awards under tecicl ast to the Directorate ofManpoweDevelopmeandTraing.
(e) The Dectorate of 3anpowr Development and Traing shall be responsble fordministng all traig for the Civi Service, parnatat and private setor wh
this involves tialasistance.(d) The Diec,to of Manpower Development aod Traiung shlU be involved in al
negotatios for tecnical asitae for trasiing.(e) The Directorate of Manpower Development and Tining shall hold a*l fnds fbr in.
service traing whils Misties and Provinc wil hold only- thos funds forruning any trainig istutions they contrd. The Directramt will allocate fundsto Mits and Provines acoording to plannedned.
( The Tra of Civl Servants in the offies of the Provincial Members of the CentralCommittee and in Distaict ouncils will be dealt with at Provinca lvel -ardinatedby Provinci and Loca Government AdiitalnDivision for the fAme being.
:g) Rah Mjiaky and Prvne sa st up a Manpowe Delopment Commchaed by thePePrnmant Sertay.
(A) A nation anpower Planning Committee wil be st up by the National Commissokfor Development Planing a proposed in the Third National Development Pla.
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AMIIEX 4-age2 of 3
MANPOWU DEVEOPMNT CADRE STAFF4. mpow ta" wiM be rpouale for plning and muangng the
g.i ioftinen ow Provice They il sum that effetivo~~~~~t Mmo d X wopmt stl o_f atr Provicidal level
trainm- actrati the Ofice of the Member of the CeOtWraComitt_e Inthei DisriCouncils, wl Ibe responsible for ensuring tbha qaeatis
o iu f the Ownning sad magemmt of tainin ar ntroduoed for aU Counci em-
. Mapowr Development staff wM report direct to the Assitant Secretary (Administra-1). tI Under Secetay or their equivenlt. AU Pernent Secretazies olema thatelse, qhbl of eommunlatlon are esablIh
All Manpower Develpmt sUff wi work full tm on triming matter. No cadgmember should be asiged other dute or be traned without r onsultation withthe Dictor, Mpowr Developmeat sad Traing. Cadre staff sould abo attnd anyoargs of ntrctia copprwved by the Dretor, except in seciW circumstances. If it is neces-
y for a *ad officr to act in anothr poition for adinWv conveni , the Directorshoud always be consulted and If necemary the Diretoe will try to prvide a temporar
7. Al Ma7 ower Dwopmet taff ar secod fom the Dietatof MaAnpowa _ ~a;4. Like in all other cadr this s an am ength reladionship, In theird t o day w, adre sff ate resose to tir Permaneut Sectay andlor Head ofDepartnt while the D ietoat of Manpower Development and Traning wi provide
MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT COMMEEa. ode to si Manpower Devdopment staff in their wm* each inistr and Office
fi th* Provna mmber off the Central Committee will st up a Manpower Developmentes Ios as pibe. This wl be chaired by the Permanent Soeretary and should
=a% at Ioea qarhtey. Thimo busaip of the Committee should indude al DepareantaBeads, aw a all Executike Secretas in the am of Provines The Sertarydoud be the mbwer of the Manpower Devlopmet CAdre in the Jinistry or Province.Howver, if ther ae mo than one cadre membrs, the more senior should be a member of thuommitte uand the jnior hould serve" Secretary. TheChainnar may chanp the membership
at his diassic The puo of the Manpor Development Committee is to plan and evaluatetaiing atvit in a inisry or Province. This would include approval of training esumates
and araoanIatis for aining. The team oftreference of theso Comuittees are:(6) To mm te performac problms of the Ministry or Province, to coider the
contrMumo that taing old make to their olution and to mae conm-mendatlons fortraining accoringly.
(b) To the npowreqe of the Miksy or Province and tomakeeommendtos accrigy.
To monitor th lprgm of Zambpanoaftion in the binstry or Province and to nake
(d) To enuethageootive cuterpat trinig I being conduct in the Mistryor Province.
(s) To consde the Minitry or Provinc, a al n taiig plan in the light of (a) and (d)
() To m_nJtot andove applcton for training.O To review peforman of trines on thireturn and sure propr mme of their
L to revew th prforma of the Manpower Development Cade staff h the Mntryor Province and make any sgws for Improvement.
( To povid any othe advic on mapow devopment asd training s ig nesa.
s
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AN=E 4'P 3 of 3
0.Sector or "eudetsbcmlts a als, be "sto""e at the dIscretIon of tasarairuan. in a lulstiy whee a sil.i an cmmlte aleady esW Oi dhu be
~ to reflect the above gudenes Whe an a dos have any Manpoweoutcarepous t a*notrquied that a Nomte eUNtlaise along tbe above
TRAINING POLICY GUIDELIN10. MIln*its and Provi nw be equred to prepore, thre-y.u tran plan which
hoold be mwednwaoly. Thi shd d bemubmitted o tDintorte ofd)epow lop.mont end Training beforeit July of the your pro to the pa. The traiiag eeds d f_will thb beip by -the DireEtoamt1. This Planshould be based on pnzty train eeds idented by thu M apowerwDelp Dvdo t
- 11. -The f(&W- lus shoud apply In the ppation of tbis traiIg plan andIn the seectiou ofcdats:
()l trai require approval for paid *udy leave befoe goin on taining. eitherat institutios in Zambia or abroad (so Personnel Division Cclur No. B of 1982);
(1) courss. workshops smnan, eta. of thirty days duton or ls requira appovaof authorty to go abroad obtained fom Cabinet Office thfugh the Diretorateof MnpowerDevelopmet and Training (a* Cabinet Olflc Crcar No. 12 of 1979);
(e) all tnies will be bonded fm the duati df their ues up to a mazitnum offour years. Trainee beak ths bond wil be delt with aecording to the provisionsof Ordw No. F41 1976;
(d) tra pad ps cn ol createdw I than -me year,and job duties annot be fragmented (ue PersonnelDvisi reula No. $2 Of13822);
(-) trainig abroad will not be approved if a sutable altert eour is avallable at aloca istition. unles a spesi cae is made in wafting to the Dicoate. In thisrepec fit consideration wil be given to in-hutry training as welf as trainigwihin the region;
(f) traklnngprwioty should be given to;starf intiuiosR<epen otexptriates;
.elh dcto,fnne engieerig.daricutur, siecean tcholgyseto(g) an Minitris ad Provines shl vide induetioA tg for their new staf.
The Natoal Isiut of Public A ii provide orientaion trainifor new entrnts to the Civil Service;
(1k) a Ministries and ProriAce should provid planned on-job trairug for their staffwhere this is na ry;
(s ftrinees must return and work Immedlaly after eir emu. They should beexeted to rve in the m p or am aM before the training so that aewskill can be fully utiied;
j all cadidates for tin require the apporsol of the )anpowe DeveloameComnaiitee in their Miistor Province;
(k) all traic g must be relevat to the work of the offier being slected;(l tries must not angeus without OA writtn permoisson of the Dieto.
Manpower Developmt and Trainug: and(a) * roord of tUini completed ad equind should be inludad in the Annua
Report of eac Minsty or Depatmnt.
12. Ujay, I wisb to stwiss tabt while It I ts responsibility of the Diretorate, of Man-power Development and Training tO oo-ordunote manpower tainsin the Civil Service, theNational Commiion for Developmet Plaing is repomible for natil power planand rearch as weD as -the formulation of mpow po In to Ipv the quaity -of human resource in geral for effective economic sad socl dveopmt.
2. L IL Wrla,9a_l to the Cabiwad
a
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ANNX 5Page 1 ~of, 3
ZANBIA CIVIL SERVICE SALARY SCALES (OCTOBER 1985)
Administrative Scales
S/1 Kw 15,360 x 960 - Kw 20,160Sf2 Kw 13,440 x 840 - Kw 16,8008/3 Kw 12,216 x 720 - tor 15,816Sf4 KW 11,424 x 540 - Kw 14,124S/5 Kw 10,632 x 420 - Kw 12,732S/6 Kw 9,936 x 360 - Kw 11,376S/7 Kw 9,300 x 300 - Kw 10,500S/8 Kw 8,676 x 300 - Kw 9,876Sl9 -Kw 7,644 x 204 - Kw 8,664S/10 Kw 6,840 x 204 - Kw 7,860S/11 Kw 6,144 x 180 - Kw 7,224S/12 Kw 5,400 x 180 - Kw 6,480S/13 Kw 4,536 x 156 - Kw 5,628S/14 Kw 4,080 x 144 - Kw 4,800S/15 Kw 3,468 x 120 - Kw 4,308S/16 Kw 3,084 x 120 - KW 3,684S/17 Kw 2,784 x 96 - Kw 3,360S/18 Kw 2,592 x 60 - KW 3,072S/19 Kw 2,484 x 60 - Kw 2,844
General Professional Scales
GPSI1 Kw 17,280 x 960 - Kw 21,120GPS/2 Kw 15,120 x 840 - Kw 18,480GPS/3 Kw 13,656 x 720 - KW 17,256GPS/4 Kw 12,504 x 540 - Kw 15,204GPS/5 Kw 11,472 x 420 - Kw 13,572GPS/6 Kw 10,656 x 360 - Kw 12,816GPS/7 Kw 9,900 x 300 - Kw 11,700GPS/8 Kw 8,668 x 300 - Kw 10,968GPS/9 Kw 7,236 x 300 - Kw 9,936
Technical ScalesTS/1 Kw 9,276 x 300 - Kw 10,476TS/2 Kw 8,436 x 204 - KX 9,252TS13 Kw 7,607 x 180 - Kw 8,688TS/4 - Kw 6,888 x 180 - Kw 8,148TS/5- Kw 6,024 x 180 - Kw 7,Z84TS/6 Kw 5,004 x 156 - Kv 6,252TS/7 Kw 4,368 x 144 - Kw 5,376TS/8 Kw 3,828 x 120 - Kw 4,788TS/9 Kw 2,652 x 132 - Kw 4,224
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ANNEX 5Page 2 of 3
Medical, Nursing and Paramedical Scales
MS/I Kw 18,240 x 960 - Kw 22,080MS/2 Kw 15,960 x 840 - Kw 19,200MSJ3 Kw 14,376 x 720 - Kw 17,676MSJ4 Kw 13,044 x 540 - Kw 15,744MS/5 Kw 11,892 x 420 - Kw 13,972MS/6 Kw 11,016 x 360 - Kw 13,176
In A and 8 there are also some courMe Whieth takq les then 2 vtats-
From primwy to "sior ncondar O n eeucOiofv YOst repre#nts a grade-
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AU 6* - - Tag* of 2
Final structure of education
iig * n _PR-SCO= .EDUCA._O
MOES
A variousvocationalorammseg.. Trades. Nursing. Teacher Training, etc..leading to a ce tifice.
E3 Various programmes. e.g.. Agriculture. Technology, Comnmerce. Nursing, etc.,_leading usually to a diploma.
C Universty degree:0 -Doctorate.M a Maste.8 Bachelor. 4 yeam - Ordinary.
5 yea - Engineering, Agrculture. etc.6 Years - Vetinary Science.
U~ ~S
~~~~~~~7 years ,- Meicne
In A and It theme we also somne courme Which take Ioss than 2 vears.rm rima t* senir seoda an eduaioew y r re,resents a gradt.
4 _ ^: . v.v. .~~1
1 ftXCPAL t1A83US b *M A AND mnu s OP ttta
Offs"e of b~s01tt0r oi
OS cretsrr to The, CebloetI CShi0.t Office ministry of 14±0t1rS0 of Olnt try of Pinet1ry of
t 0ttol Of n JscsI. I s Righ et o.tlo Agricult.tr, Cooorttv.e 2DtO 20PII t i r.,cI DtItaton D"mrattrffon II
t I I COOtt 04 Smts * 10 Local I Trainino tnJilrse t tt LC D P. 1 Iti0i.n Rccrrftmsent oe. t I the .A.emo_ t
A 411tI of tdoQ'rtlw.s
1 - TO ;? idrJ4tl !F...a~..x Tx pcroitot, I AMriTvTtr.tim *h;Y Lcriitt- ICmet 1 It_0r R.Strch I OCoemm in t Placemot ktprvitoo St of tL Ioing of Agrtcultursl Services lo0rer KNO W Citit yo8 ttt*uhtl 14evew P1ti1cS I _lopos Dbel- I Trb fe. ar4 etry l.el t chnolost. RomeLos & lodmstri*l Stodle ZCA - mm"0. oustegot Sotog met Chipbtm1 _OWeR flooug I opst t 04t Tr.tDd4 of of CliIJ of ttu Diettrtt techntcians dUtotio ZC - FIka .SW e*glI Traintit Coll.p joAuMtry
IISo.p.eot tr±001g. Civil Shoeuta Servoats Coototle Urban crasftsemt tag$swriog oereooo for - I .0
C.S1oftOOC A4girnttratt@e 0.4 LOtAI etd Seral t t.t.1000le StUle,, 7 _ iSots t Collage,s pogreAtot t C,omotoIre;lotp gad of atl techeteal reramwat 1 hAMttl* & Soiatl Soteoc.. 8 - rwo lostitotes ftrtly troP01s0-Reeh o la."lCtn Officr of 11 7 Technical t_e 32 - Forrr raintoitg tCO Ftlic Ipwsroetda1 traioing. IArl In _mos- Col.. Itdic. rooterp I 3 ChtlOob t Iand other #AloiAtrtTtoo SiOt M. eoCowecY 7 TrO, Train- Minest 307m o ( t alo b.rvho"
OWma" . e7 to-servrce lm. ate.. etc. tn8 7ntt- Ihtoral t SSo Ceotvol- _opUT Lev1trtirdog tfm4. tute Vetertinry NtedIe md441.e *0 Ssr Se.e Vmot.xcept fr; roIurieory sbrvio.. .0 *r6n- tra1 AvsJtt.talog omoa_at Division as. Org.- and bRlowlortttoatjoo troiOntai 400 rm D ttoolocontrollod by trataink ptU t1e oe soaladi# t "Steo?re_ for .ccot- mo.aeotr4e olittoe ItNgOW trc tratotio
.4 Provinces. cmpeele. tretolgs Valmip St
to .44ot1on to the haven. * Oar o orgentarmglrs have deceope theit ors io-..0tr trD10ta1 scits. Io.ple of th or. wethe teuW set,e ieoseop Corpvretioo TireAelg Dopt., Poett and Teleema"catioa Stott Treble. Collegs. the fthk otf Ze4hi
* AutooiV MedcaicU*trical Cret/echiTtnMachinisttlttermetal tu Craft/Tictcian,
tcgration and Mr ConditoningAutomot:ive TechnicianUeavy Uquipmnt Repar - Karth-Hoving TechnlciantefRigrti.and Al Condiatiog TechnciaMechanical ?ehoicID/TiecologyMechanica Desi Drafting
4* Zmbla Air Services STrdin a Inttute (Lusaa
AeronautIcal Zlectroics Technly -'Aircraft Mantn ncZgineerinCainercial Pilot and Instrument Rating.Aeronautical Telecotaunicationn OperatorAr Traffic ControlMeteorological AesistantZescua lire Seices
-103-AX 9
a I3 of 5
5. Technieal and Vocational techua' Co*I1 (t uahy)
Goturcial TeacherXndustr:al Arts TeacherTecnical an Vocational T"ecbor
6. Kasiya Secretarial Cole8e (lPabs)
Shorths"-Typewriting
7. Nkuabi Intevnational Collese- Ofkuab)
Agricultural Mechanlcs
Shorthavd-Typeuritingnglish as a Foreig Language
?orms 1-5 (Secondary)
-104-
ANN 9age 4 of -
TRADES TRAINING ,, tITTZS (mT,)
1. Livinasto Sr Trades Trainina ntltuto
tural MechaiesAutoaotive MeschanicsBrcklaying and PlasteriaCarpoatry and joinery0ttig and TailoringXlectucel CraftMktal Fabricatiou - lst yearVehile Body Repair
TypewritingRadio &nd Televisio Repar
2. _Lhy. Trades Taig Institute
AutomotIve MechanicsElectrical CraftOffice Machine t and RepairRadio and T4elvision ReairSborthand-Typewriting
3. Chos Trades Traindat Institute
Autowmtve Mechanics-rickLaying and PlasterinCarpetzy and JoinryUlectrical CraftMachinist
-105-
Page 5 of 5
4*.bans Trades Tiridini Institute
ricda 8yfg and PasteringCarpetry anA Joinery-lectrical CraftPlmbing
S. LUkashy. Ttades TriigInstitute (Easa.a)
Automotive McanmicsIricklaying and PlasteringCarpentry mng JoineryElectrical CraftnlmbingShorthand-TypewritingPainting, Decorating and Signuriting.Netal Fabrication - let year
6. Kabv Trades Trainin Institute
Agricultural ecaisMetal Fabrication - lt yearAutomotive Slectrical Craft Paintings Decorating and SignurritiLngAutomotive Mechanics Vehicle Body RepairrickJlaying and Pastering Plumbing
Carpentry and Joinery Wood MachiniElectrical Craft Typewritingeavy Equipment Repairt Shorthand-Typewri-tin
7. *Lueska Trades Trainins nstitute
Automotive MechanicsBricklaying and PlasteringCarpentry and JoinerySlectriCal CraftMachinistMotel Fabrication -st year
Plcumbing lste
- 106 -
AkNE 10Page 1 of S
TECHNICAL COLLLGES IN ZAMBIA
Zambia Institute of Technology (ZIT)
1. This large college, situated in the Copper Belt town of Kitwe, ispredominently engaged in technology-based programs at technician andtechnologist levels. Second only in size to Evelyn Hone College, ZIT isthe main provider of engineering training for the mining industry. It isorganized along traditional lines, with a Principal,-Vice-Principal, Headsof Department and Section Heads. The six departments are: Mining,Electrical Engineering, Construction, Academic and Industrial Science,Secretarial and Extension Studies, and Business Studies. There is also anInstructional Resources Section which provides library services andreprographic facilities. The Institute is residential with a hostelcapacity for 800 students. However, as the Institute shares its campuswith the University of Zambia (Business Studies), this reduces boardingcapacity. Due to structural defects in the hostel building, at least 200hostel places (out of a total capacity of 1,000) are unusable.
2. The minimum entry requirements for technician and technologistcourses are good level passes at Form V in mathematics, physical science,and English language. There is a strong demand for places at ZIT and theentry threshold is high. Technician courses are of two and one-half years'duration and technologist courses three and one quarter years. Bothftreams undergo industrial placements, but access to such industrialtraining is becoming more difficult.
3. The current enrollment at ZIT is under 600 students. Thisrepresents about two-thirds of the teaching accommodation capacity (900students). This underutilization of capacity Is caused by severe budgetaryconstraints to recurrent expenditures, especially for boarding costs andstudent allowances. In addition, the reduction of hostel places, due tostructural defects, places a definite 1lmit on intake numbers.
4. The design of curricula follows the established pattern for DTEVTprograms, i.e.,in close consultation with industry, through the AdvisoryCommittee system. However, assessment is carried out on a continuousbasis, together with Internally set tests, unlike the TTI system where allstudents sit examinations under Zambia Examination Council regulations. Itis planned that technician and technologist course students will beformally examined by the DTEVT Standards Unit, but the cost implications-may delay implementation.
5. The teaching establishment of ZIT is 149, but the present number-in post is 88. The following table shows teacher staffing In eachdepartment:
- 107 -
ANNEX 10Page 2 of-5
Instructors (Technical -Subjects)
Numbers in postDepartment Establishment Zambian Non-Zaablan Vacancies
Construction 28 11 8 9
-Acad.-& Science 3g 12 15 12
Business Studies 24 6 8 10
Elect. Engineering 38 15 4 19
Mining 20 1 8 11
Total 149 45 43 61
6. The general state of laboratories and workshops is reasonablygood, but some equipment in the Construction and Electrical EngineeringDepartments is old and a lack of foreign exchange for spare parts iscausing maintenance difficulties. Without replacements of modern equipmentand a refurbishment of existing machinery, the balance of teachlng willmove to a theoretical approach.
7. The Business Studies Department of ZIT currently offers three.courses:
Certificate in Accountancy and Business Studies (CABS)Diploma in AccountancyDiploua in Marketing
Numbers graduating in 1985 were:
CABS - 23 (this course will be termliated)Diploma in Accountancy - 22-Diploma in Marketing - 6
Current enrollment of students Is 62, broken down as follows:
3rd year Accountancy 9 - 9 sponsored by employers,-3rd year Marketing 3 - 3 GRZ scholars,1st year Accountancy 25 - 17 sponsored by employers,lst year Marketing - 25 - 33 GRZ scholars.-
8. There are no second year students because in 1984 there was nofirst-year enrollment, due to administrative problems at the time of the1984 student intake.
- 108 -ANNEX 10Page 3of 5
Instructors (Commercial Subjects)
Number-in post -Establishment Zambian Non-Zambian Vacancies
24 6 8 10
9. The ZIT Library is better stocked than most, but there is theusual shortage of up-to-date texts and journals.
Northern Technical College (NORTEC)
10. NORTEC, sited at Ndola, specializes in engineering subjects inthree departments: Automotive, Electrical, and Mechanical. Like its sistercollege at Kitwe, NORTEC offers technician (certificate level) andtechnologist (diploma level) courses. It also offers craft certificatecourses (using the TTI syllabus) in automotive engineering. The college isthe only institution in Zambia to offer a diploma in MechanicalEngineering.
_i. Current enrollment is 503, made up of 235 electrical, 150automotive, and 118 mechanical. Evening classes for part-time studentsinclude technician courses in electrical and mechanical engineering, opento holders of craft certificates. The capacity of the college in terms ofhostel and teaching accommodations is 700, but recurrent budgetaryconstraints to the provision of both student accommodations and allowances,as well as consumable items, place a limitation on enrollments.
12. The present teaching staff establishment is 53, with 41 in post.The degree of Zambianization is high, with only eight expatriates inpost-three at Head of Department level. In terms of qualifications, thestrength of the present teaching staff is adequate, with most teachersholding a diploma-in engineering. There is a shortage of workshoptechnicians which seriously affects the care and maintenance of oldworkshop and laboratory equipment. However, there is a high number ofsecretarial staff-13 typists, which is three timas the establishment. Thefollowing table shows the teacher staffing in each department.
Instructors (Technical Subjects)
Number in PostDepartment Establishment Zambian Non-Zambian Vacancies
Mech. Engin. 19 8 3 8
Elect. Engin. 14 11 2 1
Auto & Plant 12 8 2 2
Fabrication 8 6 1 1
Total: 53 33 8 12
- 109 -
ANNEX 10Page 4 of 5
13. There are two serious constraints to curriculum Implementation.First, there Is a chronic shortage of teaching and learning materials,referred to previously. It Is not possible to teach electrical engineeringworkshop practice without an adequate supply of switchgear and cable; thepresent stock of such items is so poor that practical-exercises have littletraining value. This situation is paralleled in other departments.Secondly, some of the laboratory equipment and plant are old and in need ofrepair or replacement. Lack of foreign exchange and inadequate capital andmaintenance budgets will exacerbate these problems.
14. The teaching staff claim that employment prospects for NORTECtechnician and technologist graduates are good, but less so for craft leveltrainees. However, there are no formal arrangements for tracer studies.Like ZIT, the college is finding it more difficult to find industrialplacements because of the economic downturn in industry.
Technical and Vocational Teachers College (TVTC)
15. Established in 1975 with assistance from SIDA, the Tec'.nical andVocational Teachers College is the main national resource for teahnicalteacher training. TVTC is affiliated with the School of EducPLion,University of Zambia, and external examiners from the University assessteaching practice and examinations and provide continuous assessment ofstudents. The college offers three streams of professional training:
(a) Two-year courses in Industrial Arts and in Commercial Studies,for secondary school teachers. The first year is devoted tosubject knowledge and skills, and the second year to pedagogicaltraining. The 1985 enrollments 47 in Industrial Arts and 15 inCommercial. Entrance qualifications for these pre-servicecourses are 5- 'O levels,including mathematics and English.There is a very heavy demand for places.
(b) A one-year course for instructors in the Trade TrainingInstitutes, and similar training centers in the parastatal and
- private sectors.
(c) In-service courses for secondary technical and commercialteachers, TTI and technical college staff.
16. -In addition to this mainstream work, the college offers itsfacilities and staff to help parastatal companies to mount short instructorcourses. The college also hosts training courses organized by government-departments.-
-17. TVTC is organized into four teaching departments: Technical andIndustrial Arts, Commercial, Education and Related Studies. The deploymentof staff is shown in the following table:
-110-
ANNEX 10Page 5 of 5
Number in PostDepartment Establishment Zambian Non-Zambian
Tech. & Ind. Arts 14 13 1
Commerce 9 9 -
Education 6 6 -
Related Studies 6 6 -
Total: 35 34 1
18. The above table shows that Zambianization of TVTC staff isvirtually completed. The level of qualifications is high in the EducationDepartment, where five of the staff members are university graduates. Inthe Technical/Industrial Arts Department, only one staff member hasgraduate qualifications, although it should be noted that much of theteaching in this department is workshop related.
19. The teaching facilities--buildings and equipment-were designedto accommodate 300 full-time students, whereas the average studentpopulation is usually around 150. In some ways, this underutilization ofphysical facilities alleviates serious problems caused by building defects(i.e., leaking roof) and shortages of serviceable equipment (50% of thetypewriter stock is unusable).
20. In common with its sister institutions, TVTC suffers frominadequate funding. Records for the financial year 1984 show that thecollege was authorized to spend Kw 198,000 on operating costs but actuallyreceived Kw 129,000, a shortfall of 35Z.
-I~~~ll-
AG.rCUL.URAL TRAINING INSTTUTIIONS tN ZANSTA Page I of 2
Bed_aue District Province capedtv
Faerer Traiain Centers
Whsi Mkusbhi Cenitra -25Sereje Sereuje Central 30Mukulaikv& Khva Cowetral 55
Note: The projection of lower primary enrollments assumes that grade enrollment willgrow at a rate of 3.1% per year and that there will be no dropouts or repeaters untilcompletion of Grade 4. The projection of upper secondary enrollment assumes that thetransition rate from Grades 4 to S will rise from 91% in 1985 to 95.5% in 1989 and that
-there will be no dropouts or repeaters. The projection of lower primary teachersassumes a class size of 40 and two classes per teacher. That for upper primary alsoasrumes a class size of 40 but only one class per teacher. The projection of totalteacher requirements includes an additional 15% to cover headmasters, deputies, seniorteachers, substitutes, etc.
Note: S%pply - graduates of approprtate teacher tratninx colleges in the previous year. Womecraftteachers are not included in the table. IFmulovent of non-ZambIan teachers fell from 497 in 1974to 316 in 1982.
- 118 -
ANNEX 12Page 6 of 7
Table 3.2.6
Secondary School TeachersRecruitment of ZaMEMans and SupplY
from the Teacher Tanng College of Zambieas
Net Recruitment of ZamblansStock of Teachers Fall in Net Total ZZ Non-Z Total Non-Z Addition Recruits Dlplomates Graduates Total
1974 723 2,315 3,038 34 158 192 133 80 213
19-75 974 2,228 3,202 87 276 251 207 135 342
1976 1,284 2,194. 3,476 34 276 310 264 191 455
1977 1,581 2,174 3,755 20 277 297 270 155 425
1978 1,776 1,893 3,669 281 -86 195 260 112 372
1979 2,097- 1,781 3,878 112 209 321 305 181 486
1980 2,496 1,801 4,297 -20 419 399 296 183 479
1981 3,077 1.573 4,650 228- 353 5z31 274 211- 485
1982 3,280 1,322 4,602 251 -48 203 368 130 498
1983 3,721 1,051 4,772 271 170 441 264 136 400
1984 5,030 269 156 425
1985 5,305 275
1986 5,710 405
1987 6,149 439
1988 6,295 146
1989 7,208 913
1990 8,341 1,133
Sources: MHE Educational Statistics, 1983; NGEC Educational Statistics, 1980 and unpublishedtables and projections.
Note: Supply - output from Nkruaah and Copperbelt Teachers Colleges (Diplomates) and UNZA(graduates) in the previous year. About 100 additional graduates are producedannually by Luanshya Technical Teachers Training College, NRDC and Evelyne HoneCollege. These teachers handle the specialized technical, agricultural andcommercial subjects.
&~~~~~ -11l9--
. -TabX 2.7
Graduate Secouar9 Toaclers: s ecru1taset of Zambiane and Nupolv from =ZA
Net ReCtuitmeut of 2a&MeuStock of Graduate Tehaters- FIlF Sn Total
non- Requi;r- Non- Net zamhianZabiesn ZeubLana Total umuts Zabtakns AddItlon Recruitlent Ssavlv
Source: IBRD: RBudgeting and Financial Management in the Education Sector, Zambia' inInstitutional Development in Education and Training in Sub-SaharanAfrica. Mimeo.; restricted, 1984, p.69, citing Annual Financial Reports ofGovernment.
Notes: 1. Other services include expenditures on curriculum development, audio-visualaids examinatlion expenses, ptinting services, cultural affairs (from 1980onwards) and National Councll for Scientific Research.
2. Totals do not precisely add up to 100 because of rounding.
- 122 -
ANNEX 13Page 3 of 10
Table 3.6.3
Recurrent Cost Per Student Year in Technical Education and Training 1984(In Kwacha)
UNZA ZIT LTVTC LTTI
Recurrent Cost
Industrial Science 5,043
Construction 5,794
Electrical Engineering 5,204
Mining 7,816 5,850
Engineering 8,410
Industrial Arts 4,132
Technical Education 4,813
Auto-mechanics 2,129
Bricklaying 2,487
Carpentry/Joinery 2,126
Electricity 2,168
Machinist 2,092
Metal Fabr. 2,329
Plumbing 2,486
- 123 -
ANNEX 13Page 4 of 10.
Table 3.6.4
Structure of Recurrent Unit Cost (Kw) at UNZA, Lusaka Campus (1985)
TeachingResearchStudents Boarding Campus General Library
Faculty Requisltes Medical Maintenance Administ. Books, etc. Total
