Research Base CURRICULUM ASSOCIATES ® , Inc. Milestones in Reading Making Reading Connections Description of the Research Major Goal of the Study: to improve reading comprehension skills using effective reading passages and questioning techniques Procedures: The editors at Curriculum Associates employed the following research approaches to develop the reading plan for the development of Milestones in Reading and Making Reading Connections. • A review of the literature focused on reading practices, strategies, literary genres, and comprehension question types. • An informal survey of C.A. customers identified the most frequently-used achievement tests. • A careful study of reading basals and achievement tests centered on the literary genres used and the language and design of structured-response comprehension items. • A parallel study of a sampling of state proficiency tests also occurred. • A compilation of key data led to the development of specifications for the design of the Milestones in Reading and Making Reading Connections series. • Materials were developed according to specifications. • Materials were piloted in select classrooms. Relevant comments and recommendations were incorporated into the final products. • Materials were reviewed by editors and curriculum readers. Relevant comments were assessed and incorporated into the final products. Results: The twelve question categories for Books B, C, D, and E supported by the research are: • Finding Main Idea • Recalling Facts and Details • Understanding Sequence • Recognizing Cause and Effect • Comparing and Contrasting • Making Predictions • Finding Word Meaning in Context • Drawing Conclusions and Making Inferences • Distinguishing Between Fact and Opinion • Understanding Author's Purpose • Interpreting Figurative Language • Summarizing www.curriculumassociates.com—Phone-800-225-0248—Fax-800-366-1158
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Research BaseCURRICULUM ASSOCIATES®, Inc.
Milestones in ReadingMaking Reading Connections
Description of the Research
Major Goal of the Study: to improve reading comprehension skills using effective reading passagesand questioning techniques
Procedures: The editors at Curriculum Associates employed the following research approaches todevelop the reading plan for the development of Milestones in Reading and Making ReadingConnections.• A review of the literature focused on reading practices, strategies, literary genres, and
comprehension question types.• An informal survey of C.A. customers identified the most frequently-used achievement tests.• A careful study of reading basals and achievement tests centered on the literary genres used and
the language and design of structured-response comprehension items.• A parallel study of a sampling of state proficiency tests also occurred.• A compilation of key data led to the development of specifications for the design of the Milestones in Reading and Making Reading Connections series.• Materials were developed according to specifications.• Materials were piloted in select classrooms. Relevant comments and recommendations were
incorporated into the final products.• Materials were reviewed by editors and curriculum readers. Relevant comments were assessed and incorporated into the final products.
Results: The twelve question categories for Books B, C, D, and E supported by the research are:• Finding Main Idea• Recalling Facts and Details• Understanding Sequence• Recognizing Cause and Effect• Comparing and Contrasting• Making Predictions• Finding Word Meaning in Context• Drawing Conclusions and Making Inferences• Distinguishing Between Fact and Opinion• Understanding Author's Purpose• Interpreting Figurative Language• Summarizing
1. Blair-Larson, Susan M. and Williams, Kathryn A. (eds). 1999. The Balanced Reading Program.Newark, DE: International Reading Association. This book includes nine explorations by readingeducators centered on the development of a balanced reading program. For example, in Chapter 3, abalanced approach to comprehension instruction is addressed. The emphasis is on reciprocal teaching whichincludes summarizing, questioning, and predicting, and the strategy that encourages students to be aware of theirmetacognitive process, clarifying. In Chapter 4, the need for a balanced approach to varying literature genres isinvestigated. Depending on the grade, students should have reading experiences with selections from conceptbooks, Mother Goose books, picture books, story books traditional literature (fables, folk tales, myths, legends,etc.), modern fantasy, poetry, contemporary realism, historical fiction, multicultural literature, biographies, andinformation books. Other chapters explore vocabulary instruction, assessment, and the many aspects of balancedreading instruction.2. Johns, Jerry L. and Lenski, Susan Davis. 1997. Improving Reading: A Handbook of Strategies(Second Edition). Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt. Chapters include strategies for identifying andunderstanding words, strategies for promoting and strengthening comprehension, and a review of key factors thatinfluence the development of strategic readers. The importance of text implicit questioning (in addition to textexplicit questioning) is explored.3. Keene, Ellen Oliver and Zimmermann, Susan. 1997. Mosaic of Thought. The subtitle is "TeachingComprehension in a Reader's Workshop." Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Chapters include strategies fordelving deeper with questions that build understanding, for using sensory images to enhance comprehension, andfor drawing inferences and using predictions to create personal meaning from text. Chapters summarize keybehaviors characteristic of proficient readers.4. Pressley, Michael, and Wharton-McDonald, Ruth. 1997. "Skilled Comprehension and ItsDevelopment through Instruction." The School Psychology Review, Volume 26, Number 3, pp. 448-466. This article includes information about explicit teaching of comprehension strategies, in addition to thenatural discovery of these strategies. The reading strategies explored include prediction, summarization, questiongeneration, use of prior knowledge, and text interpretations. Current reading research studies aboutcomprehension processing and instruction are also introduced, reviewed, and summarized.
Intervention Resources
1. Allington, Richard. 2001. What Really Matters for Struggling Readers: Designing Research-BasedPrograms. New York: Longman.
2. Snow, Catherine E., M. Susan Burns & Peg Griffin (eds.). 1998 Preventing Reading Difficulties inYoung Children. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
3. Honig, Bill. 1997. “Reading the Right Way: What Research and Best Practices Say aboutEliminating Failure among Beginning Readers.” American Association of School Administrators.Arlington, VA: AASA.
4. LiBretto, E.V. 1990. High/Low Handbook: Encouraging Literacy in the 1990’s. New York: R.R.Bowker.
5. Meyerson, Maria J. and Dorothy L. Kulesza. 2002. Strategies for Struggling Readers: Step by Step1/e.
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.6. Moore, David W., Donna E. Alvermann, Kathleen A. Hinchman (eds.). 2000. Struggling Adolescent
Readers: A Collection of Teaching Strategies. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.7. Pikulski, J. 1998. Preventing Reading Problems: Factors Common to Early Successful Intervention
Programs. Available online: http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/prevent.html.8. Pinnell, Gay Su. 1999. Matching Books to Readers: Using Leveled Books in Guided Reading K-3.
1. Barrentine, Shelby J. (ed.). 1999. Reading Assessment: Principles and Practices for ElementaryTeachers. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
2. Baumann, James F. (ed.). 1986. Teaching Main Idea Comprehension. Newark, DE: InternationalReading Association.
3. Cecil, Nancy Lee. 1995. The Art of Inquiry: Questioning Strategies for the K-6 Classroom.Winnipeg, MAN: Peguis.
4. Garner, Ruth. 1987. Metacognition and Reading Comprehension J. Orasanu (ed.). Norwood, NJ:Ablex.
5. Gunning, Thomas G. 1996. Creating Reading Instruction for All Children. (Second Edition). Boston,MA: Allyn and Bacon.
6. International Reading Association and National Council of Teachers of English Joint Task Force andAssessment. 1994. Standards for the Assessment of Reading and Writing. Newark, DE:International Reading Association.
7. Maria, K. 1990. Reading Comprehension Instruction: Issues and Strategies. Timonium, MD: YorkPress.
8. Paris, Scott G. 1987. Reading and Thinking Strategies. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.9. Reading Standards and Ethics Committee of the International Reading Association. Standards for
Reading Professionals. (Revised). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.10. Sadler, Charlotte R. 2001. Comprehension Strategies for Middle Grade Learners. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.11. Samuels, S. Jay and Farstrup, Alan E. 1992. What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction. (Second Edition). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Passageways is a nonfiction reading series for below-levelreaders in grades 4 and above, as well as for adult learners. Each four-book anthology is designed to give reluctant readerspractice in reading and in comprehending what they have read.The selections in the series are 100% nonfiction. They cover a variety of nonfiction genres including informational articles,how-to instructional texts, biographies, autobiographies, andencyclopedia articles. There are 15 selections in each book in the B and C anthologies. Anthologies D and E have 12 reading selections in each book. Each selection is followedby comprehension questions requiring students to applyreading skills and strategies. In addition, students can further their comprehension experience by answering threeExplorations in Writing questions for each selection.
The design of the reading selections andcomprehension questions is based on researchfrom several areas. Passageways complies with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, and it isalso supported by current research regardinginstruction of nonfiction text and strugglingreaders.
2 Research Paper: Passageways
Passageways: An Introduction to the Series
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Anthology 1 Number of SelectionsB1 15C1 15D1 12E1 12
Anthology 1 Total 54
Anthology 2 Number of SelectionsB2 15C2 15D2 12E2 12
Anthology 2 Total 54
Anthology 3 Number of SelectionsB3 15C3 15D3 12E3 12
Anthology 3 Total 54
3Research Paper: Passageways
On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed intolaw the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). This newlaw represents the president’s education reform plan andmajor changes to the Elementary and Secondary EducationAct (ESEA). NCLB deals with several curriculum areas:reading, math, science, and school safety. One of the reformprinciples of NCLB is an emphasis on teaching methods thathave been proven to work in these curriculum areas.
How does NCLB determine what effective instruction is forthe content areas? Effective instruction in the curriculumareas is determined by a review of scientifically based researchstudies. For the subject of reading instruction, NCLB defineseffective instruction based on scientific-based findings of theNational Reading Panel. The National Reading Panel was acommittee of scientists and other educational leaders broughttogether by the National Institute of Child Health and HumanDevelopment (NICHD). This committee was given the job ofassessing the status of research-based knowledge of readinginstruction. The committee’s findings were published in 2000 in Teaching Children to Read. This report provides thecommittee’s conclusions about effective reading instruction.The panel found that there are five key components of earlyreading instruction.
• Phonemic Awareness: The ability to hear and identifyindividual sounds in spoken words.
• Phonics: The relationship between the letters of writtenlanguage and the sounds of spoken language.
• Fluency: The capacity to read text accurately and quickly. • Vocabulary: The words students must know to
communicate effectively. • Comprehension: The ability to understand and gain
meaning from what has been read.
Passageways is a program geared for struggling readers whoneed repeated reading practice in order to gain fluency,vocabulary, and comprehension. This series is supported by the findings of the National Reading Panel.
How Does Passageways Comply with the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001?
NCLB Passageways
Fluency x
Vocabulary x
Comprehension x
Passagewaysis supported by research
for three major components ofreading instruction as defined
by NCLB and the NationalReading Panel.
4 Research Paper: Passageways
FLUENCY
Fluency is defined as the capacity to read text accurately andquickly. One way to achieve fluency is to increase the totalamount of reading a student does. This can be accomplishedby having the teacher choose books that are at the recreationallevel (1 word in 20 is a decodeable problem). Also, the bookschosen should be enjoyable, which motivates students to readmore (Samuels, 2002). “A student’s reading rate can be tooslow, such that the level of text difficulty that they can readwith comprehension lags well behind that which they canread accurately. In cases like this, reading materials and tasksmust be provided that make the effort and practice required to build fluency worthwhile” (Curtis, 2002).
Passageways is an effective tool to increase the amount of timestudents read. The Passageways anthologies are full of high-interest topics that are appropriate for below-level readers ingrades 4 and up as well as adults. Readers’ preferences andtheir interests are significant motivators for reading.“Teachers and other leaders should realize that preferencesare shaped by prior experience; that such experience often islimited, that to guide selection includes the nourishing ofpreference and interest” (Sebesta and Monson, 2002).
With 162 topics that span the content areas of science,social studies, and nonfiction literature, Passagewaysprovides students with a starting point to identify theirreading preferences and interests. From Passageways, teachers
will be able to guide students toadditional reading selections in thestudent’s reading interest. There areno stumbling blocks in Passagewaysfor struggling readers. Thereadability of the text is maintainedat the posted reading levels. Thereading level increases slightly ineach book from a baseline to acapped level allowing the student toprogress at a comfortable readingpace. Or, the student can continuereading at the same level by readingthe two other anthologies at thesame level in the series. The smallprogressions in reading levels aredesigned to ensure success for the
reader, which will then build the reader’s self-confidence andmotivation to keep reading.
*Includes biographies
Small progressions in readinglevels ensure success for the
reader by building the reader’sself-confidence.
Passageways is content rich.
Anthology Reading Level
B 2.0–2.9
C 3.0–3.9
D 4.0–4.9
E 5.0–5.9
Anthology Science Social Studies Nonfiction Literature*
B1 7 5 3
C1 4 7 4
D1 3 7 2
E1 2 8 2
B2 5 7 3
C2 5 5 5
D2 3 5 4
E2 3 7 2
B3 5 7 3
C3 5 6 4
D3 4 7 1
E3 2 8 2
Total: 48 Total: 79 Total: 35
5Research Paper: Passageways
VOCABULARY
Vocabulary is defined as the words students must know to communicate effectively. The National Reading Panelrecommends that vocabulary instruction be both indirect anddirect. Passageways allows for vocabulary instruction such aspre-instruction of vocabulary in reading. The teacher guidefor each book contains on-level words that occur both in thereading selections and in the selected-response questions.Teachers are encouraged to review the meaning of thevocabulary words in the context of the selection. This is animportant step for struggling readers as it prevents them fromencountering unfamiliar concepts in the selections (NICHD,p. 4-25). Another strong feature of the vocabulary instructionfor Passageways is that the words are defined and read incontent areas. This assists the student with dealing withcontent area materials and offers multiple exposures to the words.
COMPREHENSION
Text comprehension is the ability to understand and gainmeaning from what has been read. The National ReadingPanel recommends direct or explicit instruction of readingstrategies. Passageways is a flexible program that provides richcontent for the teacher to instruct reading strategies explicitly.The teacher guide supplies guided reading, independentreading, and modeling teaching suggestions.
The National Reading Panel also states that multiple-strategyinstruction is an effective means of achieving readingcomprehension. Multiple-strategy instruction finds“considerable scientific support for its effectiveness as atreatment and it is the most promising for use in classroominstruction…” (NICHD, p. 4-46). Passageways has the contentcapacity and the comprehension monitoring to allow teachersto instruct using multiple strategies. The following are themultiple strategies supported by the National Reading Paneland the suggestions for how teachers can use Passageways toteach the multiple strategies.
3
Before students begin reading, you may wish to review the meaning of each word listed below, in the context of the selection.
* This word is a focus word in a Finding Word Meaning in Context item in the student book.
♦ Whole class Choose a selection for the class to read. Then use the 18 selected-responsecomprehension questions that follow theselection to generate discussion about theselection. After the discussion, model how toanswer these questions. Be sure students knowhow to fill in the answer circles. Once studentsunderstand how to respond to these questions,model how to respond to the 3 constructed-response writing questions. These Explorationsin Writing questions are on pages 124–128 ofthe student book. The length and content ofeach written response should reflect anappropriate comprehension of the readingselection. Once students understand thisprocess, have the whole class read anotherselection. Have students individually answer the comprehension questions and the writingquestions.
♦ Small groups Group students and assign eachgroup a selection or a series of selections. Haveeach group read the assigned selection(s) anddiscuss what they have read. After the discussion,have students individually answer the selected-response comprehension questions and theconstructed-response writing questions.
♦ Independent Have students individually readassigned selection(s) and answer the selected-response comprehension questions and theconstructed-response writing questions.
The teacher guidesupplies guided reading,
independent reading,and modeling teaching
suggestions.
Vocabulary List, Teacher Guide, page 3, Book D1
6 Research Paper: Passageways
Question Answering: The National Reading Panel suggestsusing the question-answering strategy as a means to guide andmonitor readers’ comprehension (NICHD, p. 4-44).Passageways provides plenty of practice of the question-answering strategy. Each reading selection is followed by 18 comprehension questions. Teachers are encouraged to have students answer the questions as a whole class orindependently. In addition, the questions are formatted toprovide test-taking practice. Understanding the format of atest accounts for 10% of a student’s performance on a readingtest (Guthrie, 2001). In addition, teachers may use theExplorations in Writing section as a performanceassessment. For this assessment, the teacher guide contains a writing rubric to help students create an effectiveconstructed response.
Summarizing: Students not only complete “Finding theMain Idea and Details” questions, but they also retell whateach selection is about. They present the main points in abrief and clear form. This retelling or summarization takesplace in the Explorations in Writing section of eachPassageways book. Again, the writing rubric in the teacherguide offers guidance on students’ understanding of the text.
82
Recognizing Cause and Effect
When one thing causes another thing to happen, it is called cause and effect.The cause is the reason why somethinghappens. The effect is what happens.
7. People worked for a lord to� get his protection.� learn about his enemies.� work with metal.� get their own castle.
8. A king gave land to lordsbecause they� were his brothers.� were his neighbors.� fought for him.� fought against him.
9. Fish was a rare treat at castle feastsbecause� fish didn’t taste good.� people didn’t like to fish.� most castles were
near the sea.� most castles were
far from the sea.
Comparing and Contrasting
Comparing is finding how two or more things are alike. Contrasting is finding how two or more things are different.
10. Stone castles � were safer than
wooden forts.� were warmer than
wooden forts.� were easier to build than
wooden forts.� had thinner walls than
wooden forts.
11. A moat and a drawbridgewere both used� as walkways.� to let friends and enemies
into the castle.� to keep enemies out
of the castle.� as dining halls.
12. Unlike people who livedin castles, troubadours� never went inside castles.� went from castle to castle.� grew crops.� made weapons.
127
Explorations in Writing Write your answers on a separate piece of paper.
(pages 76–80)
1. The author tells why castles were built. Write in your own words why peoplebuilt castles.
2. Look at the picture of a castle on page 78. Some parts of the castle are named.Write a few sentences about one part of a castle.
3. Read again “A Castle Feast” on page 80. Write a few sentences that tell whathappened at a castle feast.
(pages 84–88)
1. The author writes about the Pacific Northwest and why it was a good place to live long ago. In your own words, write a few sentences about this place.
2. The author says that a totem pole was like a family’s last name. In your ownwords, write what this means.
3. Look at “The Forests” on page 86. Write about a few ways the Indians used the trees of the forests.
(pages 92–96)
1. In this selection, the author tells about Princess Ka’iulani. What did you learn about her? Write a few sentences that tell about her.
2. On page 94, the author says that the people looked up to the princess. Write what this means.
3. Read again the selection “Her Final Years” on page 96. Write in your own words what the princess probably said to President Cleveland about her country.
Indians of the Pacific Northwest
Test-taking practice inselected-response items.
Familiar and repeated questionsfor each selection encourages
students to focus on and practice reading strategies.
Students retell or summarizethe selection through
constructed responses.
7Research Paper: Passageways
Prior Knowledge: Activating prior knowledge helps relatereaders’ knowledge to the ideas in a text. Prior knowledgeallows for unconscious inferences during reading. Readersalso try to figure out how the text they are reading relates totheir own prior knowledge (Pressley, 2002). The GettingStarted feature that precedes every selection is designed toactivate prior knowledge. It provides important backgroundinformation about the topic which leads students to discuss their experiences or opinions relating to the topic.
Comprehension Monitoring: Students become aware ofwhen they understand what they are reading. Thisinstruction strategy involves self-listening (monitoring) or listening to others. Students can take certain steps suchas retelling of what they just read, looking back through thetext, and looking forward in the text to resolve a problem.There is persuasive evidence that metacognitive practicesdeliver improved standardized testing performances (NICHD, p. 4-69).
Cooperative Learning: As defined by the National ReadingPanel, cooperative learning involves students workingtogether as partners or in small groups on clearly definedtasks (NICHD, p. 4-71).“Having peers instruct or interactover the use of reading strategies leads to an increase in thelearning of the strategy, promotes intellectual discussion, andimproves reading comprehension” (NICHD, p. 4-45).
Motivating Readers: Tied into the success of multiple-strategy instruction is motivated readers. “A common aspectof individual and multiple-strategy instruction is the activeinvolvement of motivated readers who read more text as a result of the instruction. These motivational and reading-practice effects may be important to the success of multiplestrategy of instruction” (NICHD, p. 4-52). Again, one of the strongest features of Passageways is the quantity of high-interest reading topics from which students may choose.
Passageways provides 162 high-interest readingselections. These high-interest selections allow for ample practice in multiple-reading strategy instruction.
The Getting Started elementactivates prior knowledge and
allows students to make text-to-self connections.
Self-comprehension Monitoring
Cooperative-learning Suggestions
GETTING STARTED
Do you like to get mail?
Today many people keep in
touch through e-mail. It is fast.
But long ago people wrote letters.
And they had to wait weeks for
their letters. Then came the pony
express. It got the mail to people in
record time. Read this selection to
find out how.
Student AssessmentSelf-Assessing Invite students to track their ownreading and comprehension by
♦ recording any questions that they find difficultand then reviewing those questions with peers.
♦ choosing a selection and then retelling it intheir own words.
♦ participating in group discussions of selections.
Small groups Group students and assign eachgroup a selection or a series of selections. Haveeach group read the assigned selection(s) anddiscuss what they have read. After the discussion,have students individually answer the selected-response comprehension questions and theconstructed-response writing questions.
8 Research Paper: Passageways
Current statistics and educational researchers tell the story:students need practice and exposure to nonfiction texts.According to the Center for Improvement of Early ReadingAchievement, 96% of the sites on the internet are inexpository form. Nonfiction and informational texts areeverywhere. Concern over students’ abilities to comprehendnonfiction text is not specific to their academic lives but alsoextends into their home and professional lives. TheInternational Reading Association’s position statement aboutadolescent literacy sums up the importance of students’reading and comprehending informational texts.
“Adolescents entering the adult world in the21st century will read and write more than atany other time in human history. They willneed advanced levels of literacy to performtheir jobs, run their households, act as citizens,and conduct their personal lives. They willneed literacy to cope with the flood ofinformation they will find everywhere theyturn. They will need literacy to feed theirimaginations so they can create the world of the future.”
—International Reading Association
Passageways provides students with the needed readingpractice of nonfiction texts. With 162 selections written in different genres, Passageways provides powerful readingpractice and exposure to nonfiction. Genres such asinformational articles, how-to instructional texts,biographies, autobiographies, and encyclopedia articles fill the pages of Passageways. Responses to comprehensionquestions following each selection help both students andteachers monitor reading comprehension.
In addition to the quantity of selections with which topractice reading, the selections are designed with research-based elements. Knowledge of nonfiction text features andstructures aid in students’ comprehension of the material(Duke, 2002).
Why Does Passageways Focus on Nonfiction Texts?
“We live in an informationage. Informational text canallow students to takeadvantage of backgroundknowledge, can buildbackground knowledge across the curriculum, and capitalize on studentinterests” (Duke, 2001).
“As students progressthrough the grade levels, thedemands of academicallyrigorous subject mattercombined with greaterdependence on informationaltext make it imperative forstudents to attain age-appropriate reading skills…”(Schifini, 1999).
“Students need practicereading condensed,complicated texts in highschool. In order for students to achieve readingcomprehension, they shouldbe exposed to reading a widevariety of texts, a variety ofgenres, a variety of topics,and a variety of purposes” (P. David Pearson, 2001).
9Research Paper: Passageways
RESEARCHED-BASED ELEMENTS OF
NONFICTION TEXTS
Informational texts contain certain unique features (Duke,2001) and the selections in Passageways contain these features.Research has proven that recognition and use of nonfictiontext features and structures improve students’ comprehension.
Text Features: Informational texts enable nonlinear readingthrough diagrams, charts, graphs, and captions. The studentcan read backward, forward, and jump to other elements suchas photography, captions, diagrams, and charts embeddedin the original document (Heller, 1995). The body of text oftenflows around photographs and illustrations to replicate textappearance in authentic texts.
Familiarity with nonfiction text features such as tables ofcontents and headings helps students scan material forprereading/prior knowledge activities. Each book in thePassageways series has a table of contents and headings, as well as specialized vocabulary, italicized words, and/orboldfaced terms. Authentic texts use realistic illustrations and photographs. Passageways uses a variety of realisticphotographs, graphics, and illustrations to add meaning to thetexts. Exposure to these features helps students learn to gatherinformation from a variety of sources (Birdyshaw, 2001).
Text Structures: Another major element of nonfiction texts is the existence of certain text structures. Duke and Pearson(2002), in their review of reading comprehension studies, state that students who are better readers and who are moreknowledgeable about text structures recall more textualinformation than those who are less knowledgeable.Passageways has recognized informational text structures:definition, time order (process/collection), enumeration(process/collection), compare/contrast, cause/effect (analysis),problem/solution (analysis), and description (Birdyshaw, 2001;Heller, 1995). Teachers using the Passageways series canrepeatedly guide students through the various text structuresas a strategy to increase reading comprehension. Whenteachers model how to answer the selected-response questions, students will focus on the selection in order tolocate the appropriate information in the text structure.
Passageways provides repeated practice in reading andcomprehending nonfiction text structures and features.
Wolves have fascinated people fora long time. There are many legends and stories about wolves. Somelegends say that wolves arekind and wise. But somestories say that wolvesare fierce and cunning.What are wolves really like?
The animal thatmost closely resemblesthe wolf is the dog. Fewpeople, however, would callthe wolf “man’s best friend,” as thedog is called. To many, the wolf is man’sworst enemy. The diagram above showssome ways in which wolves and dogs aresimilar and different.
As you can see, dogs and wolves sharemany characteristics. And many peoplethink that wolves look like dogs. Somesay that wolves look like Germanshepherds; others say they look likeAlaskan huskies. There’s a good reasonfor people to think that wolves look likedogs. Wolves are related to dogs! Thewolf ’s closest relatives are dogs, coyotes,jackals, and dingos (wild dogs that live in Australia).
5
German Shepherd
Alaskan Husky
Both Dogs and Wolves
• loyal• intelligent• hunters• run on their toes• pack animals
Wolves• wild• independent
of humans• usually howl
Dogs• pets• dependent
on humans• usually bark
waist
gaster
sting
eyes
Head Trunk Metasoma
antenna
mandible
legs
Ant BodiesThough ants vary in size, all have
the same main body sections. Each ant
has a head, a trunk, and a metasoma.
Head Most ants have eyes,
antennae, and mandibles, or jaws, on
their head. An ant uses its antennae to
smell, touch, taste, and hear. It uses its
antennae to find food and to find its
way around. It touches other ants with
its antennae, too. Scientists think that
ants use their antennae to recognize
other members of their colony.
An ant’s mandibles
move from side to side.
An ant uses its mandibles for many
things. It uses them to carry food. It
may use them to carry eggs, larvae, and
pupae. An ant’s mandibles are strong
enough to cut through wood. They can
dig dirt. An ant can use its mandibles
to build a nest.
But an ant cannot use its mandibles
to chew food. It uses another part of its
mouth to chew food such as insects
and plants. This part of the mouth is
behind the mandibles.
52
Tarantula! Does the very name scare you?Some people are veryfrightened of tarantulas.Should they be? Readthis selection abouttarantulas to find out.
104
THE GROWTH OF THE
RAILROAD
THE GROWTH OF THE RAILROAD
��
��
Getting StartedHave you ever ridden on
a train? Today some trains go
more than 150 miles an hour. But
the first trains could only go about
20 miles an hour. Passengers were
terrified at traveling through the
countryside at this great speed!
Read this selection to find out
more about the railroad
in its early days.
Graphics, captions, and flow of textbuild nonlinear reading abilities.
Headings, Realistic Illustrations,and Bold-faced and Italicized Text
Description Text Structure
Time Order/Collection Text Structure
10 Research Paper: Passageways
Much of the research of effective instruction for strugglingreaders parallels the National Reading Panel instructionalrecommendations. Practice in activating prior knowledge,self-monitoring, summarizing, and the use of graphicelements (Siegel, 2001; Hunt, 1990; Jetton, 2001) are alsosupported by research-based strategies for struggling readers.Additional research-based instructional strategies forstruggling readers are also included in Passageways.
RESEARCH-BASED STRATEGIES FOR
STRUGGLING READERS
Allowing Semi-autonomy in Choices: Passagewaysis a program that allows teachers flexibility andcontains nonthreatening text for struggling readers.Passageways can be used to move students from lowresponsibility to high responsibility in their reading.Teachers can use small group instruction or
independent reading instruction for students who are ready forthese reading stages of responsibility. Independent reading forstruggling students means that students engage in activitiessuch as sustained silent reading with texts that are appropriatefor their reading level. “While acclimated learners (learnerswho have little domain knowledge and who struggle todetermine if the concepts are important or relevant) do notbenefit from free rein, they need some autonomy, such aschoosing from a selection of carefully predetermined options”(Jetton, 2001). Passageways is a program that allows for limitedautonomy in students’ choices of books to read. Teachers canguide struggling readers to the appropriate level within themultiple books available in Passageways.
How Is Passageways Supported by Research on Struggling Readers?
Specified reading levels ofPassageways offer a perfectopportunity for struggling
readers to experience partial autonomy in reading choices
without fear of failure.
Number of Anthology Reading Level Selections
B 2.0–2.9 45
C 3.0–3.9 45
D 4.0–4.9 36
E 5.0–5.9 36
11Research Paper: Passageways
Guided Reading and Teacher Modeling: These teachingstrategies are very effective with struggling readers (Ash,2002; Flood, 1990; Duffy, 1988). Teachers can use guidedreading in flexible groups. They may group readers accordingto reading level, interest level, or book choice. Grouping byinterest level or book choice exposes students to a variety ofliteracy levels along with other students who have similarinterests. Modeling suggestions for teachers in Passagewayshelp activate prior knowledge and familiarize students withtest formats.
Setting a Purpose for Reading and Recalling BackgroundKnowledge: These are very important instructional strategiesbecause struggling readers may have low interest in readingor fragmented background knowledge of a content area.“Having students make predictions about a story before theyread it provides a format in which students are reading toprove or disprove their predictions about the story, creatingtheir own purpose for reading” (Hunt, 1990). “Knowledgehelps shape readers’ perspectives on text content, theattention they allocate to information within the text, theinterest they have in the text, and their judgments ofimportance” (Jetton, 2001).
How should I use Passagewaysin the classroom? You may use Passageways in the classroom in thefollowing ways.
♦ Whole class Choose a selection for the class to read. Then use the 18 selected-responsecomprehension questions that follow theselection to generate discussion about theselection. After the discussion, model how toanswer these questions. Be sure students knowhow to fill in the answer circles. Once studentsunderstand how to respond to these questions,model how to respond to the 3 constructed-response writing questions. These Explorationsin Writing questions are on pages 124–128 ofthe student book. The length and content ofeach written response should reflect anappropriate comprehension of the readingselection. Once students understand thisprocess, have the whole class read anotherselection. Have students individually answer the comprehension questions and the writingquestions.
♦ Small groups Group students and assign eachgroup a selection or a series of selections. Haveeach group read the assigned selection(s) anddiscuss what they have read. After the discussion,have students individually answer the selected-response comprehension questions and theconstructed-response writing questions.
Teachers may use modelingand guided readingstrategies to reachstruggling readers.
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Getting StartedHave you ever ridden on
a train? Today some trains go
more than 150 miles an hour. But
the first trains could only go about
20 miles an hour. Passengers were
terrified at traveling through the
countryside at this great speed!
Read this selection to find out
more about the railroad
in its early days.
Discussion of the GettingStarted feature helps set apurpose for reading and toactivate prior knowledge.
12 Research Paper: Passageways
Motivating Readers: Reluctant readers’ attitudes towardcomprehension and their interest in a topic are two conceptsthat are highly dependent upon each other. Topic interest hasa greater effect on comprehension for lower-ability studentsthan for high-ability students, in the sense that low-abilitystudents had better comprehension of high-interest texts(Partridge, 2000). Students who lack interest in a topic donot understand the value in the content so they are lesswilling to work to master that content. Students will notapply themselves to use reading strategies to make sense ofthe text they are reading (Jetton, 2001). Schools also need tobe aware that text availability, in a variety of genres and on a variety of reading levels, is essential to meeting students’varied needs. Having access to texts with multiple topics willallow students to participate in self-selected extended readingactivities, such as sustained silent reading (Ash, 2002).Passageways supplies a wide range of genre choices and reading levels.
Making Connections: One method for creating interest in a topic is through making connections. Making text-to-text,text-to-self, and text-to-world connections is a strategy thatbuilds prior knowledge and helps students build an interestin the topic they are reading. Students make theseconnections in the Passageways selections. The selected-response questions have students make text-to-textconnections. The Getting Started feature as well as theExplorations in Writing activities give the studentsopportunities to make both text-to-self and text-to-worldconnections as they discuss orally and in print theirexperiences outside the classroom.
Happy New Year! The New Year is a special time for people all over theworld. The Chinese people celebratethis holiday by doing many specialthings. Read this selection to find out about the Chinese New Year.
82
Recognizing Cause and Effect
When one thing causes another thing to happen, it is called cause and effect.The cause is the reason why somethinghappens. The effect is what happens.
7. People worked for a lord to� get his protection.� learn about his enemies.� work with metal.� get their own castle.
8. A king gave land to lordsbecause they� were his brothers.� were his neighbors.� fought for him.� fought against him.
9. Fish was a rare treat at castle feastsbecause� fish didn’t taste good.� people didn’t like to fish.� most castles were
near the sea.� most castles were
far from the sea.
Comparing and Contrasting
Comparing is finding how two or more things are alike. Contrasting is finding how two or more things are different.
10. Stone castles � were safer than
wooden forts.� were warmer than
wooden forts.� were easier to build than
wooden forts.� had thinner walls than
wooden forts.
11. A moat and a drawbridgewere both used� as walkways.� to let friends and enemies
into the castle.� to keep enemies out
of the castle.� as dining halls.
12. Unlike people who livedin castles, troubadours� never went inside castles.� went from castle to castle.� grew crops.� made weapons.
Making connectionsincreases a student’s
interest in a topic.
Text-to-self Connections
Text-to-text Connections
Text-to-world Connections
Explorations in Writing Write your answers on a separate piece of paper.
(pages 76–80)
1. The author tells why castles were built. Write in your own words why peoplebuilt castles.
2. Look at the picture of a castle on page 78. Some parts of the castle are named.Write a few sentences about one part of a castle.
3. Read again “A Castle Feast” on page 80. Write a few sentences that tell whathappened at a castle feast.
13Research Paper: Passageways
Discussing Text Features: Another method for makinginformational text meaningful to struggling readers isdiscussing text features such as titles, tables of contents,glossaries, bibliographies, and indexes. These features allowstudents to become familiar with nonfiction book/printconventions. Bold and italicized print, pictures, and graphicsare unique features that students will encounter in authentictext (Birdyshaw, 2002). Acclimated learners need texts andinstructional materials that convey fundamental, relevantprinciples in a coherent way, so they can determineimportant information and avoid the highly interesting buttangential details (Jetton, 2001). Short bodies of text thatinclude text features provide readers with successfulexperiences in reading nonfiction.
ConclusionPassageways is a research-based program that providesreading practice for struggling readers. The strongest featuresof Passageways work in accordance with No Child LeftBehind research, nonfiction-instruction research, andstruggling-readers research. Through this flexible program,teachers will be able to build readers’ interests in topics,activate prior knowledge through guided reading and teachermodeling, and finally build and monitor comprehension skillsin informational texts.
36
gugConditions in the Mills
Each of the Lowell textile mills contained hundreds of machines,and the noise from the gears shifting and the shafts clanking wasdeafening. In addition to the overwhelming din of the machinery, thequality of the air inside the mills was very poor. The cotton thread beingwoven had to be kept moist. If it dried out, it was likely to break. Tokeep the air warm and moist, the mill owners nailed the windows shut.With all the activity of the workers and the machines, this techniqueworked. The air in the mills stayed warm and humid and protected thethread. But the humid air, which was also filled with cotton dust fromthe mill process, was not healthy for the workers. Many workersdeveloped lung diseases.
Also, the machinery itself could pose a threat. Wheels turned atspeeds of seventy-five miles per hour. Shuttles flew across looms, orspinning machines, at speeds of ninety miles per hour. If a shuttle flewoff, it could be deadly. A flying shuttle could bury itself six inches into abrick wall. Think what it could do to a worker!
Familiarity with nonfictiontext features enables strugglingreaders to identify important
information in a readingselection.
14 Research Paper: Passageways
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Birdyshaw, D. (2001, December). Building reading comprehension in struggling readers. Paper presented at the Georgia Reading Excellence Program. Baton Rouge, LA.
Curtis, M. (2002, May). Summary of the second adolescent literacy workshop: practice models for adolescent literacy success. Retrieved October 31, 2002 from National Institute for Literacy, Adolescent Literacy-Research Informing Practice Web Site:http://www.nifl.gov/partnershipforreading/adolescent/summaryIIa.html.
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Flood, J., Lapp, D., Flood, S., & Nagel, G. (1992). Am I allowed to group? Using flexiblepatterns for effective instruction. The Reading Teacher, 45(8), 608–616.
Flood, J. & Lapp, D. (1990). Reading comprehension instruction for at-risk students: Research-based practices that can make a difference. Journal of Reading, 33(7), 490–496.
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Harvey, S. (2002). Nonfiction inquiry: Using real reading and writing to explore the world.Language Arts, 80(1), 12–22.
Heller, M. (1995). Reading-writing connections from theory to practice. White Plains, NY:Longman.
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15Research Paper: Passageways
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