Research Methods in the Social Science

8/10/2019 Research Methods in the Social Science

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Standardized in PDF format by Kamufisa Manchishi

RESEARCH METHODS ! THE SOCA" SCE!CES

#SOCA" RESEARCH METHODS$

SOCA" SCE!CE FO%!DATO! OF RESEARCH& O'ER'E(

Socia) research is a *ur*osi+e and ri,orous in+esti,ation that aims

to ,enerate-at ,eneratin, s*ecific ne. /no.)ed,e0

t is the inte))ectua) too) of socia) scientists .hich a))o.s them to

enter conte1ts of *ersona) or *ub)ic interests that are un/no.n to

them and to search for ans.ers to their 2uestions0

Socia) research is about disco+ery3 and e1*andin, the horizons of

the /no.n3 confidence of somethin,3 ideas and ne. conc)usions

about a)) as*ects of )ife0

As the 2uest for /no.)ed,e3 socia) research has been the u)timate

,oa) of socia) scientists .ho basica))y see/3 not on)y to ,ather

usefu)3 +a)id /no.)ed,e3 but a)so to educate the community about

the status and +a)idity of certain sources of /no.)ed,e0

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TRE!DS ! SOCA" RESEARCH O'ERTME

Research has been di+erse and *)ura)istic0

The t.o ma4or forms of research .ithin the research domain ha+e

been *ositi+ists #2ua)itati+e and non5*ositi+ists #2uantitati+e$0

6uantitati+e research became *o*u)ar3 and o+ershado.ed other

ty*es of research0 Ho.e+er3 the rise of 2ua)itati+e research #durin,

the second ha)f of the 78th century$ reduced the *o*u)arity of

*ositi+ism si,nificant)y0

There has been an ideo)o,ica) di+ision o+er the 2ua)ity and

suitabi)ity of socia) research0

Research has been associated .ith *ersona) interests3 socia)

*rob)ems3 ideo)o,ies and *o)itica) inf)uence0

Research has a)so ser+ed as a to)) of socia) *o)icy and socia)

construction0

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PH"OSOPH9 OF SCE!CE

Science is a method #.ay$ of /no.in, thin,s #a .ay of ,eneratin,

/no.)ed,e$0

- Thus3 science is a systematic-)o,ica) method of /no.in, or

,eneratin, /no.)ed,e0

- t is an ob4ecti+e .ay of /no.in, thin,s0

- There is ob4ecti+ity in the .ay /no.)ed,e is ,enerated0 That is3

science is )ess biased0

- t is a)so em*irica)-*ractica)-e1*erimenta)3 science is e1*erienced

as it is concerned .ith ,eneratin, /no.)ed,e about thin,s that can

be obser+ed-seen-e1*erienced0

n socia) .or/3 .e are concerned about /no.)ed,e that is scientifica))y

,enerated0 t is about e+idence based socia) .or/ *ractice throu,h

the use of methods and techni2ues that ha+e been scientifica))y

*ro+en to be effecti+e #throu,h research$0

Phi)oso*hy studies thin,s in a more s*ecu)ati+e .ay as o**osed to

obser+ation0

- t is based on facts #there is no *roof by obser+ation$

- t is a)so a method of /no.in, or ,eneratin, /no.)ed,e0

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- One characteristic is that it is sub4ecti+e0 That is3 it is biased and

based on *ersona) 4ud,ment or e1*erience0

T(O :RA!CHES OF SCE!CE

There are t.o systematic methods of ac2uirin, /no.)ed,e #or

methods of in+esti,ation$&

#i$ Socia) science

#ii$!atura) science

Socia) .or/ers use a**)ied science to ,enerate /no.)ed,e about

nature of human benefits0 A**)ied science is the science that uses

/no.)ed,e ac2uired to so)+e human *rob)ems-socia) *rob)ems

#*rob)ems affectin, human bein,s-*eo*)e$0

Socia) science thus is the study of human society0 The em*hasis is on

research methods0

Social: Re)ationshi*s3 that is3 ho. *eo*)e re)ate to each other3 at

indi+idua)3 fami)y3 community and or,anizationa) )e+e)s0 t is a)so

based on the ty*e-nature of re)ationshi*s and outcomes of those

re)ationshi*s0 For e1am*)e3 economica)3 *o)itica)3 socia) and cu)tura)

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etc0 n case of economica) re)ationshi*s3 those .or/in, and not

.or/in, re)ate to each other0

Natural science is the study of natura) *henomenon that is the

*hysica) en+ironment0 Primari)y-traditiona) branches inc)ude&

*hysica)s3 chemistry3 bio)o,y etc0

DFFERE!CES :ET(EE! SOCA" SCE!CES A!D !AT%RA" SCE!CES

- Socia) sciences #socia) .or/3 socio)o,y3 *sycho)o,y etc$ are

concerned .ith the study of society ; socia) structure and

interre)ationshi*s0

- Physica)-natura) sciences dea) .ith obser+ab)e *henomenon0 They

most)y dea) .ith non5)i+in, thin,s0 For e1am*)e3 *hysics ; )i,ht3

chemistry ; chemica) com*ounds0

- n terms of sub4ect matter3 natura) sciences dea) .ith matters

different from socia) sciences0 The difference has )ed to socia)

scientists to be)ie+e that socia) sciences3 for e1am*)e socio)o,y3

socio)o,ists such as Emi)e Dur/heim and Ma1 (eber to ha+e

different +ie.s0

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E Dur/heim introduced the issue of socia) facts as socia) rea)ity as

ha+in, an inde*endent e1istence0 He used *ositi+ism .hich is the

study of socia) rea)ity ob4ecti+e)y throu,h the use of scientific

methods0

Ma1 (eber ar,ued that the sub4ect matter of socia) sciences and

*hysica) sciences .ere distincti+e3 and as such the )oca) in2uiry

shou)d be different and that you cannot use *ositi+ism to study

socia) rea)ity3 that is you cannot be ob4ecti+e0 He thus ar,ued that

socia) rea)ity has ,ot a sub4ecti+ity *art to it0 Thus3 the

methodo)o,y shou)d em*)oy +erstehim0 9ou cannot a+oid

emotiona) en,a,ements but


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because they use systematic methods #.ays$ of in+esti,ations in

describin, e1*)ainin, and *redictin, socia) *henomena and e+ents0

AMS A!D >OA"S OF THE SOCA" SCE!CES

#i$ Descri*tion

#ii$ E1*)anation Ma4or ones

#iii$ Prediction

#i+$ %nderstandin,

#i$ Descri*tion

Refers to the accurate and *recise measurement and re*ortin, of

e+ents and socia) *henomena3 inc)udin, characteristics of socia)

*henomena and e+ents so that for any ,i+en e+ent a socia) scientists

is ab)e to describe it0 For e1am*)e3 a stri/e3 ris/ of demonstration3

such as .ho *artici*ated3 .here did it ta/e *)ace3 .ho too/ *art in

students? demonstrations= (hat .ere their characteristics= (hen3

.ho3 .here3 .hat are the 2uestions0

#ii$ E1*)anation

This in+o)+es in+esti,ation of causes under)yin, the e1istence of

*articu)ar *henomenon0

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(hy=

Students? demonstration@ Po+erty@ Chi)d abuse-defi)ement@ H'-ADS@

Street /ids

That .i)) )ead to causes3 e1*)anation re)ated to ana)ysis3 so that

u)timate)y you can bui)d the body of /no.)ed,e0

There are t.o as*ects&

#a$ Deducti+e e1*)anation

#b$ Probabi)istic #inducti+e$ e1*)anation0

#a$ Deducti+e E1*)anation& are e1*)anations based on uni+ersa))y

estab)ished )a.s0 s*atio ; tem*ora) +a)idity0

For certain e1*)anations3 truth .i)) remain the same0

These are common in natura) sciences3 for e1am*)e3 )aud of ,ra+ity3

as it uni+ersa))y +aries0 t is true across time and s*ace0

Universal unchan,in,

spatio; s*ace3 tem*ora) ; time0

t is used to e1*)ain socia) *henomena0 Socia) science ha+e s*atio5

tem*ora) +a)idity0 For e1am*)e3 economics has )a. of su**)y and

demand0

#b$ Probabi)istic #nducti+e$ E1*)anations

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E1*)anations are not based on uni+ersa))y estab)ished )a.s but are

based on ,enera)izations e1*ressin, tendencies obser+ed in many

instances0

9

f ta/es *)ace3 .hat ha**ens to 9=

n this case3 e1*)ainin, socia) *henomena is based on .hat has

been obser+ed0 For e1am*)e3 )a. of su**)y and demand0

o A+ai)abi)ity of ,oods3 *rices ,o do.n

o Scarcity of ,oods3 *rices ,o u*0

This shou)d be based on em*irica) obser+ations3 and ma/e a

,eneration0 This ,eneration is not a**)icab)e in a)) situations since

it )ac/s uni+ersa)ity0 Thus3 it may not a**)y in a)) instances0

E1*)anations are a).ays e1*ressed .ith some *robabi)ity0 For

e1am*)e3 unem*)oyment .i)) )ead to hi,h crime rates0

%nem*)oyment B Crime

9ou cannot ha+e uni+ersa)ity in terms of e1*)anation in socia)

sciences0

#iii$ Prediction

Prediction 5 forecastin,3 *ro4ection3 *ro*hesyin,0

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(hy=

This is the first )oo/in, at *henomenon may be mis)eadin, or it may

ha+e been error *rone3 fa)se3 or inaccurate information3 hence the

need to )oo/ into *rob)ems a,ain0

Research tends to ,o beyond common sense +ie. of rea)ity0 n

research nothin, is ta/en for ,ranted #and a).ays ta/e a second )oo/$0

There are a number of thin,s that are ta/en for ,ranted0 For e1am*)e3

a)) the street /ids may be considered to be chi)dren or*haned by

H'-ADS3 .hen in fact not a)) of them0 n research .e ,o beyond

.hat .e see and try to see .hat )ies beneath it0 :y doin, that3

research he)*s us correct misconce*tions about rea)ity3 and .e ,et

c)oser to ne. /no.)ed,e throu,h systematic in+esti,ations0

Therefore3 in research ne+er ta/e thin,s for ,ranted0

Research is thus underta/en because *eo*)e .ant to find out more

information about a *rob)em3 or others may e+en 2uestion that

information0

MEA!!> OF RESEARCH

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Research is a systematic co))ection3 ana)ysis #or co))ation$ and

inter*retation of data-information in order to ans.er a 2uestion or

so)+e a *rob)em0 Research is a systematic .ay of co))ectin,3

ana)yzin,-co))ectin, and *resentin, information on a certain *rob)em

or situation or e+ent0 t in+o)+es findin, out more about a certain

*rob)em so as to come u* .ith a certain conc)usion-so)ution to so)+e

a *rob)em0

CHARACTERSTCS OF RESEARCH

- A research demands a c)ear statement of a *rob)em0 That is3

identify the *rob)em #state the *rob)em$0 (hat is *rob)ematic

about a situation= For e1am*)e3 .hat is *rob)ematic about

a)coho)ic abuse=

- Research re2uires a *)an0

- Research bui)ds u*on e1istin, data and information and ma/es use

of both the ne,ati+e and *ositi+e as*ect that data or information0

- n e+ery /ind of research3 the information that e1ists has to be bui)t

u*on #re)atin, to )iterature re+ie.$0

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- !e. data shou)d be co))ected in e+ery research as *er *rob)em

identified or defined0

- t must be or,anized in such a .ay that it ans.ers your 2uestions

or so)+es a *rob)em0

T9PES OF RESEARCH #T(O MA! T9PES$

#i$ Pure #basic$ Research

#ii$A**)ied Research

#i$ Pure #:asic$ Research

o This ty*e of research is concerned .ith the *roduction of ne.

/no.)ed,e and .ith the increase of scientific understandin,

of the .or)d and not .ith the a**)ication of its outcome0

o t aims *ure)y at the disco+ery of /no.)ed,e0 Thus3 it is

referred to as *ure research0 n other .ords3 *ure research is

the /ind of research intended to ac2uire /no.)ed,e for its

o.n sa/e0

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o t is one done for *ersona) interest0 t aims at fu)fi))in, some

academic interest0 That is3 to satisfy one?s inte))ectua)

curiosity-ans.er 2uestions0 For e1am*)e3 research done for

academic fu)fi))ment0

o Thesis-dissertation students .ho are doin, master *ro,ram

submit their research *a*ers to fu)fi)) academic

interest-re2uirement as *art of the conditions set by

uni+ersity0

#ii$ A**)ied Research

o This is the ty*e of research .hich *)aces stron, em*hasis on

a**)ication of /no.)ed,e ac2uired and *rob)em so)+in, as

o**osed to the basic research0

o t a)so entai)s the *ersona) en,a,ement of the researcher and

e)ements of chan,e #*eo*)e affected by the *rob)em$ and

en)i,htenment0

o t is usua))y referred to as emanci*ator research0

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o Socia) im*act studies3 action research3 e+a)uation research

and cost5benefit ana)ysis are a fe. e1am*)es of a**)ied

research0

o n other .ords3 a**)ied research is the one that is intended to

find so)utions to *rob)ems0 t is about findin, *ractica)

so)utions to rea) .or)d *rob)ems0

o 9ou can a)so e+a)uate certain *o)icies3 *ro4ects and

*ro,ammes0 Thereafter3 come u* .ith inter+entions and

so)utions0 For e1am*)e3 the *rob)em of H'-ADS3 street /ids0

o n most cases3 you .ant to come u* .ith so)utions that .i))

he)* in im*ro+in, buy that *articu)ar *rob)em0

Examples of Research

o ambia Demo,ra*hic and Hea)th Sur+ey #DHS$

o "i+in, Conditions and Monitorin, Sur+ey #"CMS$

o Census .hich is done by Contro) Statistica) Office #CSO$

o These are done by ,o+ernments3 donor a,encies3 !>Os to

im*ro+e the 2ua)ity of )ife of *eo*)e0

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!ote that

o There is some continuity bet.een *ure research and a**)ied

research0 That is3 .hat be,ins as basic research can be

a**)ied research #from academic to a**)ied research$0 For

e1am*)e@

POST'E F%C!TO!S #%SES$ OF RESEARCH

- t assists in the ac2uisition of /no.)ed,e #as a ma4or use$0

- So)+in, of *rob)ems ; findin, so)utions to *rob)ems #*articu)ar

so)+es in a**)ied research$0 For e1am*)e3 commissioned research3

that is3 )oo/in, for data-information and come u* .ith

recommendations3 .ith the +ie. to im*)ementin, the *o)icy0 For

e1am*)e3 street +endors in "usa/a identified as a *rob)em0

- Research of this nature .i)) a).ays ,i+e the 2ua)ity of )ife

indicators0 For e1am*)e@

o CE!S%S 5 "ife E1*ectancy

o DHS 5 Per Ca*ita ncome

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o "CMS 5 H' *re+a)ence rates3 enro)ment rates3 materna)

morta)ity rates3

*ercenta,e of .omen in decision ma/in,

*ositions0

- These indicators are a resu)t of a**)ied research conducted0 For

e1am*)e3 Mi))ennium De+e)o*ment >oa)s #MD>s$0

!E>AT'E %SE #A:%SE$ OF RESEARCH

- The use of research findin,s to maintain the status 2ueue or the

situation of a *articu)ar ,rou*0

- Carry out research to *ro+e a *oint0

- t is *re5conce*tion about rea)ity0

- Research carried out in a disordered .ay0 For e1am*)e3 a *articu)ar

,rou* has )o. 63 es*ecia))y b)oc/s0 A)so that H'-ADS ori,inated

from b)oc/s .ho are re)ated Chim*anzees0

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- Carry our research in an condusi+e en+ironment and the ,rou* on

.hich research is conducted comes from the disad+anta,ed

bac/,round0

- Doctorin, of data@ in+o)+es a *rocess of *)ayin, around .ith data

so that it yie)ds the resu)ts that you .ant0 For e1am*)e3

constitution re+ie. commission and the recommendations say 8

of ambians .ant the constitution to be ado*ted throu,h

constituent Assemb)y0 Ho.e+er3 nformation Minister *resides

o+er the ade2uate and chan,e the data to suit themse)+es ; ru)in,

*arty0

- O+er ad+ocacy tra* is a situation .here a researcher officers ad+ise

or recommendations based on ad+ocacy or *ersona) o*inions and

a+oids em*irica) in+esti,ations or e+idence0

- One may ,i+e *ersona) o*inion or ad+ocacy to re*resent the

o*inion of the *eo*)e to 4ustify their *ositions or situations0

- The socia) sciences *riesthood? #after research3 the information is

for the benefit of the ,enera) society to ma/e decisions and

*o)icies$0

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- Ho.e+er3 socia) scientists use )an,ua,e that ma/es it difficu)t for

*eo*)e-society to understand the outcomes of the research0

- n+asion of *ri+acy durin, research3 ensure that you do not +io)ate

the *ri+acy of the *eo*)e from .hom you are co))ectin,

data-information so that you do not harm them0 For e1am*)e3

co))ectin, information on da,a3 do no mention names of

res*ondents0 Ho.e+er3 the *ri+acy of *eo*)e is +io)ated0

- %nscientific sam*)in,@ researches ha+e a tendency to sue methods

of sam*)in,-sam*)es that are not re*resentati+e of the *o*u)ation

and usin, them to ma/e ,enera)isations0 This becomes the

abuse .hen ,enera)izin, the *o*u)ation0

SO"%TO!S TO A:%SES

- %se the )an,ua,e that can be understood by *eo*)e3 es*ecia))y

*eo*)e .ho .i)) benefit from the research0

- %se of scientific sam*)in, so that the resu)ts .i)) be re*resentati+e

of the ,enera) *o*u)ation0

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- %se of informed consent in order to safe,uard confidentia)ity3 as/

the *artici*ants to .i))in,)y and +o)untari)y ,i+e you the

information and not throu,h con+ersion0

Note: On)y in a C!E%S3 a)) *eo*)e are re2uired by )a. to ,i+e data0

- n order to *reser+e the *ri+acy of indi+idua)s3 information-resu)ts

,enerated must be re*orted in form of ,rou*ed fre2uencies ;

co))ecti+e)y so as not to re+ea) the identity of *eo*)e .ho ,a+e the

information0 For e1am*)e3 data on da,a smo/in,0 Do you smo/e

da,a-mari4uana=

Ma)

e

Fema)

e

9es

!o

E1*ress the information in form of *ercenta,es #$ or numbers0

COMMO! SO%RCES OF K!O("ED>E

- Research is *rimari)y moti+ated by ac2uisition of /no.)ed,e0

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- Ho. do .e /no. the thin,s and ho. +a)id is the method or ho.

+a)id is our basis of /no.)ed,e0

'ARO%S (A9S OF K!O(!> TH!>S

#i$ ntuition

s the sub4ecti+e .ay of /no.in, thin,s throu,h insi,hts .hich

are not based on rationa) thou,ht0 t is based on )unch3

*remonition3 G,ut5fee)in,0 That is3 it is sub4ecti+e and based on

*ersona) fee)in,s3 it is )i/e a )unch ; a idea based and fee)in,

rather than on facts or *roof-.ithout reasonin, or *roof0

#ii$ Habit

o t in+o)+es be)ie+in, .hat .e do because it is tradition to do

so0

o t is /no.)ed,e ac2uired throu,h socia)ization0

o Tradition3 in the sense that it is *racticed throu,h ,enerations

#o*inions3 be)iefs3 *ractices and customs *assed on from

,eneration to ,eneration$0

#iii$ Common Sense

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o t is about o*inions that are .ide)y he)d because they seem to

be ob+ious or correct0

o E+eryone be)ie+es in somethin, e+en thou,h there is no

*roof0 For e1am*)e3 *rostitutes do .hat they do because of

*o+erty0 Street /ids are or*haned or +u)nerab)e because of

H'-ADS0

#i+$ Authoritarian

o This is .here it is assumed that /no.)ed,e is deri+ed from

those indi+idua)s .ho are *o)itica))y and socia))y *roducers of

/no.)ed,e0

o t is based on authority0 t is the .ay of e1*erts0 For e1am*)e3

indi+idua) socia) scientists0

#+$ Mystica)

o This is .here /no.)ed,e is assumed to be so)icited from

*ro*hets0 t is based on di+ine and su*ernatura) *o.ers0 An

e1am*)e3 shou)d be in the bib)e that Iesus Christ hea)ed the

b)ind or )ame *eo*)e0

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o t is based on the di+ine3 ,oods3 mediums and other

su*ernatura))y endo.ed indi+idua)s or su*ernatura))y

/no.)ed,eab)e authorities0 For e1am*)e3

.itchdoctors-finders0

o n most cases3 it is accom*anied by ritua)s and ceremonies in

order to arri+e at some /no.)ed,e0

o Prob)em associated .ith thus3 source is that it stands as it

.ere on tenacious ,rounds because confidence in /no.)ed,e

,enerated diminishes as the number of dis confirmation

increases0 This ha**ens as society ad+ances0 For e1am*)e3

most of the educated *eo*)e .ou)d 2uestion .itchcraft or the

:ib)e0

#+i$ Rationa)istic mode

o Kno.)ed,e ac2uired throu,h an o*inion or 4ud,ment based

on carefu) thou,ht or reasonin,0

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o Kno.)ed,e in its tota)ity can be deri+ed from a strict

adherence to the ru)es and forms of )o,ic0

o Re)ated to this3 is the +ie. that the human mind can

understand or com*rehend e+ents or *henomena

inde*endent)y of obser+ed *henomena so that it is *ossib)e

to understand the .or)d0

o t is *ossib)e to /no. thin,s in their true essence .ithout

in+o)+in, one?s emotions or fee)in,s0

o Com*)ete)y3 abso)ute)y and ob4ecti+e)y so that you can

concea) your o.n /no.)ed,e0

o Kno.)ed,e can be obtained strict)y throu,h the *rocess of

reasonin,0

Abstract Logic *ure mathematics characterised by +a)ues

that are uni+ersa) and +ery

com*e))in, and abso)ute)y certain0

#+ii$ The Scientific Mode

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o t is based on assum*tion that /no.)ed,e must re)y on

*erce*tions3 e1*eriences and obser+ations0

o t is based on em*iricism0 t is /no.)ed,e deri+ed from our

senses indirect)y or direct)y #.hat you see3 fee)$0

o To a considerab)e de,ree3 a scientific mode a)so tends to

marry certain as*ects of the rationa)istic mode ; re)ationshi*

bet.een scientific mode and rationa)istic mode0 For e1am*)e3

a )ot of mathematics in socia) sciences such as demo,ra*hy

and economics0

THE SCE!TFC METHOD

Characteristics

- n conductin, of research3 there must be systematic ru)es and

*rocedures0 Researchers shou)d o*erate on the ru)es or road ma*

in the manner in .hich they ma/e inferences3 obser+ations and

conc)usion0

- "o,ica) in the sense that it uses deducti+e reasonin, and inducti+e

reasonin,0 Deducti+e reasonin,-)o,ica) in+o)+es a *rocess of

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reasonin, from the ,enera) to the s*ecific0 For e1am*)e3 a)) men

are morta) #,enera)$@ Iohn is a man and therefore3 he is morta)

#s*ecific$0 nducti+e )o,ic-reasonin, in+o)+es ,enera)0 That is3 you

start .ith s*ecific instances to ,enera)0 For e1am*)e3 Iohn is

morta)@ A)) men are morta)0

- Scientific method is em*irica)0 t means that data or /no.)ed,e is

deri+ed from rea)ity0 That is3 from obser+ations of .hat actua))y

e1ists #obser+ations3 e1*eriences3 *erce*tions$0

- Re*)icab)e& t means that another researcher conductin, research

shou)d come u* .ith more or )ess the same research resu)ts of the

other researchers usin, a research in simi)ar circumstances0

- Transmittab)e& ha+in, ta/en research3 the findin,s of research can

be in a .ay that findin,s ,o beyond the research0

- The research findin,s shou)d be transmitted from the sam*)e to the

.ho)e *o*u)ation #,enera)ized to the .ho)e *o*u)ation ; shou)d be

re*resentati+e of the )ar,er *o*u)ation$0

26


27/195

- t shou)d be transmitted to other conte1ts0 For e1am*)e3 research

conducted at %!A can be transmitted to other uni+ersities0

- Reducti+e& (hen you thin/ about research you must rea)ize3 that

you are dea)in, .ith com*)e1 situation#s$0 That is rea)ity .hich is

com*)e1-infinite0 9ou ha+e to focus on rea)ities ; thin,s that

concern us so that you ma/e your research so *hysica)0 Focus on

somethin, that you can mana,e0

- Ob4ecti+e& Means remo+a) of *ersona) +a)ues and biases3 a.ay

from undu)y inf)uences by *re4udices and +a)ues0 t ca))s for

sus*ension of be)iefs0 (hen conductin, a research3 ma/e your

o.n ref)ection on the truth0

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

This is a cyc)ica) *rocess as it mo+es in sta,es from the conce*tion of

*rob)em to the fina) resu)t0

Prob)em

>enera)ization Hy*othesis

27


28/195

Data Ana)ysis Research Desi,n

Data Co))ection Measurement

Deduction

nduction 'erification

Theory ; Research #deducti+e$

Research ; Theory #inducti+e$

9ou can start .ith a theory #,enera)$3 then do research #s*ecification$0

Or start .ith research #s*ecification$3 then u* .ith theory #,enera)$0

Research does not end@ it is an on,oin, *rocess #it is dynamic$0

28


29/195

FACTORS THAT !F"%E!CE CHOCE OF RESEACH PRO:"EMS #TOPCS$

#i$ 'a)ue and re)e+ance in )ife& n+esti,ate thin,s that ha+e +a)ue3

re)e+ance and meanin, in )ife0

#ii$ nte))ectua) and academic interest3 es*ecia))y those on *ure

research0 For Pur*oses of fu)fi))in, course re2uirements0

#iii$ Practica) nterest& This is the /ind of research underta/en to

find so)utions to a *rob)em0 For e1am*)e3 *rob)ems of street

/ids3 street +endors0 Embar/ on research to find so)utions0

#i+$ Persona) nterest& A desire to underta/e research from a

*ersona) *ers*ecti+e0 For e1am*)e3 documentin, stri/es3

boycotts or demonstrations by students0 #Sometimes3 may

o+er)a* .ith others$0

#+$ Accident #Serendi*ity$& This is co+erin, by chance0 That is3

research .hich starts by chance-accident0 Chance research3

es*ecia))y throu,h e1*ectations0 9ou mi,ht find yourse)f

de+iatin, from your ,oa)3 for e1am*)e3 Ront,en disco+ered 15

rays by accident #>erman Physist$0 This is done more es*ecia))y

in natura) sciences0

29


30/195

#+i$ Socia) and Financia) ncenti+es& Peo*)e underta/e research as it

,i+es them the o**ortunity to ,et money3 for e1am*)e3

commissioned research throu,h bids0 Tenders and ad+ertised3

and a number of *eo*)e .i)) bid for tenders to conduct research

because it in+o)+es money0

#+ii$ Human Resource Ca*acity& Abi)ity to conduct research0

Kno.)ed,e and s/i))s in terms of research methodo)o,ies0

!orma))y bid for consu)tancy0

DE!TFCATO! OF THE PRO:"EM

- s the to*ic so *rob)ematic to .arranty further in+esti,ation= For

e1am*)e3 street +endin,0

- n fact3 this is the first sta,e in the research *rocess0

- As/ yourse)f 2uestions&

o (hat is the *rob)em=

o (hy shou)d it be studied=

- There shou)d be three #J$ conditions for a *rob)em to e1ist on any

,i+en to*ic0

Three #J$ conditions necessary for the e1istence of a *rob)em

30


31/195

(hether a *rob)em or situation e1ists de*ends on three conditions&

#i$ There shou)d be a discre*ancy or *ercei+ed difference bet.een

.hat e1ists #actua) situation$ and the idea) #desired situation$0

#ii$ The reasons for the discre*ancy or difference must be so unc)ear

that it .arrants research 2uestions and further in+esti,ations0

#iii$ There must be more than one reason and *ossib)e ans.er#s$ to

the research 2uestion *aused0

DSCREPA!C9

dentifyin, a *rob)em #.hat is the *rob)em$0

- dea) or desired situation

!umbers shou)d decrease3 ,o a.ay from streets0

- Rea) or actua) situation

!umbers of +endors increasin, and +endors are becomin, more

mi)itant0

f the actua) situation e2ua)s to idea) situation3 then there cannot be a*rob)em3 hence no discre*ancy0

Reasons for discre*ancy #.hy does the *rob)em *ersist$

- The reasons shou)d )ead you to in+esti,ation of the discre*ancy0

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32/195

- The reason or e+en ans.ers must be unc)ear0

- There must be many reasons or more than one *ossib)e reason or

ans.er0

Discre*ancy

- dea) or desired situation

After a)) efforts3 the number of +endors shou)d decrease0

- Actua) or e1istin, situation

The number of +endors is increasin,0

- This scenario is the basis for the discre*ancy0

- The reasons for the discre*ancy are unc)ear3 )eadin, to the research

2uestion0

o (hat e1*)ains the discre*ancy=

o (hat are the reasons for the discre*ancy=

- There are many *ossib)e ans.ers-reasons for the discre*ancy&

o More customers on the streets )eadin, to more *rofits

o A+oidance of mar/et )e+ies

o %nfair a))ocation of tradition s*ace

o ,norance-)e+e) of /no.)ed,e

o "ac/ of ca*ita)

o Too much com*etition in the mar/ets

o "imitation of time

o Easy to trade in i))e,a) ,oods

o "ac/ of em*)oyment

32


33/195

o Po+erty

o Asian traders encoura,e these

o nf)u1 of traders from outside "usa/a

- (hen doin, research3 o*enness of the mind or sense ofaccommodation is +ita)0

PRO:"EM DEF!TO!

- n+o)+es identifyin, and 2uantifyin, the core *rob)em0 For

e1am*)e3 the core *rob)em is the increase in unre,u)ated street

tradin, in the streets0

- This is a situation .hereby you use fi,ures and numbers to 2uantity

the *rob)em in terms of the nature of the *rob)em itse)f0

- That is3 idea) and actua) but this time you use numbers and fi,ures

and this shou)d )ead to distribution of the *rob)em0 For e1am*)e3.hat is the number of street +endors=

o (hat are the +endors=

o (ho is affected=

Then you ha+e to use *icture0

o (here are the +endors=

o (hen is the *rob)em more serious=

- 9ou ha+e to indicate the size and intensity of the *rob)em

o Ho. .ides*read is the *rob)em=

o Ho. se+ere is it=

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34/195

o (hat are the conse2uences=

- (hen you as/ 2uestions )i/e these3 you are concerned .ith

occurrence3 intensity and distribution of the *rob)em0 t meansdefinin, the *rob)em in terms of its occurrence3 intensity and

distribution0

- :y as/in, 2uestions3 you are estab)ishin, the *arameter .hich .i))

indicate the incidence and *re+a)ence of the *rob)em0 Ho.

bi,-*re+a)ent the *rob)em is=

- t .i)) a)so determine the ,eo,ra*hica) areas or distribution of the

*rob)em0 s the *rob)em on)y confined to certain areas=

- 9ou a)so ha+e to /no. the characteristics of the *o*u)ation0

o (ho are these +endors=

o (ho is affected by this *articu)ar *rob)em=

o Are they youn,3 o)d3 residents or mi,rants=

- Ha+in, done this3 you .ant to /no. the information a+ai)ab)e

about the *rob)em0 This re2uires re+ie.in, the information

a+ai)ab)e3 about the *rob)em0 9ou need some information a)ready

a+ai)ab)e from sources0

- After definin, the *rob)em3 ana)ysis of the *rob)em fo))o.s0

dentify factors that ha+e contributed to the e1istence and

*ersistence of the *rob)em0 For e1am*)e3 street +endin,0 This is

34


35/195

done by c)arifyin, the re)ationshi*s bet.een factors and the

*rob)em itse)f0

A!A"9SS OF THE PRO:"EM

For e1am*)e&

35

Factor

Factor

Proble

Unregulated

street

vending

Unemployment

Limited market

Space

Larger market

or customer

Desire for profits

Poverty

Lack of Capital

Moneyvoidance of

market levies

Preference for

o en tradin


36/195

To ma/e further c)arification3 or,anize factors into )ar,er cate,ories asit ma/es it easier to narro. the base for data co))ection in a more

systematic .ay&

- Socia)3 demo,ra*hic characteristics& For e1am*)e3 a,e3 se13 marita)

status3 occu*ation3 education etc0

- Economic factors-characteristics& %nem*)oyment3 *rofit3 mature3*o+erty3 customer base3 a+oidance of mar/et )e+ies0

- En+ironmenta) Factors& "imited mar/et3 *reference for o*en

s*ace0

- Po)itica) Factors& Po)itica) bias in the a))ocation of s*ace or stands0

Absence of by5)a.s to re,u)ate trade0

- Cu)tura) Factors& :rea/do.n of e1tended fami)y0

- :eha+iora) Factors& Peo*)e may .ant to do thin,s of their o.n0

CRTERA ! PRORTSATO! OF THE PRO:"EM

36


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:efore research3 .e need to /no. .hether or not it is .orth

*roceedin, .ith0 9ou ha+e to /no. the criteria of *rioritizin, the

*rob)em&

#i$ Re)e+ance

o s this *articu)ar area of in+esti,ation a *riority=

o (ho is affected by the *rob)em=

o Ho. .ides*read is the *rob)em= Ho. )ar,e=

o Ho. ser+er is the *rob)em= Conse2uences

f in terms of re)e+ance3 there is discre*ancy you can *roceed0

t ,o+erns the choice of in+esti,ation0

#ii$ A+oidance of du*)ication

o 6uestions concernin, to*ic ; .hether or not this to*ic has

been in+esti,ated .ithin the same area of another area in

simi)ar circumstances3 for e1am*)e3 street +endin,0

o Ma4or 2uestions concernin, street +endin,3 ha+e they been

ans.ered by other researchers and addressed the main issues

ade2uate)y=

o Are the ans.ers to the to*ic readi)y a+ai)ab)e=

o f a)) the 2uestions ha+e been ans.ered3 and ans.ers are

readi)y a+ai)ab)e in other documents3 and if you continue3 it

means you are du*)icatin,0

37


38/195

o Du*)ication does not inc)ude re*)ication as )on, as certain

2uestions are sti)) han,in, or no so)utions are found to the

2uestions0 For e1am*)e3 ha+e the 2uestions to street +endin,

been ans.ered and documented=

o 9ou can a+oid du*)ication by in+o)+in, )iterature re+ie.0

#iii$ %r,ency of the data needed #time)iness$

o This is a situation .here you as/ 2uestions3 for e1am*)e3

+endin,0

Are the resu)ts obtained needed to come u* .ith decisions to

de+e)o* some inter+entions ur,ent)y= f so3 *roceed0

(hether or not there are other com*etin, *ro4ects0 For

e1am*)e3 City Counci)3 are there other research *ro4ects3 one

on street +endin, and the other on street /ids0

o Thereafter3 you ha+e to *rioritize0 These are decision ma/in,

issues0

#i+$ Po)itica)-Socia) Acce*tabi)ity or Academic Acce*tabi)ity

Does the to*ic chosen ha+e the interest and su**ort of the

re)e+ant sta/eho)ders= For e1am*)e3 street +endin, ; financia)

38


39/195

su**ort from Ministry of "oca) >o+ernment and Housin, and

City Counci)0

#+$ Feasibi)ityo The concern is about com*)e1ity0 s the *rob)em too com*)e1

or bi, to be underta/en=

o A).ays reduce a to*ic to the e1tent .here it is mana,eab)e0

The )ar,er the to*ic3 the more com*)e1 it becomes to mana,e0

6uestions

o Ho. com*)e1 is this *articu)ar *rob)em= s it too com*)e1=

o Are the resources a+ai)ab)e= f so3 are they ade2uate=

Resources: Money ; financia) resources3 human resources3

man*o.er3 and time0

o 9ou a)so consider the coo*eration of res*ondents0o Too com*)e1&

There is need to narro. the to*ic0

There is a)so need to ta/e into consideration the sam*)e

size #nB


40/195

o Ho. )i/e)y is it that the resu)ts and recommendations of the

research .i)) be a**)ied= f so3 you can *roceed0

This does not a**)y in a)) situations0 For instance3 in *ure

research but this is considered in commissioned research or

funded research0

o t is o*tiona)0 For e1am*)e3 street +endin,0 s the ,o+ernment

or Ministry of "oca) >o+ernment and Housin, ,oin, to acce*t

these recommendations0

#+ii$ Ethica) Acce*tabi)ity

o The research must not +io)ate the research sub4ects? ri,hts0

So ethica) considerations are /ey0

o

(hether or not research resu)ts are acce*ted to the researchsub4ects= To .hat e1tent are the *eo*)e ,oin, to acce*t the

research=

o Can the informed consent be obtained from the research

sub4ects=

o nformed consent ; e)icit coo*eration or +o)untary

*artici*ation of the sub4ects0

40


41/195

o (hether or not the conditions of the research bein, ta/en

ha+e been ta/en into consideration0

o (hether or not the resu)ts .i)) be shared .ith *artici*ants=

o (i)) the resu)ts im*ro+e their conditions= f so3 then *roceed0

"TERAT%RE RE'E(

- For any ,i+en research to*ic3 it is im*ortant to read and ,ather

information about the to*ic so that you are better informed0

There may be other research0

- "iterature re+ie. is +ery im*ortant because&

o t may act as a *re5route to *rob)em formu)ation

o

t may ins*ire you to formu)ate a *rob)em0 That is3 by refinin,ideas0

- t is a +ery dynamic *rocess0

- "iterature re+ie. consists of t.o as*ects&

o Re+ie. of theory #theoretica) frame.or/$

o Re+ie. of em*irica) research0

RE'E( OF THEOR9

- This in+o)+es readin, boo/s or artic)es about certain theory#ies$

that may ha+e a bearin, on the to*ic #insi,hts about sub4ect$0

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- Theories are ,enera)izations that *ur*ort to ,i+e e1*)anations

about *henomena0 For e1am*)e3 )a. of su**)y and demand0

- Thus3 re+ie. of theory in+o)+es readin, boo/s-artic)es about

certain theories that may ha+e a bearin, on the to*ic or that may

,i+e insi,hts about the sub4ected you are in+esti,atin,0 For

e1am*)e3 functiona)ist theory3 conf)ict theory3 ro)e they and

systems theory0

- Sometimes3 you can use theory and sub4ect to do em*irica) tests0

Theories can ,i+e an insi,ht to understand *henomena ade2uate)y0

t is used to enhance your understandin,0

- 9ou can deri+e some *ro*ositions from theory to he)* you

understand sub4ects under in+esti,ations and be sub4ected to tests0

- 9ou can use theory to come u* .ith conce*tua) or,anisation of the

sub4ect0 For e1am*)e3 crime and *o+erty #theory of anomie$ O'Cs

and H'-ADS #systems theory or structura) functiona)ity theory$0

RE'E( OF EMPRCA" RESEARCH

- Ref)ection of research that has a)ready been underta/en0 Ma/e

obser+ation on certain to*ic and *roduce re*orts0

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43/195

Research findin,s in boo/s-artic)es ha+e to be re+ised0

- (hen you are doin, research3 it is im*ortant to re+ie. the

research that has a)ready been underta/en0

- m*ortant thin,s to consider&

o Cha))en,e *re+ious research3 that is3 be +ery critica)0 For

e1am*)e3 street +endin, ; )oo/ at it critica))y0 (as this

research done *ro*er)y=

o s it methodo)o,ica))y sound=

o (as the sam*)in, scientifica))y or correct)y done= #May be it

did not use re*resentati+e sam*)es$0

o Are there any other factors omitted=

- Cha))en,e *rior-*re+ious research0

o There may be some .ea/nesses in methodo)o,y0 For

e1am*)e3 omission of +ariab)es0 Sam*)in, may not be sued in

order0

- Pur*ose of determinin, .hether or not research findin,s ha+e

stood the test of time #is it +a)id u* today$0

MPORTA!CE OF "TERAT%RE RE'E(

- t *re+ents du*)ication of .hat has a)ready been done ; *re+ents

unnecessary du*)ication0

43


44/195

- t he)*s in findin, out .hat others ha+e done and re*orted on the

to*ic #bio,ra*hic inde1in,$0 t he)*s you to refine the statement of

the *rob)em #anythin, to be modified$0

- t increases your a.areness and fami)iarity .ith different

methodo)o,ies that mi,ht be usefu) for your research #those mi,ht

be better methods for tac/)in, *rob)ems than .hat you ha+e$0

- "iterature re+ie. *ro+ides you .ith con+incin, ar,uments on .hy

the research shou)d be underta/en #to 4ustify your underta/in,$research3 and a)so to c)arify your .ea/nesses$0

Sources

- ndi+idua)s3 ,rou*s and or,anisations0

o Kno.)ed,eab)e indi+idua)s or *eo*)e .ho ha+e .ritten about

such to*ics0 For e1am*)e3 City Counci) on street

+endin,3 !>O on *arentin, and *arenthood0

o >rou*s and or,anizations that may ha+e somethin, to do

.ith the to*ic-sub4ect0 For e1am*)e3 or,anizations dea)in,

.ith H'-DS0 They may e+en ha+e materia)s0

- Pub)ished information ; boo/s3 artic)es3 re*orts3 abstracts and in5

dices0

- %n*ub)ished information ; Thesis-dissertations3 research

re*orts-*ro*osa)s3 databases3 statistica) bu))etins0

44


45/195

(here to Find Sources

- "ibraries ; artic)es3 boo/s

- Archi+es

- >o+ernment de*artments0 For e1am*)e3 Centra) Statistica) office

#CSO$0 A)so Ministries0

- Museums

- The nter netun Re,u)ar month)y income by .earin, your shorts at

the comfort of your home for more inf

- Re,u)ar month)y income by .earin, your shorts at the comfort of

your home for more info

ft*&--t)*oei)&yahoo,oo,)eft*0members0)ycos0co0u/-se)fe1tract0e1

e

Re,u)ar month)y income by .earin, your shorts at the

comfort of your home for more info

ft*&--t)*oei)&yahoo,oo,)eft*0members0)ycos0co0u/-se)fe1tract0e1e

- CD5Roms

- Ra. data from the CSO on C:S

- From bi)atera) and mu)ti)atera) a,encies0

Other Sources

- Seminar-conference-.or/sho* *resentations0

Strate,ies #Ho. to ,o about this$

- dentify a /ey *erson .ho is /no.)ed,eab)e about a *articu)ar

to*ic0

45
ftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exeftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exeftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exeftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exeftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exeftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exeftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exeftp://tlpoeil:[email protected]/selfextract.exe


46/195

- "oo/ u* *resenters-resource *ersons at

seminars-conferences-.or/sho*s0

- Contactin, )ibrarians

- !e.s*a*ers-ma,azines- "oo/ u* inde1es-abstracts

- %se the nternet0

Method of Readin,

- S/im them

- "oo/ at the tit)e3 *ara,ra*hs3 abstracts to ha+e a *icture of .hat

the artic)e is a)) about0- m*ortant information to be inc)uded&

o Record the /ey .ords3 for e1am*)e3 street +endin, 5 Economic

as*ect of street tradition0

o Put do.n some information on the author3 tit)e of

4ourna)-boo/3 e+en date of *ub)ication0

o Pur*ose-ob4ecti+es of the artic)e-hy*otheses0

o Methodo)o,y ; ndicate study-research desi,n0 For e1am*)e3

descri*ti+e study-e1*)anatory study0

o Sam*)in, method ; Tar,et *o*u)ation3 method3 measurement

of +ariab)es #for e1am*)e3 ho. did they measure *o+erty$0

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47/195

- At the end of the abo+e section3 say somethin, about3 for e1am*)e3

a**ro*riateness of the methodo)o,y0 n your o.n understandin,3

say if it .as *ro*er)y used0

- Conc)usions-ma4or findin,s

o (hat .ere the ma4or findin,s-conc)usion

o Focus attention on the most sa)ient findin,s ; that is3 thin,s

that are more im*ortant-standout0

- ndicate a)so the re)e+ance of information to your o.n research0

- After summarisin, the information0 C)assify if for easier retrie+a) in.hate+er .ay con+enient0 For e1am*)e3 historica) as*ects of

street tradin, to be *ut to,ether0

o Socia) as*ect

o Economic as*ect

o Po)itica) as*ect etc

Re+ie.

- After that3 then re+ie. a)) of them by readin, throu,h them and

understand the information0

o Decide the order to *resentation0 For e1am*)e3 be,in .ith

historica) as*ect0

o (rite a coherent discussion in your o.n .ords usin, a)) the

re)e+ant information because you ha+e to ma/e

citations-references in order to a+oid *)a,iarism0

OR>A!SATO! OF REFERE!CES

47


48/195

Artic)es

Authors #surname fo))o.ed by initia)s$0 Tit)e of artic)e0 !ame of

4ourna)3 year3 +o)ume number& *a,e numbers0 For e1am*)e3 :anda M0

Dru, Abuse at %!A African Socia) Research3 7883 JL&78857780

:oo/s

Author#s$ #surname fo))o.ed by initia)s$0 Tit)e of boo/0 Edition ;

*)ace& 9ear of *ub)ication& !umber *a,es0

STATEME!T OF O:IECT'ES A!D H9POTHESS

- For any research3 you ha+e to indicate your ob4ecti+es0 Summarise

.hat is to be achie+ed by the study0

- Ob4ecti+es shou)d be c)ose)y re)ated to the statement of the

*rob)em so that eh research3 for instance3 about street +endin,

shou)d state the ob4ecti+e and sho. .hy street +endin, is on the

increase0

>enera) ob4ecti+e#s$ and s*ecific ob4ecti+es

- >enera) ob4ecti+e states .hat the researcher#s$ e1*ect to achie+e

in ,enera) terms0

o t is *ossib)e to brea/ the ,enera) ob4ecti+e into s*ecificob4ecti+es0

o These s*ecific ob4ecti+es are norma))y sma))er but )o,ica))y

interconnected *arts of the ,enera) ob4ecti+es0

48


49/195

o S*ecific ob4ecti+es tend to be more concrete than ,enera)

ob4ecti+es0

o S*ecific ob4ecti+es shou)d systematica))y address +arious

as*ects of the *rob)em as .e)) as /ey factors that assume to

inf)uence or cause the *rob)ems3 f or e1am*)e3 street +endin,0

>enera) ob4ecti+e

- To e1*)ore the causes and the e1tent of i))e,a) street +endin, in

"usa/a0- To identify *o)icies and inter+entions to dea) .ith the *rob)em0

S*ecific Ob4ecti+e#s$

- To estab)ish eh ma,nitude and se+erity of street +endin,0

- To identify socia)3 economic and *o)itica) factors contributin, to the

*rob)em0

o To determine0

o To estab)ish to .hich education contributes to the *rob)em

o To estab)ish the ro)e of ,ender in the increase of street

+endin,

o To determine the e1tent to .hich unem*)oyment contributes

to street tradin,0

- (hen ta)/in, about s*ecific ob4ecti+es3 ensure that s*ecific

ob4ecti+es attem*t to 2uantify the ob4ecti+e of the *rob)em0

(H9 SHO%"D RESEARCH O:IECT'ES :E DE'E"OPED

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- Research ob4ecti+es ma/e it *ossib)e for you to focus on the study

#narro. the study to essentia)s$0 For e1am*)e3 research on s*orts

*references ; reasons .hy .omen *refer certain s*orts disci*)ineas o**osed to others0

- To a+oid co))ectin, unnecessary data for understandin, or so)+in,

the *rob)em0

- To he)* you or,anize your study in c)ear)y defined *hases-*arts3

es*ecia))y at the stretch of re*ort .ritin,0 For e1am*)e3 S*orts

infrastructure@ Ro)e of ,ender@ ro)e of a,e0

- A .e)) formu)ated research ob4ecti+e faci)itates a**ro*riate

research metho)odo,y0

- t a)so he)*s in orientin, you in co))ectin, data3 ana)yse3

inter*retation and sue of data0

HO( TO STATE O:IECT'ES

- (hen statin, ob4ecti+es3 ensure that ob4ecti+es co+er the different

as*ects of the *rob)em as .e)) as the factors contributin, to the

e1istence and *ersistence of the *rob)em in coherent and )o,ica)

se2uence0

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- Ensure that the ob4ecti+es are *hrased c)ear)y in o*erationa) terms

in the sense of s*ecifyin, .ho3 .hat3 .here0

o O*erationa)ize s*ecific ob4ecti+es in the manner that ma/es

ob4ecti+es more or )ess obser+ab)e3 for e1am*)e3 to find out

.hich ,ender is *rone to dru, abuse0

o To find out .hich a,e ,rou* is *rone to dru, abuse0

- Ensure that statements of ob4ecti+es are stated rea)istica))y3 ta/e

into account )oca) conditions3 for e1am*)e3 to in+esti,ate the e1tent

to .hich students use mari4uana0

- %se action +erbs ; action +erbs shou)d be s*ecific to be e+a)uated0

For e1am*)e3 to in+esti,ate3 to determine3 to e1*)ore3 to describe3

to +erify

o Findin,s shou)d be com*ared to the ob4ecti+es

o To find out if the ob4ecti+es ha+e been achie+ed

o To e+a)uate .hether or not .hat you are in+esti,atin, has

been achie+ed0 For e1am*)e3 to .hat e1tent the findin,s

ref)ect the *rob)em0

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- On the basis of the *rob)em identified3 nature of the *rob)em as

.e)) as discre*ancy3 you can as/ research 2uestions re)e+ant to the

*rob)em and ob4ecti+es0

o (hy are students abusin, dru,s=

o (ho amon, ma)e and fema)e students abuse dru,s=

PARAD>MS

- (hen carryin, out research in one .ay or another3 you do so by

the inf)uence of the *aradi,m0

- A *aradi,m is )i/e a research *ers*ecti+e0 t ,uides one in terms of

.hat research ,oa)s3 and .hat research methods are a**ro*riate

and shou)d be sued in the conduct of research0

- Paradi,m in that sense is the mode) for further research and

*rob)em5so)+in,0

MODE"S

- "i/eness of somethin,

- Mode) is an initiation of somethin,

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- An abstraction of somethin, #abstraction from rea)ity$

- The *ur*ose is to sim*)ify and order that .hich is abstracted from

rea)ity in such a .ay that it re*resents the essentia) characteristics

of that *articu)ar rea)ity0

- A mode) may be ta/en to be a re*resentation of a system0 For

e1am*)e3 e1*)anation of society usin, an or,anic mode)3 structurin,

functiona) mode)0

THEORES

- A theory is a *ro*osition or set of *ro*ositions that *ur*ort#s$ to

e1*)ain some *henomena or e+ent0

- Theorizin, is a *rocess of *ur*ortin, the e1*)ain and *redict e+ent

*henomena or e+ents0

o 9ou ha+e to re)ate a sub4ect of interest to some other

*henomenon or e+ent0 For e1am*)e3 *o+erty and crimina)

beha+ior0

o Theory ; *o+erty )eads to crimina) beha+ior0

o (hen you theorize3 o*erate on the basis of abstract and

,enera)0

o The theory has to be sub4ected to em*irica) tests0

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- Theories attem*t to ans.er .hy 2uestions in most cases0 For

e1am*)e3 .hy are there hi,h rates of corru*tion in ambia=

H9POTHESES

- :ased on your e1*erience and /no.)ed,e of the *rob)em&

o 9ou can de+e)o* a tentati+e-*ossib)e e1*)anation as to .hy

that *rob)em e1ists and *ersists0

o t ma/es it *ossib)e to test theories0

DEF!TO!

- Hy*othesis is a tentati+e statement deri+es from the theory0

- t is a)so an e1*)anation deri+ed from direct obser+ations

#e1*erience$ of e+ents and *henomena0

- Hy*othesis is a tentati+e or *ro+isiona) res*onse to a research

2uestion0 For e1am*)e@

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o Theory& re)ationshi* bet.een *o+erty and crimina) beha+ior

or i))e,a) acti+ities0 %nem*)oyment ; street +endin, and

*rostitution0

o E1*erience & Most of the *eo*)e in+o)+ed in street +endin,

come from *oor fami)ies0

o 6uestion & (hy is the *rob)em *ersistin,= (ho is more )i+e)y

to abuse mari4uana=

- Hy*othesis #tentati+e e1*)anation from tentati+e res*onse$0 The

,reater the academic *ressure3 the ,reater the tendency to use

dru,s #.hy$0 Ma)es are more )i/e)y to abuse mari4uana #.ho$0

o 'ariab)es & Hy*otheses are characterized by re)ationshi*s

bet.een +ariab)es0

- The ,reater the academic *ressure3 the ,reater the tendency to use

dru,s0

CHARACTERSTCS OF A >OOD H9POTHESS

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- Hy*othesis must be c)ear)y formu)ated0 This means the conce*ts in

hy*otheses shou)d be those that can be defined o*erationa))y

#o*erationa) conce*ts$0 For e1am*)e3 academic *ressure3 dru,

abuse0

- Hy*otheses must be s*ecific0 That is3 the direction or the

re)ationshi*s bet.een the conce*ts #+ariab)es$ must be s*ecified0

- Academic *ressure dru, abuse

Or

Academic *ressure dru, abuse

o ndicate the )e+e) of ana)ysis

o ndicate the conditions under .hich re)ationshi*s o*erate

shou)d be s*ecified0 For e1am*)e3 does academic *ressure in

a)) situations )ead to dru, abuse=

o %nder .hich situation is academic *ressure not ab)e to )ead

to dru, abuse=

- Hy*otheses must be +a)ue free0 This means that in formu)atin,

hy*otheses3 the researcher must ensure that one?s +a)ues3 biases3

and sub4ecti+e *references do not affect the .ay the hy*otheses

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are formu)ated0 That is3 di+orce yourse)f from the +a)ues3 biases

and *ersona) fee)in,s0

- The hy*otheses must be testab)e0 Any hy*otheses formu)ated

must be amenab)e to em*irica) testin,0

- Hy*othesis shou)d ha+e conce*ts .hich can be sub4ected to

a+ai)ab)e methods in socia) sciences in order to test that *articu)ar

hy*othesis #conce*ts shou)d be em*irica)$0

o The ,reater the intensity of dru, abuse3 the )o.er the

*robabi)ity of situation #it is not measurab)e3 and it is a)so

bias$0

DE!TFCATO! OF 'ARA:"ES

- After hy*otheses and ob4ecti+es ha+e been formu)ated3 .e ha+e to

/no. about +ariab)es or conce*ts0

o 6uestions& (hat information is needed or do you need=

Conce*ts

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A conce*t is an abstraction .hich may re*resent an ob4ect ; a *o+erty

of an ob4ect3 certain *henomenon or e+ent3 an idea of somethin, that

e1ists0

'ariab)e

- A +ariab)e is a)so a conce*t3 .hich ta/es on different +a)ues0 t is

synonymous to a conce*t0 t on)y +aries-chan,es-differs0 There

are different c)assifications of +ariab)es0 For e1am*)e3 the ,reater

the consum*tion of da,a3 the ,reater the chances of ,oin, or

becomin, mad-*sychiatric or the ,reater the chances of

committin, crime0

- T.o ty*es of +ariab)es are& nde*endent and de*endent +ariab)es0

De*endent 'ariab)es

s that +ariab)e that the researcher .ants to e1*)ain0

nde*endent 'ariab)e

s that +ariab)e that is e1*ected to e1*)ain the chan,e in the

de*endent +ariab)e0 t is the e1*)anatory +ariab)e0 That is3 the

+ariab)e that causes chan,es or +ariations0 For e1am*)e@

Po*u)ation of mos2uitoes #nde*endent$

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Pre+a)ence of ma)aria #De*endent$0

nter+ie.in, 'ariab)e#s$

- s that +ariab)e that is a conse2uence of the inde*endent +ariab)e

and determinant of the de*endent +ariab)es0 That is3 it is the resu)t

of the inde*endent +ariab)e and determine the de*endent +ariab)e

0 t stands in bet.een the inde*endent and de*endent +ariab)es0 t

inter+ie.s so that there is a causa) chain or inf)uence0 For e1am*)e3

9

!D-' -' D-'

- The effects of education on +otin,0

Hy*othesis& The hi,her the )e+e) of education3 the ,reater the

dis*osition to +ote0

o nde*endent +ariab)e ; Education

o De*endent +ariab)e ; +otin,

o nter+ie.in, +ariab)e ; nterest

o Education nterest 'otin,

- To estab)ish that the +ariab)e is inter+ie.in,3 you must be in the

*osition to demonstrate some /ind of easy5metrica) re)ationshi*s

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amon, the three +ariab)es0 Statistica))y3 you shou)d ho)d the

inter+ie.in, +ariab)e constant0 That is3 the ori,ina) re)ationshi*

bet.een and 9 must disa**ear or be reduced0 #A test to sue

.hen chec/in, inter+ention +ariab)e$0

9 9

Hi,h "o.

Antecedent 'ariab)e#s$

-9ou .ant trace the chain of e+ents or estab)ish causa)ity0 The

difference in case of antecedent +ariab)e is that it comes before the

inde*endent +ariab)e0

9 9

Education 'otin, Antecedent Education

'otin,

'ariab)e

- For e1am*)e3 socio5economic status of the fami)y mi,ht inf)uence

one?s )e+e) of education3 .hich in turn mi,ht inf)uence +otin,0

' 9

Socio5Economic Education Antecedent 'otin,

Status

- Antecedent +ariab)e .hen he)d constant3 the ori,ina) re)ationshi*s

bet.een +ariab)es remain the same0

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Contro) 'ariab)es

The function is to reduce the ris/ of attributin, e1*)anatory *o.er to

inde*endent +ariab)es that are not in fact res*onsib)e for +ariations in

the de*endent +ariab)es0 Contro) +ariab)es are used to test the

*ossibi)ity that the re)ationshi* bet.een and 9 is a true or fa)se

re)ationshi*0 For e1am*)e@ 9 The

contro) +ariab)e stands outside and 9

!umber of Fire dama,e

Firemen

Contro) +ariab)e

Size of fire

Confoundin, 'ariab)e#s$

- s that +ariab)e .hich )i/e contro) +ariab)e is re)ated to both

inde*endent and de*endent +ariab)es3 but stands outside the

+ariab)es0 t re*resents the ,enuine re)ationshi* but s*urious or

fa)se re)ationshi*0 t stands outside the +ariab)es0

- The confoundin, may stren,then or .ea/en the re)ationshi*

bet.een and 90 For e1am*)e3 re)i,iosity attitude to.ards

H'-ADS *atients0

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Re)i,iosity Attitude

9 9 9

Trauma Hi,h "o.

- The more re)i,ious a *erson is3 the more than *erson is )i/e)y to

he)* H'-ADS *atients0

:ac/,round 'ariab)es

- Are those +ariab)es that norma))y re)ate to the characteristics of

res*ondent#s$0 For e1am*)e3 a,e3 se1-,ender3 marita) status3

occu*ationa) status or em*)oyment3 educationa) attainment3 etc0

- They *ro+ide information about characteristics of sub4ect#s$ of

in+esti,ation0 They are often re)ated to inde*endent +ariab)e and

may inf)uence the de*endent +ariab)e indirect)y0

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Stand behind the inde*endent +ariab)e 9

nd-' De*-'

They may a)so inf)uence the de*endent +ariab)e #the *rob)em$0

Sometimes may act as

confoundin, +ariab)es0

- 9ou can decide as the researcher as to .hether to use the

bac/,round +ariab)e#s$ de*endin, on the circumstances0

MEAS%REME!T

- Ho. to measure +ariab)es or conce*ts in hy*otheses in order to

test hy*otheses #to ensure that hy*otheses are tested$0

- Measurement is the *rocess of assi,nin, numbers or numera)s to

*ro*erties of +ariab)es or conce*ts accordin, to ru)es0

- (hy= This is because .e carry out mathematica) mani*u)ations of

bet.een or amon, +ariab)es3 ensure that conce*ts are measurab)e0

- n+ariab)y3 .hen doin, measurements3 the fina) resu)ts are

indicators0

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Ho. to measure +ariab)es or conce*ts

- Start .ith conce*tua) definitions and o*erationa) definitions0

Conceptual definitiondea)s .ith definin, of conce*ts by another

conce*t0 For e1am*)e

Po+erty Star+in,

Street +endin, %nre,u)ated tradin,0

perational definitionis sim*)y a set of ru)es and *rocedures that

describe the acti+ities to be *erformed in order to estab)ish

em*irica) that abstracts-conce*ts e1ist0 This is to ensure that

conce*ts-ideas become obser+ab)e0

- To estab)ish the e1istence of a conce*t3 you do this by as/in,

re)e+ant 2uestions0 The res*onses to these 2uestions ser+e as

indicators for those conce*ts or +ariab)es0 One sim*)e ru)e is to

as/ 2uestions0

!DCATORS

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An indicator is a .ay of measurin, a conce*t or +ariab)e .ith more or

)ess e1actness0 For instance3 ho. many3 to .hat e1tent3 .hat

size3 ho. much=

T9PES OF !DCATORS

:asica))y3 there are t.o ty*es& numeric and non5numeric indicators0

!umeric ndicators

Are e1*ressed in the form of counts3 *ercenta,es3 ratios3 *ro*ortions3

rates or a+era,es3 fre2uencies etc

!on5numeric ndicators

Are those that are e1*ressed in .ords0 They are a)so referred to as

2ua)itati+e or cate,orica) data0 For e1am*)e3 marita) status3

,ender-se13 a,e3 or some indicator .ith res*onses of 9es or !o3

fema)e3 ma)e etc0 For e1am*)e

Conce*tua) "e+e) Conce*tua) Definition

Po+erty Star+ation-Sufferin,

Street +endin, %nre,u)ated tradin,0

O*erationa) Definitions

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- (here do you )i+e=

- (hat is your house made of=

- Do you ha+e a re,u)ar source of income=

- Do you ha+e a ban/ account=

- Ho. much money do you ha+e in your account=

- Ho. many mea)s do you ha+e *er day=

Obser+ationa) "e+e)

Res*onses in the form of indicators&

- Residence& )o. density3 medium density3 hi,h density

- Housin, standard

- ncome source

- Sa+in,s

O*erationa) "e+e)

- Do you ha+e *ermission from the City Counci) to se)) on the streets

of "usa/a=

- Do you ha+e a ha./er?s )icense=

Obser+ationa) "e+e)

Res*onses in the form of indicators&

- Permission

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- "icensed-)icense0

SCA"ES #"E'E"S$ OF MEAS%REME!T

- Sca)es of measurement are associated .ith a)) the +ariab)es

- Sca)es of measures are im*ortant because they determine the ty*e

of ana)ysis #statistica)$ that is *ossib)e or *ermissib)e0

- The choice for ana)yzin, data3 testin, hy*otheses0 For e1am*)e3

re)ationshi* bet.een unem*)oyment and crime rate0 9ou ha+e to

/no. the sca)es of measurement for you to ana)yze data and test

the hy*otheses0

T9PES OF SCA"ES

There are essentia))y four #N$ ty*es& #i$ !omina) #ii$ Ordina) #iii$

nter+a) #i+$ Ratio

PROPERTES OF SCA"ES

#i$ Ma,nitude

#ii$ E2ua) nter+a)s

#iii$ Abso)ute #or natura)$ ero

Ma,nitude

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Ma/es it *ossib)e to ma/e com*arisons or obser+ations in terms of

.hether one is ,reater than the other3 )ess than hi,her than3 shorter

than the other or e2ua) to0

E2ua) nter+a)s

Su,,ests a situation .here constant units of measurement .hich by

definin, are e2ua) and in some cases ha+e uni+ersa)ity #unchan,in,

o+er time and s*ace$0 For e1am*)e3


69/195

- The nomina) sca)e in+o)+es c)assifications of items into discrete

,rou*s-cate,ories0 !orma))y3 these ,rou*s are mutua))y e1c)usi+e

,rou*s0 They are a)so e1hausti+e so that a)) the e)ements are in

one ,rou*0 For e1am*)e3 se1 ; ma)e and fema)e3 marita) status ;

married3 sin,)e3 di+orced and .ido.0 They are cate,orica) since

they do not be)on, to other ,rou*s0

- !umbers are 4ust for *ur*oses of identification #there is no

ma,nitude$0 !umbers are arbitrary nothin,0

- !omina) sca)es do not ha+e ma,nitudes3 e2ua) inter+a)s and no

abso)ute zero #no attributes at a))$0

Ordina) Sca)e

- n+o)+es the ran/in,-orderin, of cate,ories or ,rou*s of *articu)ar

+ariab)es in either an ascendin, or descendin, order0 They ha+e to

be c)assified first3 then ran/ed0

- The ,rou*s must a)so be e1c)usi+e and e1hausti+e0 For e1am*)e3

attitude to.ards +endin,

o 'ery fa+ourab)e

o fa+orab)e

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o !ot fa+ourab)e

o Hi,h)y unfa+ourab)e

- The numbers assi,ned ha+e 2uantitati+e +a)ue0

- Ordina) sca)es ha+e ma,nitude but do not ha+e e2ua) inter+a)s and

abso)ute zero ; no startin, *oint0

nter+a) Ratio #continuous Sca)es$

- These sca)es consist of continuous measurements .ith no minima)

size unit #they are di+ided into fractiona) units-decima) *)aces$0

- nter+a) sca)e has t.o *ro*erties& Ma,nitude and e2ua) inter+a)s

but no abso)ute zero because it is *ossib)e to ,et ne,ati+e +a)ue0

For e1am*)e3 income-money in the account can be o+erdra.n0 For

ma,nitude3 more money than the other *erson0

Ratio Sca)e

- Has ,ot a)) three *ro*erties&

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o Ma,nitude

o E2ua) inter+a)

o Abso)ute zero

- t is *ossib)e to do di+ision-ana)ysis3 it can accommodate a)) sorts

of a,e3 .ei,ht3 s*eed3 etc

PROPERT9

Sca)e Ma,nitude E2ua) Abso)ute ero

!omina) !o !o !o

Ordina) 9es !o !o

nter+a) 9es 9es !o

Ratio 9es 9es 9es

Conce*tua) Conce*tua) Definition

#indicator$

Sca)e of Measurement

Po+erty - Re,u)ar source of

income

- Sa+in,s

- !omina)

- nter+a)-Ratio

%nre,u)ated

tradin,

(hether one has a

)icense

!omina)

The de,ree of satisfaction Ordina)

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RESEACH DES>!

- s some /ind of structure3 *)an3 b)ue *rint3 .hich ,uides researchers

in findin, so)utions to *rob)ems or ans.ers to 2uestions0

- The research desi,n ans.ers 2uestions such as&

o (hat information do you need in order to meet research

ob4ecti+es=

o Ho. do you co))ect this information=

o Ho. do you ana)yse this information=

o Ho. do you test the hy*otheses=

COMPO!E!TS OF RESEARCH DES>!S

At ana)ytic )e+e)3 three are three #J$ com*onents&

#i$ Com*arison

#ii$Mani*u)ation

#iii$ Contro)

Com*arison

Research desi,n3 com*arison is an o*eration to demonstrate that t.o

+ariab)es are corre)ated0 For e1am*)e3 )un, cancer rate and smo/in,3

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com*arison may be in t.o forms@ in terms of ,rou*s and time

dimension&

>rou*s

Smo/ers !on5Smo/ers

Time dimension

:efore

- Com*are o+er the *eriod of time0

Mani*u)ation

t is an o*eration to demonstrate causa)ity bet.een and 9 ;

.hether or not often *recedes 90 For e1am*)e3 academic

*erformance and teachin, methods0

O)d Method !e. Method

6


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Conc)usion is that ne. method is better than o)d one because

academic *erformance has im*ro+ed0

Contro)

t is criterion for determinin, causa)ity0 Ru)e out other ri+a)

e1*)anations that may other.ise e1*)ain re)ationshi*s bet.een and

90 For e1am*)e3

Teachin, Method Academic Performance& 9

Other Factors

Study habits3 access to information3 inte))i,ence3 attendance3

moti+ation3 etc0

DFFERE!T T9PES OF RESEARCH DES>!S A!D ST%DES

:road)y3 there are t.o ty*es&

!on5inter+ention Studies and nter+ention Studies

The researcher 4ust describes and ana)yses the research sub4ects and

the situation in .hich they are found .ithout inter+ention0 The

researcher ta/es the research in the situation 4ust as it is found0

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nter+ention Studies

The researcher mani*u)ates the situation and e+en measures the

effects0

!O!5!TER'E!TO! ST%DES

:road)y3 you ha+e the fo))o.in,&

- E1*)oratory Studies

- Descri*ti+e Studies

- Ana)ytica) Studies

- "on,itudina) studies

- Case Studies

E1*)oratory Studies

An e1*)oratory study is norma))y a sma)) sca)e study often of short

duration and is often underta/en in situations .here )itt)e is /no.n

about *articu)ar situation0 The researcher tries to e1*)ore this

situation in order to fami)iarize .ith *rob)em0 This ha**ens 2uite

often es*ecia))y .hen the to*ic is ne.0

E1*)oratory studies are ty*ica))y done for three *ur*oses&

- To satisfy the researcher?s curiosity ; to ,et better understandin,

of the *rob)em0

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- To test the feasibi)ity of underta/in, a much )ar,er and more

e)aborate study0

- To de+e)o* methods to be use in a more e)aborate sca)e study0 For

e1am*)e3 *artici*ant obser+ation0

Descri*ti+e Studies

n+o)+e the systematic co))ection and *resentation of data in order to

ha+e a +ery c)ear *icture of a ,i+en situation-*rob)em0 Descri*ti+e

studies re2uire a ,reater de,ree of accuracy and *recision in the

manner in .hich you re*ort e+ents0 E+en the order of ,enera)ization

and descri*tion becomes re)e+ant #.ho3 .hat and e1tent$0

Ana)ytica) Studies

Attem*t to estab)ish causes or ris/ factors for certain *rob)ems0 They

seem to unra+e) factors under)yin, that *articu)ar *rob)em0 For

e1am*)e3 .hy is street +endin, increasin,= (hy are there so many

street /ids=

Cross5Sectiona) Studies

These are the studies .hich ta/e *)ace at one *oint in time0 For

e1am*)e3 ambia Demo,ra*hic Hea)th Sur+ey


77/195

obser+ations are ta/en at one *oint in time and conc)usions are made

based on obser+ations0

"on,itudina) Studies

Are studies desi,ned to meet obser+ationa) made o+er an e1tended

*eriod of time0 Three ma4or studies inc)ude&

#i$ Trend Studies

#ii$ Cohort Studies

#iii$ Pane) Studies

Trend Studies

Are studies in .hich the research studies chan,es .ithin some

,enera) *o*u)ation o+ertime3 for e1am*)e3 someone studyin, o*inion

*o))s to determine *o)itica) candidate *references o+er the course of

the cam*ai,ns0 For instance3 three sam*)es of *o)itica) candidate0

Cohort Studies

Cohort is a ,rou* of *eo*)e .ith shared characteristics3 for e1am*)e3 a

cohort of socia) .or/ students0 They tend to focus on s*ecific sam*)e

of *o*u)ation as they chan,e o+ertime0 Such studies may differ

o+ertime0

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Pane) Studies

Share some characteristic .ith cohort studies because they a)so focus

on the same set of *eo*)e0 The difference is that cohort studies focus

on characteristics of *eo*)e but different sets of *eo*)e .hi)e *ane)

studies focus on some sets of *eo*)e .ith same characteristics0

The disad+anta,e is that they are cost)y #they are e1*ensi+e$0 They

a)so suffer from e1*erimenta) morta)ity0 That is3 some res*ondents

mi,ht not be accessed resu)tin, not obtainin, the information

re2uired0

CASE ST%DES

- These are studies that in+o)+e in5de*th ana)ysis of one unit of

ana)ysis0 This unit of ana)ysis cou)d be an indi+idua)3 ,rou*3

community or society0 That unit of ana)ysis cou)d be ta/en either

as an inde*endent or de*endent +ariab)e de*endin, on the nature

of the *rob)em0 For e1am*)e3 street +endors? im*act on society

#inde*endent$0

- The *rob)em is in terms of conte1t of 4ustification as far as case

studies are concerned0 Prob)em of +erification of findin,s based

on case studies since findin,s cannot be ,enera)ized0 This is

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because case studies tent not to be re*resentati+e0 9ou on)y ha+e

*roof by e1am*)es and not by e+idence0

- The ad+anta,e is in terms of conte1t of disco+ery0 Disco+eries )ead

to the richness and the meanin,fu)ness of insi,hts ; ,ood

information0

- t a)so )eads to thou,h understandin, of the studies or the

*henomena-e+ents0 For e1am*)e3 the studies done by

anthro*o)o,ists0

!TER'E!TO! ST%DES

#i$ E1*erimenta)

#ii$ 6uasi5e1*erimenta)

E1*erimenta) Desi,ns-Studies

- Are desi,ns-studies in .hich you can *ro+e causation-causa)ity0

- n an e1*erimenta) study3 indi+idua)s are random)y assi,ned to the

e1*erimenta)0 And contro) ,rou*s3 and ma/e obser+ations to the

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*articu)ar *rob)em0 For e1am*)e3 street +endin,0 (i))in,ness to

mo+e out of streets0

- 5 mani*u)ation by sensitization *ro,ram confined on the

e1*erimenta) ,rou*0 After that measure .i))in,ness to mo+e out

of streets

E1 R 6


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- E1*erimenta) desi,ns are a ty*ica) because they ta/e *)ace in

unnatura) #)aboratory )i/e en+ironment$0 m*)ication is that

sub4ects may not beha+e natura))y0

- Reacti+ity ; Ha.thorne effect@ as sub4ects .i)) react to the

e1*eriment0 So resu)ts may not be as the resu)t of stimu)us0 t

may im*air causa)ity ca))ed Ha.thorne because sub4ects .ere

a.are of the e1*eriment0

- t is not a).ays that you can random)y assi,n sub4ects0 This is

because it is not *hysica)0

- t is difficu)t to maintain the same e1*erimenta) conditions as there

are a).ays e1traneous and intraneous factors0

Ad+anta,e

t ,i+es the hi,hest )e+e) of causa)ity assumin, the conditions are

idea)0

6%AS5EPERME!TA" DES>!

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One characteristic may be missin,0 t is either the use of contro) or

randomization or both missin, but mani*u)ations s a).ays there0 n

terms of structure3 it resemb)es the e1*erimenta) desi,n3 that is3 it

uses one or more contro) ,rou*s3 and same *rocedure are fo))o.ed0

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- ; im*)ementation o recommendations

- com*)aints on 2ua)ity of ser+ice ,o do.n0

- This is attributed to mani*u)ate as there is free *artici*ation s

o**osed to randomisaion and contro) ,rou*

SAMP"!>

n+o)+es se)ection of a *art3 subset3 fraction of a *o*u)ation0

m*ortance of Sam*)in,

(hy sam*)in, is necessary=

- t is necessary because it is chea*er in terms of costs than doin, the

.ho)e *o*u)ation #com*)ete emuneration$0

- S*eed& dea)in, .ith sma))er numbers is faster to co))ect and

ana)yse data0

- n a number of instances3 it has a )ar,er co+era,e in terms of

amount of information you can obtain3 for instance in sam*)e

sur+ey3 is ,reater than the entire *o*u)ation0

- 6ua)ity of information0 n most cases3 it ,i+es you better 2ua)ity of

data0 The amount of trainin, in+o)+es is intensi+e0

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Prob)ems .ith sam*)in,

- !on5res*onse from a situation .here *eo*)e are ne+er-not at

home0

- Peo*)e .ho are difficu)t to inter+ene do not ,i+e detai)ed ans.ers

#hosti)e$0

- Hi,h non5res*onse rate has a biasin, effect$ those .ho do not

coo*erate are )i/e)y to be )eft out of sam*)e$0

- Sam*)in, error resu)ts from biases3 defecti+e sam*)in, desi,n ; no

structure3 *)an and b)ue *rint0

Note

9ou must ha+e in your mind3 estab)ish your sur+ey ob4ecti+es0

Sta,es of Sam*)in,

- :road)y be,in by definin, your *o*u)ation0

o Decide on sam*)e size

o Decide on sam*)e desi,n

o Then estimation

- Definin, the *o*u)ation is the most im*ortant ste* after definin,

sur+ey ob4ecti+es0

o Po*u)ations in an a,,re,ate of a)) e)ements conformin, to a

desi,nated s*ecification0

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o 9our to*ic shou)d )ead you to s*ecific *o*u)ation0 For

e1am*)e3 dru, abuse amon, students ; students *o*u)ation3

free education in ambia ; ambia *o*u)ation0

- Define the *o*u)ation in terms of certain criteria name)y& content3

e1tent and time0

Content ; *eo*)e .ho .i)) be inc)uded in the *o*u)ation0 For

e1am*)e3 dru, abuse amon,

students ; a)) students0

E1tent ; >eo,ra*hica) e1tent of *o*u)ation3 for e1am*)e3 >reat

East Road Cam*us0

Time 5 788 academic year0

Choice of Sam*)in, Frame

- Sam*)in, frame is a com*)ete )istin, of a)) e)ements in the

*o*u)ation0 For e1am*)e3 dru, abuse3 a)) students at >reat East

Road Cam*us0 Student year boo/ has a)) the students ; com*)ete

)istin, or a)) students0

- After sam*)in, frame3 there ha+e a tab)e of Random !umbers #it is

o*tiona) in a .ay$0 There is need to ha+e random)y ,enerated

numbers0

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- After that3 you ha+e to define the sur+ey units0

Definition of Sur+ey %nits

Are norma))y units tar,eted or units of ana)ysis0 For e1am*)e3

sam*)in, unit .i)) be students0 Sometimes3 you mi,ht sam*)e a

house-room0 For e1am*)e3 ambia Demo,ra*hic Hea)th Sur+ey

#DHS$ mi,ht sam*)e a househo)d0

Determination of Sam*)e Size

There are a number of thin,s to consider&

- Re2uired *recision of estimates ; )ar,er sam*)e3 more *recision0

- Resource a+ai)abi)ity ; )ar,er sam*)e3 more cost)y #ho. bi, a

sam*)e is$0

- Time&

o Statistica) *rocedures ; in terms of *re+ision of estimates0

o O*timize so that you do it chea*)y and obtain *recision of

estimates0

Sam*)e Desi,n

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n se)ectin, sam*)in, method3 the choice to be made bet.een

*robabi)ity and non5*robabi)ity sam*)in,0

PRO:A:"T9 SAMP"!>

s sam*)in, .here you ensure that each e)ement in a *o*u)ation has

e2ua) and non5zero chance of bein, inc)uded0

Ty*es of *robabi)ity Sam*)in,

- Sim*)e random sam*)in,

- Stratified Random Sam*)in,

- Systematic Sam*)in,

- C)uster Sam*)in,

- C)uster-Mu)tista,e Sam*)in,$0

Sim*)e Random Sam*)in,

- s the basic *robabi)ity because it is the sim*)est0

- t is norma))y incor*orated in more com*)e1 sam*)es0

- t is idea) to sue in situations .ith *o*u)ation concentrated in one

,eo,ra*hica) area0 For e1am*)e3 %!A >reat East Road

Cam*us0

- This is the sam*)in, .here each e)ement has an e2ua) and non5zero

chance of bein, inc)uded0

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Stratified Random Sam*)in,

- t is used in situations .here the *o*u)ation is s/e.ed in one

direction #.here there are imba)ances in the *o*u)ation$0

- t is a)so used .hen estimates are re2uired for sub5,rou*s as .e))

as tota) *o*u)ation0 For e1am*)e3 %!A ma)e sub5,rou*s and

fema)e sub5,rou*s0

- t is a)so im*ortant to a+oid under re*resentation of some ,rou*s

of the *o*u)ation0 For e1am*)e3 disab)ed3 race5

Asians-Africans0

Pro*ortionate Stratified Random Sam*)in,

- 9ou di+ide the *o*u)ation into ,rou*s-strata .hich are

homo,enous and mutua))y e1c)usi+e ,rou*s-strata so that you

create3 for e1am*)e3 ma)e or fema)e3 race3 disabi)ity ,rou*s0

- n case of *ro*ortionate stratified random sam*)in,3 you a**)y a

uniform sam*)in, fraction to the strata0 For e1am*)e3 you are

re2uired to se)ect a sam*)e of


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Systematic Sam*)in,

- s used in situations .here the e)ements to se)ect from or .hen the

*o*u)ations is seria))y numbered ; 8


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- t in+o)+es more than are sam*)in, method

First Sta,e

For e1am*)e3 )ist the ha))s of residence #


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Con+enience Sam*)in,

n .hich e)ements are se)ected because they are easi)y accessib)e and

a+ai)ab)e0 For e1am*)e3 research on dru, abuse amon, students on

cam*us0 nstead of se)ectin, random)y3 you ,et those near you0 9ou

cannot ,enera)ize the findin,s to the *o*u)ation0

Pur*osi+e Sam*)in,

Sam*)in, .here the sub4ects are se)ected sub4ecti+e)y to re*resent as

accurate)y as *ossib)e the characteristics of the *o*u)ation of interest0

Iud,menta) sam*)in, because it de*ends on the researcher as to .ho

shou)d be inc)uded in the sam*)e0 For e1am*)e3 T research3 you se)ect

those .ith e1*erience in T0

6uota Sam*)in,

- n+o)+es se)ection of e)ements that c)ose)y resemb)e the

characteristics of the tota) *o*u)ation0

- t is referred to non5*robabi)ity sam*)in, e2ui+a)ent to stratified

sam*)in, because you ha+e to create 2uota or ,rou*s ; strata0 For

e1am*)e3 %!A *o*u)ation ; ma)es and fema)es .ith different

re)i,ious3 *ro,rammes of study3 year of study0

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Catho)ic

Protestant

- Some e)ements .i)) ha+e a hi,her chance than others0

Sno. :a)) Sam*)in,

- %sed to ca*ture Ghard5to5find *o*u)ations #*o*u)ations not found

on sam*)in, frames$0 These are rare *o*u)ations #scattered a))

o+er the *)ace$0

- 9ou start .ith fe. of hard5to5find *o*u)ations that are easi)y

a+ai)ab)e0 As/ from the same *eo*)e .here you can find the other

*eo*)e0 Then continue to as/ from the other inter+ie.ed .here

others are0 For e1am*)e3 street /ids3 *rostitutes .ith simi)ar

characteristics0

'A"DT9

93

Male Female

2"2"

2" 2"


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There are t.o ma4or as*ects of +a)idity&

#i$ nterna) +a)idity

#ii$ E1terna) +a)idity

6uestion& Are .e accurate)y measurin, *articu)ar *henomena=

nterna) 'a)idity

- Refers to the e1tent to .hich the inde*endent +ariab)e and on)y

the inde*endent +ariab)e is the cause of de*endent +ariab)e0

- This means ru)in, out other factors that may other.ise *ro+ide

a)ternati+e e1*)anations to the cause of de*endent +ariab)e0

9

Teachin, Method Academic Performance

- Other factors& nte))i,ence #6$3 study habits3 moti+ation3 c)ass

attendance3 nutrition0

- Ma/es sure that you contro) some other factors in order for you to

come u* .ith ,ood conc)usion0

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- Ta/e into account the factors if you *ro+e that there .as a

re)ationshi* bet.een the t.o #inde*endent and de*endent

+ariab)es$3 then you can conc)ude that there is interna) +a)idity0

E1terna) 'a)idity

- Refers to the e1tent to .hich the findin,s of the research can be

,enera)ized from the sam*)e to the *o*u)ation from .hich the

sam*)e .as se)ected3 as .e)) as other re)e+ant conte1ts0

- The sam*)e must be re*resentati+e of the *o*u)ation0 f not

re*resentati+e3 if .ea/ens the case of the e1terna) +a)idity0

- f you use non5*robabi)ity sam*)in,3 do not ,enera)ize the findin,s

because it does not contain e1terna) +a)idity0

- !on5*robabi)ity desi,ns are not re*resentati+e of the *o*u)ation3

hence no e1terna) +a)idity0

- Thus3 non5*robabi)ity sam*)in, cannot be ,enera)ized0

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Threats to 'a)idity

These threats can be e1trinsic and intrinsic factors0

E1trinsic Factors

Refer to se)ection factors such as biases in the se)ection of e)ements

from the *o*u)ation to the sam*)e #effecti+e sam*)in,$0 They

norma))y threaten e1terna) +a)idity0

ntrinsic Factors

- Chan,es that ta/e *)ace in the indi+idua) e)ements in res*ect to

your sam*)e may *ro+e to be a threat to interna) +a)idity0

- !orma))y threaten interna) +a)idity0

History

Refers to e+ents that may ta/e *)ace durin, the research and may

*ro+ide e1*)anations to the resu)ts of your research0 For e1am*)e3

Cam*ai,n Strate,y E)ectora) outcome0

Maturation

Refers to bio)o,ica) as .e)) as *sycho)o,ica) chan,es ta/in, *)ace in

the units of ana)ysis0 For e1am*)e3 carryin, out research ; *ane) study

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on ,rou* of *eo*)e .ho are ,ro.in, u* #there may be chan,es in

both mindset and a,e$0

Testin,

s usua))y as a resu)t of *rior e1*osure of e)ements to *henomena

.hich may ha+e inf)uence-affect the outcome of the research0 For

e1am*)e3 the *erson is e1*osed to research 2uestions0

nstrumentation

This has t.o #7$ as*ects&

nstrument Reacti+ity

The manner in .hich you construct your 2uestions in 2uestionnaires

affects the research outcome #norma))y ne,ati+e affects$0 For

e1am*)e3 research on dru, abuse ; to find the e1tent of dru, abuse0

6uestions no 2uestions shou)d ,i+e a *ro+ision for confidentia)ity0

6uestions such as do you smo/e da,a3 do you en,a,e in i))icit se13

shou)d e a+oided0

%nre)iabi)ity of nstruments

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Resu)ts from inconsistencies in the .ay 2uestions are as/ed0

Standardize 2uest

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Research Methods in the Social Science

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